THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER
The Algonkin Indians were so disgusted with the habits of life adopted
by the Innuit, that they called them “Eskimo,” a name which means
“eater of raw flesh.” It would be difficult to find a much better
description, for so barren is the snow-clad country, and so intense the
cold, that the Eskimo has no opportunities for practising agriculture;
neither would vegetable food sustain life in this inhospitable region.
The fatty diet is obtained chiefly from the seal, whale, and walrus,
while the reindeer, together with an abundant supply of sea birds and
fish, furnish food and clothing. An encounter with polar bears is not
looked upon as a regular part of the hunter’s life, and a successful
combat with one of these animals is an event talked about during many
a long winter evening. So proud is the hunter, that he tattoos himself
with special marks indicating how many whales or polar bears he has
taken; one great hunter had across his chest tattooed marks in the form
of the flukes on the tail of a whale. These showed that he had killed
seven of these creatures; and such was the pride of his wife, that she
had tattooed herself in the same way.
Seal hunting is perhaps the most common means of obtaining a large
supply of food and material for clothing, and usually the animal is
harpooned, though the method of capture depends on the season of the
year and the condition of the ice.
The shaft of the harpoon, to which a line is attached, is made of
wood, strengthened by a thong of reindeer hide. The head consists of
a sharply pointed piece of ivory, probably obtained from the tusks of
the walrus; and in order that the sharp point may detach itself in the
wounded animal, the head fits very loosely in the shaft, to which it
is fastened by a strong thong of reindeer sinew. The floating wooden
shaft, to which a bladder is fastened, is plainly seen each time the
wounded animal comes up to breathe. The whole proceeding has been
described by Dr. Boas, who says:
“When the day begins to dawn, the Eskimo prepares for the hunt by
gathering his harpoons and harnessing the dogs to the sledge. The
harpoon line and the snow knife are hung over the deer’s antlers, which
are attached to the hind part of the sledge, a seal or bear skin is
lashed upon the bottom, and the spear secured under the lashing. The
hunter takes up the whip, and the dogs set off at a great pace for the
hunting ground.
“Near the place where he expects to find seals, the hunter stops his
team and takes the implements from the sledge, which is then turned
upside down in such a way as to prevent the dogs from running away.
A dog with a good scent is then taken from the team, and the Eskimo
follows his guidance until a seal’s hole is found. In winter it is
entirely covered with snow, but generally a small elevation indicates
the situation. The dog is led back to the sledge, and the hunter
examines the hole to make sure that it is still visited by the seal.
Cautiously he cuts a hole in the snow covering and peeps into the
excavation. If the water is covered with a new coat of ice, the seal
has left the hole, and it would be in vain to expect its return. The
hunter must look for a new hole promising better results.
[Illustration: ESKIMO SEAL HUNTER WAITING AT BREATHING HOLE.]
“If he is sure that the seal has recently visited a hole, he marks its
exact centre on the top of the snow and then fills up his peep-hole
with small blocks of snow. These preparations must be made with the
utmost caution, as any changes in the appearance of the snow would
frighten away the seal.”
The hunter stands on a small piece of seal skin with the harpoon
poised in both hands, and there he may have to wait for several hours;
sometimes he builds a screen of snow to protect himself from the
bitterly cold wind. Now he bends low, and listens intently for the
blowing which indicates that a seal is at hand; then suddenly he stands
upright, and with all his strength sends down the harpoon into the
hole, where the seal is in such a position that it usually receives
the weapon in the head. The line is paid out, and at the same time the
hunter cuts down the snow covering from the hole, to the edge of which
the animal is dragged, and dispatched by a blow on the head.
The blood of a seal is highly prized, and to prevent waste all wounds
are closed by driving in ivory pegs; sometimes the hunter refreshes
himself with a copious drink of the warm blood.
In the month of March, mother seals prepare long burrows in the snow,
and here the Eskimo finds the baby seal, which is dragged forth by
means of a large hook; the mother, too, is often caught or harpooned
because of her courage in attempting to save her young. Perhaps these
methods of hunting appear to be somewhat cruel, but it is to be
remembered that the Eskimo is constantly fighting hard to sustain life
in a severe and inhospitable climate. On some occasions the hunter
finds only the skin of a young seal in one of these burrows; the foxes
have arrived first and devoured the carcase. With the advance of summer
the young seal breaks from its snow burrow, and, until the end of June,
the mother and her calf may be seen basking together on the ice, where
they are shot or harpooned by the hunter, who, clad in seal skin, can
approach to very close range. Many men still prefer a harpoon to the
guns which may be obtained from whalers in exchange for skins, but
nowadays the head of the harpoon is usually made of iron, which is
more effective than sharpened ivory. This method of stalking the seal
may produce a bag of from ten to fifteen animals in a day, whereas the
winter tactics rarely result in the capture of more than one animal
even after twelve hours of weary waiting by the breathing hole.
When the ice breaks, “kayaks” are launched, and the summer hunting of
the seal and walrus is soon in full swing. The double pointed canoe,
which is widely distributed between the shores of Greenland and Alaska,
consists of a stout framework of wood and whalebone, twenty-five feet
long, over which are stretched seal skins, sewn firmly together with
the sinews of reindeer. The top is covered by skin, with the exception
of a small hole just large enough to accommodate a man’s body; a double
paddle serves to propel the craft, which is, of course, provided with a
large harpoon when used for pursuing a seal or walrus.
[Illustration: A KAYAK.]
Sometimes a framework covered with skin is attached to the harpoon
line in such a way that when the cord is paid out the broad framework
is dragged through the sea at right angles to the line. How great is
the resistance of the water to such a device may be illustrated by
holding the edge of a piece of board while dragging it in water. Of
course a wounded animal is quickly exhausted by towing this apparatus
rapidly through the sea. An explorer named Lyon has left a very
interesting account of one method adopted by hunters of the walrus:
“When the hunters in their canoes perceive a large herd sleeping on the
floating ice, as is their custom, they paddle to some other piece near
them which is small enough to be moved. On this they lift their canoes
and then bore several holes through which they fasten their tough
lines, and when everything is ready they silently paddle the hummock
towards their prey, each man sitting by his own line and spear. In
this manner they reach the ice on which the walruses lie snoring, and
if they please, each man may strike an animal, though in general two
persons attack the same beast. The wounded and startled walrus rolls
instantly to the water, but the harpoon being well fixed he cannot
escape from the hummock of ice to which the Eskimo have fastened the
line. When the animal becomes a little weary, the hunter launches his
canoe, and, lying out of reach of the animal’s fearful tusks, spears
him to death.”
At one time whaling was a favourite occupation of the central Eskimo,
and in some places it is continued to the present day, chiefly by
pursuing the whale with a great number of kayaks and skin boats of a
larger pattern. The creature is followed by numerous hunters, each
of whom endeavours to drive his harpoon into the animal, which, from
loss of blood and the resistance caused by harpoon lines, floats, and
framework, is tired out, and killed with lances.
During the very short summer, herds of deer wander in search of
herbage, and the Eskimo follows on foot in order to secure a supply of
deer skins, which are fit for clothing only when taken at this period.
The snow huts have been abandoned, and the hunter takes with him a
light portable tent of reindeer hide, which is often pitched near the
shores of a lake habitually crossed by the herd. Sometimes the hunting
party is divided, and while some men drive the frightened animals into
the water, others sit in “kayaks” waiting for the deer to swim by. A
lake into which a long narrow peninsula projects is considered very
suitable, for a number of hunters extended in skirmishing order can
drive the herd along the narrow projection of land, and eventually into
the lake. Kayaks are propelled more quickly than the animals can swim,
so they are overtaken and killed with the spear. At times the deer does
a little hunting, and if provided with a stout pair of antlers he will
rip open the boat and make the Eskimo swim hard for the shore.
[Illustration: ESKIMO SUMMER TENT OF BEAR SKIN AND SEAL SKIN, AND
SNOW HUT.]
In some instances the herd is driven along a deep narrow valley with
steep sides, and as there is no means of escape, the animals are killed
by hunters extended in line at the narrowest part of the defile. Bows
are made either of wood or antlers of the deer, and as a rule the
wooden weapon is made stronger and more pliable by the addition of a
strong strip of sinew, which is bound firmly to the wooden portion.
The bowstring is manufactured from sinew; and the arrow tips, formerly
cleverly made by flaking pieces of slate, are now replaced by sharpened
scraps of tin or iron riveted into a slit at the pointed end of the
shaft, to the other extremity of which a few feathers of the owl are
fastened in order to give a true flight. A large quiver of seal skin is
divided into compartments containing the arrows, the bow, and a number
of spare arrow tips. A handle of ivory serves as a means of carrying
the quiver when the hunter is travelling, but as soon as game is in
sight, the quiver is slung over the left shoulder.
[Illustration: ESKIMO TOOLS, WEAPONS, ETC.
1. Pick of wood and ivory;
2. Adze of bone and iron;
3. Antler club;
4. Gaff for salmon;
5. Snow-knife of bone;
6, 7, 8, 9. Arrow heads of antler;
No. 9 is pointed with stone;
10. Arrow straightener of bone;
11. Hide scraper of bone and iron;
12 Carving on ivory depicting a whale hunt;
13. Tobacco pipe of ivory.]
Eskimo dogs are eager in the pursuit of herds of the musk ox, which
always defends itself by forming a circle around the calves. While
the oxen are busy keeping a number of ferocious dogs at bay, the
hunters approach and let fly their arrows into the herd. Sometimes an
infuriated animal breaks from the defensive ring, and at such times
the Eskimo is saved by his dogs, who harass the creatures until the
hunter is again prepared to shoot. Polar bears are pursued by hunters
on light sledges, and when the quarry is exhausted by the chase, the
traces of the most reliable dogs are cut, and very soon the bear is
standing at bay, striking fiercely at the dogs with his huge forepaws,
until the hunter is able to come up and launch a spear or arrow. The
best season for bear hunting is March or April, when the bears come a
considerable distance inland in pursuit of young seals. In the region
of Davis Strait, the Eskimo diligently search for holes where the bear
is having his long winter sleep, from which the hunter intends that he
shall never be awakened.
[Illustration: ESKIMO DOGS’ ATTACK ON A BEAR.]
Hunters do not consider wolves sufficiently valuable to repay the
trouble of pursuit, and these creatures are ignored unless they prove
dangerous to the Eskimo encampments. Traps for wolves consist of a hole
ten feet deep, very small at the bottom, but gradually widening towards
the circular top, which is surrounded by a snow wall. A thin sheet of
ice covers the wide top, in the centre of which some strongly smelling
meat is placed. In order to get the bait, the wolf must leap the snow
wall, with the result that he crashes through the thin covering of
ice, and is soon trapped at the narrow base of the pit. A very cruel
method of killing wolves consists of rolling a very sharp piece of
whalebone inside a piece of meat, which is eagerly gulped down by a
hungry animal. The meat digests and dissolves, and before long the
wolf suffers very great pain, for the whalebone coil unwinds and the
sharpened ends penetrate the walls of the stomach and intestines.
Small game, such as foxes, hares, ermines, and lemmings, are caught in
snares, while for birds the following clever contrivance is frequently
employed. “It consists of seven or eight sinew cords, nearly three feet
long and tied together at one end, while to the opposite ends weights
of ivory or stone are attached. Before being launched at the bird,
the sling is whirled round the head, so that when it leaves the hand
a rotatory movement is imparted to it, and all the weights fly apart,
the striking diameter of the weapon covering five or six feet. The bird
is thus brought to the ground, whether it is struck by the weights or
entangled in the strings.”
A favourite method of catching gulls depends entirely on the quickness
of the hunter, who has concealed himself in a small snow house, one
block of the roof of which is made from a thin, transparent piece of
ice to support the bait. When a bird settles on this thin ice, the
trapper quickly pushes his hand through, seizes the creature, and drags
it into the hut. By far the greater number of birds are caught in the
moulting season, partridges by hand, and waterfowl after pursuit with
the kayak. Swimming birds dive as soon as the boat comes near them;
immediately they are pursued, and time after time are driven down
whenever they attempt to breathe at the surface; eventually they are
drowned, and the bodies float on the water.
Fish, among which the salmon is very plentiful, are harpooned, taken by
ivory fishing hooks, or chipped out of blocks of ice in which they have
become deposited at the freezing of a small lake, which may have been
converted into a solid mass of ice. The scraping, chewing, and drying
of skins is one of the chief employments of women, and so careful are
they, that no part of the carcase is wasted, and even the intestines
of a seal are made to furnish transparent waterproofs, which are, of
course, very light and convenient to carry. Driftwood from the seashore
is used in making bows and sledges, while the antlers of the reindeer
help to form smooth runners, and the sinews give elasticity to wooden
bows. Knives, scrapers, hooks, utensils, prongs of harpoons, and
arrowheads, all depend for their manufacture on supplies of ivory and
bone, in the working of which the Eskimo is most ingenious. Strange to
say, the caves of very ancient Europe, when excavated, have sometimes
yielded specimens of engraved ivory very closely resembling the
products of the Eskimo. From the caves La Madeleine and Bruniquel are
derived some excellent specimens of engraving on bone, an art which
flourished in some parts of Southern Europe towards the end of the old
Stone Age. The question of the origin and migrations of the Eskimo,
together with speculations concerning their connection with the bone
workers of ancient Europe, are very interesting, but perhaps too long
and difficult for a small reading-book.
In addition to the kayak already described, women use a large open boat
shaped like a trough and capable of holding about twenty people. With
this “umiak” single-bladed paddles are employed, and a low lug-sail
made of strips of walrus-intestine is sometimes hoisted. For steering,
a paddle is used, and a rudder is to be found only when the Eskimo have
copied the steering device from European whalers.
[Illustration: A UMIAK AND ESKIMO DOGS AND SLEDGE.]
The best sledges are made by the tribes of Hudson and Davis Straits,
for in these regions the most substantial pieces of driftwood are to
be found. The dog team is strong, intelligent, and willing to work; so
ready to start that the Eskimo driver may be in danger of being left
behind. Careful training of the animals is necessary, and sometimes
there is a great deal of harshness before they are fit to harness;
perhaps the worst qualities of the dogs are extreme ferocity and
pugnacity. Dr. Boas says:
“The Eskimo rarely brings up more than three or four dogs at the same
time; and if the litter is larger than this number the rest are sold
or given away. The young dogs are carefully nursed, and in winter they
are allowed to lie on the couch, or are hung up near the lamp in a
skin cradle. When almost four months old the pups are first put to the
sledge, and gradually they become accustomed to pull with the others.
If food is plentiful the dogs are fed every alternate day, and then
their share is by no means a large one. In winter they are fed with the
heads, entrails, bones, and skins of seals, and they are so voracious
at this time of the year that nothing is secure from their appetite.
Any kind of leather, particularly books, harness, and thongs, is eaten
whenever they can get at it. In the spring they are better fed, and in
summer grow quite fat, but at any time of their life food may not be
procurable for five or six days. In Cumberland Sound, Hudson Strait,
and Hudson Bay, where the rise and fall of the tide are considerable,
the dogs are carried in summer to small islands, where they live upon
what they can find on the beach: clams, codfish, etc., and if at
liberty, they seem very happy, and well able to provide for themselves.”
Dr. Boas remembers two runaway dogs which had lived on their own
account from April to August, during which month they returned quite
fat.