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THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
[Illustration: _Fig. 1. A Typical Work Bench._]
THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
in simple language, including
chapters on drawing, laying out
work, designing and architecture
WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS
BY J. S. ZERBE, M.E.
AUTHOR OF
ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
NEW YORK
COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY
THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
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|Transcriber's Notes: Italics are marked by underscore(_), Bold text is|
|marked by $, Small caps have been uppercased. |
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY
I. TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 5
Knowledge of Tools. A Full Kit of Tools. The Hatchet. The Claw Hammer.
About Saws--Cross-cut, Rip Saw, Back Saw. Planes--Jack Plane, Smoothing
Plane, Pore Plane. Gages. Chisels--Firmer Chisel. Trusses. Saw Clamps.
The Grindstone. Oilstone. Miter Box. The Work Bench.
II. HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS Page 16
Care of Tools---First Requisites. Saws--How to Set. Saw-set Errors. Saw
Setting Block. Filing. The Angle of Filing. Filing Pitch. Saw Clamps.
Filing Suggestions. The File. Using the File. The Grindstone. In the Use
of Grindstones. Correct Way of Holding Tool in Grinding. Care of Stone.
Incorrect Way to Hold Tool. Way to Revolve or Turn Grindstone. The
Plane. The Gage. Chisels. General Observations.
III. HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS Page 29
On the Holding of Tools. The Saw. How to Start a Saw. Sawing on a Line.
The First Stroke. The Starting Cut for Cross-cutting. Forcing a Saw. The
Stroke. The Chinese Saw. Things to Avoid. The Plane. Angle for Holding
Planes. Errors to be Avoided. The Gage. Holding the Gage. The
Draw-knife.
IV. HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES Page 39
Fundamentals of Designing. The Commercial Instinct. First Requirements
of Designing. Conventional Styles. The Mission Style. Cabinets. Harmony
of Parts. Harmony of Wood.
V. HOW WORK IS LAID OUT Page 43
Concrete Examples of Work. Dimensions. Laying Out a Table. The Top. The
Mortises. The Facing Boards. The Tenons. Tools Used. Chamfered Tenons.
The Frame. The Drawer Support. The Table Frame. The Top. The Drawer. How
Any Structure is Built Up. Observations About Making a Box. Points.
Beveling and Mitering. Proper Terms. Picture Frames. Dovetail Points.
Box Points. First Steps in Dovetailing. Cutting Out the Spaces. Tools
Used in Laying Out Mortises and Tenons.
VI. THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE Page 59
The Compass. Determining Angles. Definition of Degrees. Degrees Without
a Compass. How Degrees are Calculated by the Dividers.
VII. HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED Page 65
Importance of Proper Designation. How to Explain Mechanical Forms.
Defining Segment and Sector. Arcade, Arch, Buttress, Flying Buttress,
Chamfer, Cotter, Crenelated, Crosses, Curb Roof, Cupola, Crown Post,
Corbels, Dormer, Dowel, Drip, Detent, Extrados, Engrailed, Facet, Fret,
Fretwork, Frontal, Frustrums, Fylfot, Gambrel Roof, Gargoyle, Gudgeon,
Guilloche. Half Timbered, Hammer Beam, Header, Hip Roof, Hood Molding,
Inclave, Interlacing Arch, Inverted, Inverted Arch, Key Stone, King
Post, Label, Louver, Lintel, Lug, M-Roof, Mansard Roof, Newel,
Parquetry, Peen, Pendant, Pendastyle, Pedestal, Plinth, Portico, Plate,
Queen Post, Quirk Molding, Re-entering Angle, Rafter, Scarfing, Scotia
Molding, Sill, Skewback, Spandrel, Strut, Stud, Stile, Tie Beam, Timber,
Trammel, Turret, Transom, Valley Roof.
VIII. DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY Page 73
Fundamentals in Drawing. Representing Objects. Forming Lines and
Shadows. Analysis of Lines and Shadings. How to Show Plain Surfaces.
Concave Surfaces. Convex Surfaces. Shadows from a Beam. Flat Effects.
The Direction of Light. Raised Surfaces. Depressed Surfaces. Full
Shading. Illustrating Cube Shading. Shading Effect. Heavy Lines.
Perspectives. True Perspective of a Cube. Isometric Cube. Flattened
Perspective. Technical Designations. Sector and Segment. Terms of
Angles. Circles and Curves. Irregular Curves. Ellipses and Ovals. Focal
Points. Produced Line. Spirals, Perpendicular and Vertical. Signs to
Indicate Measurement. Definitions. Abscissa. Angle. Apothegm. Apsides or
Apsis. Chord. Cycloid. Conoid. Conic Section. Ellipsoid. Epicycloid.
Evolute. Flying Buttress. Focus. Gnomes. Hexagon. Hyperbola.
Hypothenuse. Incidental. Isosceles. Triangle. Parabola. Parallelogram.
Pelecoid. Polygons. Pyramid. Rhomb. Sector. Segment. Sinusoid. Tangent.
Tetrahedron. Vertex.
IX. MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK Page 93
Moldings. The Basis of Moldings. The Simplest Moldings. The Astragal.
The Cavetto. The Ovolo. The Torus. The Apothegm. The Cymatium. The Ogee.
Ogee Recta. Ogee Reversa. The Reedy. The Casement. The Roman-Doric
Column. Lesson from the Doric Column. Applying Molding. Base.
Embellishments. Straight-faced Molding. Plain Molding. Base. Diversified
Uses. Shadows Cast by Moldings.
X. AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING Page 104
Where Mortises Should be Used. Depth of Mortises. Rule for Mortises.
True Mortise Work. Steps in Cutting Mortises. Things to Avoid in
Mortising. Lap-and-Butt Joints. Scarfing. The Tongue and Groove.
Beading. Ornamental Bead Finish. The Bead and Rabbet. Shading with Beads
and Rabbets.
XI. HOUSE BUILDING Page 113
House Building. The Home and Embellishments. Beauty Not Ornamentation.
Plain Structures. Colonial Type. The Roof the Keynote. Bungalow Types.
General House Building. Building Plans. The Plain Square-Floor Plan. The
Rectangular Plan. Room Measurements. Front and Side Lines. The Roof.
Roof Pitch. The Foundation. The Sills. The Flooring Joist. The Studding.
Setting Up. The Plate. Intermediate Studding. Wall Headers. Ceiling
Joist. Braces. The Rafters. The Gutter. Setting Door and Window Frames.
Plastering and Finish Work.
XII. BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES Page 130
Bridges. Self-supporting Roofs. Common Trusses. The Vertical Upright
Truss. The Warren Girder. The Bowstring Girder. Fundamental Truss
Forms.
XIII. THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER Page 134
The Best Woods. Soft Woods. Hard Woods. The Most Difficult Woods. The
Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood. The Easiest Working Woods. Differences in the
Working of Woods. Forcing Saws in Wood.
XIV. WOOD TURNING Page 138
Advantages of Wood Turning. Simple Turning Lathe. The Rails. The Legs.
Centering Blocks. The Tail-stock. The Tool Rest. Materials. The Mandrel.
Fly-wheel. The Tools Required.
XV. ON THE USE OF STAINS Page 147
Soft Wood. Use of Stains. Stains as Imitations. Good Taste in Staining.
Great Contrasts Bad. Staining Contrasting Woods. Hard Wood Imitations.
Natural Effects. Natural Wood Stains. Polishing Stained Surfaces.
XVI. THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT Page 152
XVII. USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE Page 155
Common Bench. Its Proportions. Square Top Stool. Folding Blacking Box.
Convenient Easel. Hanging Book-rack. Sad Iron Holder. Bookcase.
Wood-box. Parallel Bars for Boys' Use. Mission Writing Desk. Screen
Frame. Mission Chair. Grandfather's Clock. Knockdown and Adjustable
Bookcase. Coal Scuttle Frame or Case. Mission Arm Chair. Dog-house.
Settle, With Convenient Shelves. Towel Rack. Sofa Framework.
XVIII. SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 170
Bit and Level Adjuster. Miter Boxes. Swivel Arm Uprights. Movable Stops.
Angle Dividers. "Odd Job" Tool. Bit Braces. Ratchet Mechanism.
Interlocking Jaws. Steel Frame Breast Drills. Horizontal Boring. 3-Jaw
Chuck. Planes. Rabbeting, Beading and Matching. Cutter Adjustment. Depth
Gage. Slitting Gage. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane. Router Planes.
Bottom Surfacing. Door Trim Plane.
XIX. ROOFING TRUSSES Page 185
Characteristics of Trusses. Tie Beams. Ornamentation. Objects of Beams,
Struts and Braces. Utilizing Space. Types of Structures. Gambrel Roof.
Purlin Roof. The Princess Truss. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam Truss.
The Mansard. Scissors Beam. Braced Collar Beam. Rib and Collar Truss.
Hammer-beam Truss. Flying Buttress.
XX. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS Page 197
Definition and Uses. Different Types. Bridle Joint. Spur Tenon. Saddle
Joints. Joggle Joint. Heel Joints. Stub Tenon. Tusk Tenon. Double Tusk
Tenon. Cogged Joints. Anchor Joints. Deep Anchor Joints.
XXI. SOME MISTAKES AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY Page 205
Lessons From Mistakes. Planing the Edge of a Board Straight. Planing it
Square. Planing to Dimensions. Holding the Plane. How it Should be Run
on the Edge of the Board. Truing With the Weight of the Plane. A Steady
Grasp. In Smoothing Boards. Correct Sand-papering. Gluing. Removing
Surplus Glue. Work Edge and Work Side. The Scribing and Marking Line.
Finishing Surfaces. Sawing a Board Square. The Stroke of the Saw. Sawing
Out of True.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.
1. A typical work bench Frontispiece
PAGE
2. Hatchet 6
3. Hammer 7
4. Common saw 7
5. Plane 8
6. Jack plane bit 9
6a. Fore plane bit 10
7. Firmer chisel 11
7a. Mortising chisel 12
8. Trestle 12
9. Miter box 13
10. Incorrect saw setting 17
10a. Correct saw setting 17
11. Saw setting device 17
12. Filing angle 18
13. Rip saw 19
14. Cross cut 20
15. Filing clamp 21
16. Grindstone 23
17. Correct manner of holding tool 24
18. Incorrect way of holding tool 24
19. Gage 26
20. Starting a saw 31
21. Wrong sawing angle 32
22. Correct sawing angle 33
23. Thrust cut 34
24. Chinese saw 34
25. Moving angle for plane 35
26. Holding gage 36
27. Laying out table leg 43
28. The first marking line 44
29. Scribing mortise line 44
30. The corner mortises 44
31. The side rail 46
32. Scribing the tenons 46
33. Cross scoring 47
34. The tenon 47
35. Finishing the tenon 47
36. The tenon and mortise 48
37. The drawer support 48
38. Drawer cleats 49
39. Assembled table frame 50
40. The top 51
41. The drawer 52
42. Bevel joint 53
43. Miter joint 53
44. Picture frame joint 54
45. Initial marks for dovetails 55
46. End marks for dovetails 55
47. Angles for dovetails 55
48. Cutting out recesses for dovetails 56
49. Tongues for dovetails 56
50. Recess for dovetails 56
51. Determining angles 61
52. Marking degrees 63
53. Angles from base lines 63
54. Stepping off spaces 63
55. Arcade 67
56. Arch 67
57. Buttress 67
58. Chamfer 67
59. Cooter 67
60. Crenelated 67
61. Crosses 67
62. Curb roof 67
63. Cupola 67
64. Console 67
65. Corbels 67
66. Dormer 67
67. Dowel 67
68. Drips 67
69. Detail 68
70. Extrados 68
71. Engrailed 68
72. Facet 68
73. Fret 68
74. Frontal 68
75. Frustrums 68
76. Fylfat 68
77. Gambrel 68
78. Gargoyle 68
79. Gudgeon 68
80. Guilloche 68
81. Half timbered 68
82. Hammer beam 68
83. Haunches 69
84. Header 69
85. Hip roof 69
86. Hood molding 69
87. Inclave 69
88. Interlacing arch 69
89. Invected 69
90. Inverted arch 69
91. Keystone 69
92. King post 69
93. Label 69
94. Louver 69
95. Lintel 70
96. Lug 70
97. M-roof 70
98. Mansard roof 70
99. Newel post 70
100. Parquetry 70
101. Peen, or pein 70
102. Pendant 70
103. Pentastyle 70
104. Pedestal 70
105. Pintle 70
106. Portico 70
107. Plate 70
108. Queen post 71
109. Quirk molding 71
110. Re-entering 71
111. Rafter 71
112. Scarfing 71
113. Scotia molding 71
114. Sill 71
115. Skew back 71
116. Spandrel 71
117. Strut 71
118. Stud, studding 71
119. Stile 72
120. Trammel 72
121. Turret 72
122. Transom 72
123. Valley roof 72
125. Plain line 74
126. Concave shading 74
127. Convex shading 74
128. Wave shading 75
129. Light past concave surface 75
130. Light past convex surface 75
131. Plain surface 75
132. Outlines 76
133. Raised surface 77
134. Depressed surface 77
135. Shading raised surfaces 78
136. Shading depressed surfaces 78
137. Plain cubical outline 79
138. Indicating cube 79
139. Confused lines 79
140. Heavy horizontal lines 80
141. Heavy vertical lines 80
142. Isometric cube 81
143. Cube and circle 81
144. Flattened perspective 82
145. Angles in isometric cube 83
146. Plain circle 84
147. Sphere shading 84
148. Drawing regular ellipse 86
149. Drawing irregular ellipse 88
150. Drawing spiral 89
151. Abscissa 90
152. Angle 91
153. Apothegm 91
154. Apsides, or apsis 91
155. Chord 91
156. Convolute 91
157. Conic sections 91
158. Conoid 91
159. Cycloid 91
160. Ellipsoid 91
161. Epicycloid 91
162. Evolute 91
163. Focus 91
164. Gnome 91
165. Hyperbola 91
167. Hypothenuse 91
168. Incidence 92
169. Isosceles triangle 92
170. Parabola 92
171. Parallelogram 92
172. Pelecoid 92
173. Polygons 92
174. Pyramid 92
175. Quadrant 92
176. Quadrilateral 92
177. Rhomb 92
178. Sector 92
179. Segment 92
180. Sinusoid 92
181. Tangent 92
182. Tetrahedron 92
183. Vertex 92
184. Volute 92
185. Band (molding) 94
186. Astragal (molding) 94
187. Cavetto (molding) 94
188. Ovolo (molding) 94
189. Torus (molding) 95
190. Apophyges (molding) 95
191. Cymatium (molding) 95
192. Ogee-recta (molding) 95
193. Ogee-reversa (molding) 96
194. Bead (molding) 96
195. Casement (molding) 97
196. The Doric column 98
197. Front of cabinet 100
198. Facia board 100
199. Molding on facia board 100
200. Ogee-recta on facia 101
201. Trim below facia 101
202. Trim below ogee 101
203. Trim above base 102
204. Trim above base molding 102
205. Shadows cast by plain moldings 103
206. Mortise and tenon joint 105
207. Incorrect mortising 105
208. Steps in mortising 106
209. The shoulders of tenons 108
210. Lap-and-butt joint 108
211. Panel joint 109
212. Scarfing 109
213. Tongue and groove 110
214. Beading 110
215. Outside beading finish 110
216. Edge beading 111
217. Corner beading 111
218. Point beading 111
219. Round edge beading 111
220. Beading and molding 111
221. First square house plan 117
222. First rectangular house plan 118
223. Square house to scale 119
224. Rectangular house to scale 120
225. Front elevation of square house 121
226. Elevation of rectangular house 121
227. Illustrating one-third pitch 122
228. Illustrating half pitch 122
229. The sills at the corner 123
230. The joist and sills 123
231. The plate splice 124
232. The rafters 125
233. The gutter 126
234. The cornice 127
234a. The finish without gutter 128
235. Common truss 130
236. Upright truss 131
237. Vertical upright truss 131
238. Warren girder 132
239. Extended Warren girder 132
240. Bowstring girder 132
241. Frame details of wood turning lathe 139
242. Tail stock details 140
243. Tool rest details 142
244. Section of mandrel 143
245. View of turning lathe 145
246. Turning tools 146
247. Bench 155
248. Stool 156
249. Blacking box 156
250. Easel 157
251. Hanging book rack 158
252. Book shelf 159
253. Wood box 160
254. Horizontal bars 161
255. Mission desk 161
256. Screen frame 162
257. Mission chair 162
258. Grandfather's clock 163
259. Frame for bookcase 164
260. Coal scuttle case 165
261. Mission arm chair 165
262. Dog house 168
263. Settle 167
264. Towel rack 168
265. Mission sofa frame 168
266. Bit and square level 170
267. Metal miter box 171
268. Parts of metal miter box 172
269. Angle dividers 173
270. An "odd job" tool 174
271. Universal-jaw brace 176
272. Taper-shank bit brace 176
273. Alligator-jaw brace 176
274. Steel frame breast drill 177
275. Steel frame breast drill 177
276. Steel frame breast drill 177
277. Details of metal plane 179
278. Rabbet, matching and dado plane 180
279. Molding and beading plane 181
280. Dovetail tongue and groove plane 182
281. Router planes 183
282. Router planes 183
283. Door trim plane 184
284. Gambrel roof 187
285. Purlin roof 188
286. Princess truss 189
287. Arched, or cambered, tie beam 190
288. The mansard 191
289. Scissors beam 192
290. Braced collar beam 193
291. Rib and collar truss 194
291-1/2. Hammer-beam truss 195
292. Bridle joints 197
293. Spur tenons 198
294. Saddle joints 198
295. Joggle joints 199
296. Framing joints 199
297. Heel joints 200
298. Stub tenon 200
299. Tusk tenon 201
300. Double tusk tenon 202
301. Cogged joints 203
302. Anchor joint 203
303. Deep anchor joint 204
CARPENTRY
A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND SIMPLE FORM "HOW TO DO
IT"
INTRODUCTORY
Carpentry is the oldest of the arts, and it has been said that the
knowledge necessary to make a good carpenter fits one for almost any
trade or occupation requiring the use of tools. The hatchet, the saw,
and the plane are the three primal implements of the carpenter. The
value is in knowing how to use them.
The institution of Manual Training Schools everywhere is but a tardy
recognition of the value of systematic training in the use of tools.
There is no branch of industry which needs such diversification, in
order to become efficient.
The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his ability to forge, to
weld, and to temper; that of the machinist depends upon the callipered
dimensions of his product; the painter in his taste for harmony; the
mason on his ability to cut the stone accurately; and the plasterer to
produce a uniform surface. But the carpenter must, in order to be an
expert, combine all these qualifications, in a greater or less degree,
and his vocation may justly be called the King of Trades. Rightly,
therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn the essentials of
manual training work.
But there is another feature of the utmost importance and value, which
is generally overlooked, and on which there is placed too little stress,
even in many of the manual training schools. The training of the mind
has been systematized so as to bring into operation the energies of all
the brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should, at the same
time, be directed into such channels as will most widely stimulate the
muscular development of the child, while at the same time cultivating
his mind.
There is no trade which offers such a useful field as carpentry. It may
be said that the various manual operations bring into play every muscle
of the body.
The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each requires its special
muscular energy. The carpenter, unlike the blacksmith, does not put all
his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his torso at the expense of
his other muscles, like the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most
other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of-door and indoor
exercise, so that he is at all times able to follow his occupation,
summer or winter, rain or shine; and this also further illustrates the
value of this branch of endeavor as a healthful recreation.
It is the aim of this book to teach boys the primary requirements--not
to generalize--but to show how to prepare and how to do the work; what
tools and materials to use; and in what manner the tools used may be
made most serviceable, and used most advantageously.
It would be of no value to describe and illustrate how a bracket is
made; or how the framework of a structure is provided with mortises and
tenons in order to hold it together. The boy must have something as a
base which will enable him to design his own creations, and not be an
imitator; his mind must develop with his body. It is the principal aim
of this book to give the boy something to think about while he is
learning how to bring each individual part to perfection.
If the boy understands that there is a principle underlying each
structural device; that there is a reason for making certain things a
definite way, he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner or later
develop into an initiative of his own.
It is this phase in the artisan's life which determines whether he will
be merely a machine or an intelligent organism.
This work puts together in a simple, concise form, not only the
fundamentals which every mechanic should learn to know, but it defines
every structural form used in this art, and illustrates all terms it is
necessary to use in the employment of carpentry. A full chapter is
devoted to drawings practically applied. All terms are diagrammed and
defined, so that the mind may readily grasp the ideas involved.
Finally, it will be observed that every illustration has been specially
drawn for this book. We have not adopted the plan usually followed in
books of this class, of taking stock illustrations of manufacturers'
tools and devices, nor have we thought it advisable to take a picture of
a tool or a machine and then write a description around it. We have
illustrated the book to explain "_how to do the work_"; also, to teach
the boy what the trade requires, and to give him the means whereby he
may readily find the form of every device, tool, and structure used in
the art.
CHAPTER I
TOOLS AND THEIR USES
KNOWLEDGE OF TOOLS.--A knowledge of tools and their uses is the first
and most important requirement. The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the
hammer are well known to all boys; but how to use them, and where to use
the different varieties of each kind of tool, must be learned, because
each tool grew out of some particular requirement in the art. These uses
will now be explained.
A FULL KIT OF TOOLS.--A kit of tools necessary for doing any plain work
should embrace the following:
1. A Hatchet.
2. A Claw Hammer--two sizes preferred.
3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long.
4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long.
5. Wooden Mallet.
6. Jack Plane.
7. Smoothing Plane.
8. Compass Saw.
9. Brace.
10. Bits for Brace, ranging from 1/4 inch to 1 inch diameter.
11. Several small Gimlets.
12. Square.
13. Compass.
14. Draw-knife.
15. Rule.
16. Two Gages.
17. Set of Firmer Chisels.
18. Two Mortising Chisels.
19. Small Back Saw.
20. Saw Clamps.
21. Miter Box.
22. Bevel Square.
23. Small Hand Square.
24. Pliers.
25. Pair of Awls.
26. Hand Clamps.
27. Set Files.
28. Glue Pot.
29. Oil Stone.
30. Grindstone.
31. Trusses.
32. Work Bench.
33. Plumb Bob.
34. Spirit Level.
THE HATCHET.--The hatchet should be ground with a bevel on each side,
and not on one side only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing
hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used for trimming off the
edges of boards. Unless ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot
be controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is preferable to a
heavy one. It should never be used for nailing purposes, except in
emergencies. The pole of the hammer--that part which is generally used
to strike the nail with--is required in order to properly balance the
hatchet when used for trimming material.
[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
THE CLAW HAMMER.--This is the proper tool for driving nails and for
drawing them out. Habits should be formed with the beginner, which will
be of great service as the education proceeds.
One of these habits is to persist in using the tool for the purpose for
which it was made. The expert workman (and he becomes expert because of
it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and so with every other tool.
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
ABOUT SAWS.--There are four well-defined kinds. First, a long, flat saw,
for cross-cutting. Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes.
Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear edge to hold the blade rigid,
used for making tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw.
CROSS-CUTS.--The difference between a cross-cut and a rip saw is, that
in the latter the teeth have less pitch and are usually larger than in
the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13 and 14) will distinctly
show the difference in the teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for
ripping along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed at an angle,
will ride over the grain or fiber of the wood, and refuse to take hold
or bite into the wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used for
cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be rough and jagged.
[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
The back saw is used almost exclusively for making tenons, and has
uniformly fine teeth so as to give a smooth finish to the wood.
PLANES.--The plane may be called the æsthetic tool in the carpenter's
kit. It is the most difficult tool to handle and the most satisfactory
when thoroughly mastered. How to care for and handle it will be
referred to in a subsequent chapter. We are now concerned with its uses
only. Each complete kit must have three distinct planes, namely, the
jack plane, which is for taking off the rough saw print surface of the
board. The short smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the
inequalities made by the jack plane; and the long finishing plane, or
fore plane, which is intended to straighten the edges of boards or of
finished surfaces.
[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Jack plane bit._]
THE JACK PLANE.--This plane has the cutting edge of its blade ground so
it is slightly curved (Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out
so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface of the wood, the
curved cutting edge prevents the corner edges of the bit from digging
into the planed surface.
On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing and finishing planes are
ground straight across their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not
enumerated the different special planes, designed to make beads,
rabbets, tongues and grooves, but each type is fully illustrated, so
that an idea may be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6_a_).
GAGES.--One of the most valuable tools in the whole set is the gage, but
it is, in fact, the least known. This is simply a straight bar, with a
sharpened point projecting out on one side near its end, and having an
adjustable sliding head or cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in
making mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel point which
projects from the side of the bar, serves to outline and define the
edges of the mortises or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily be
followed.
[Illustration: _Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit._]
This is the most difficult tool to hold when in use, but that will be
fully explained under its proper head. Each kit should have two, as in
making mortises and tenons one gage is required for each side of the
mortise or tenon.
CHISELS.--Two kinds are found in every kit--one called the firmer (Fig.
7) and the mortising chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and a
full set ranges in width from three-eighths of an inch to two inches.
The sizes most desirable and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and
the inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trimming out cross grains
or rebates for setting door locks and hinges and for numerous other uses
where sharp-end tools are required.
[Illustration: _Fig. 7._]
THE MORTISING CHISEL.--The mortising chisel (Fig. 7_a_), on the other
hand, is very narrow and thick, with a long taper down to the cutting
edge. They are usually in such widths as to make them stock sizes for
mortises. Never, under any circumstances, use a hammer or hatchet for
driving chisels. The mallet should be used invariably.
[Illustration: _Fig. 7a._]
TRUSSES.--There should be at least two, each three feet in length and
twenty inches in height.
SAW CLAMPS.--These are necessary adjuncts, and should be made of hard
wood, perfectly straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow
back saw. The illustration shows their shape and form.
THE GRINDSTONES.--It is better to get a first-class stone, which may be
small and rigged up with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is
most serviceable, and it should have a water tray, and never be used
excepting with plenty of water.
[Illustration: _Fig. 8._]
AN OIL STONE is as essential as a grindstone. For giving a good edge to
tools it is superior to a water stone. It should be provided with a top,
and covered when not in use, to keep out dust and grit. These are the
little things that contribute to success and should be carefully
observed.
THE MITER BOX.--This should be 14 inches long and 3" by 3" inside, made
of hard wood 3/4" thick. The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as
shown.
[Illustration: _Fig. 9._]
THE WORK BENCH.--In its proper place we show in detail the most approved
form of work bench, fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools,
conveniently arranged. In this chapter we are more particularly
concerned with the uses of tools than their construction; and we impress
on boys the necessity of having a place for everything, and that every
tool should be kept in its proper place. A carpenter's shop filled with
chips, shavings and other refuse is not a desirable place for the
indiscriminate placing of tools. If correct habits are formed at the
outset, by carefully putting each tool in its place after using, it will
save many an hour of useless hunting and annoyance.
One of the most important things in laying off work, for instance, on
trusses, is the disposition of the saw and square. Our illustration
shows each truss with side cleats, which will permit the user
temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so that it will be handy,
and at the same time be out of the way of the work and prevent either of
the tools from being thrown to the floor.
In the same way, and for the same purpose, the work bench has temporary
holding cleats at the end and a shelf in front, which are particularly
desirable, because either a saw or a square is an encumbrance on a work
bench while the work is being assembled, and tools of this kind should
not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should they be stood in a
leaning position against a truss or work bench.
_Strictly observe these fundamentals_--Never place a tool with the
cutting edge toward you. Always have the racks or receptacles so made
that the handle may be seized. Don't put a tool with an exposed cutting
edge above or below another tool in such a manner that the hand or the
tool you are handling can come into contact with the edge. Never keep
the nail or screw boxes above the work bench. They should always be kept
to one side, to prevent, as much as possible, the bench from becoming a
depository for nails. Keep the top of the bench free from tools. Always
keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the rear of the bench.
If order was Heaven's first law, it is a good principle to apply it in a
workman's shop, and its observance will form a habit that will soon
become a pleasure to follow.