PART I.

OF THE

GENERAL CAUSES OF DISEASES.

CHAP. I.

OF CHILDREN.

The better to trace diseases from their original causes, we shall take a

view of the common treatment of mankind in the state of infancy. In this

period of our lives, the foundations of a good or bad constitution are

generally laid; it is therefore of importance, that parents be well

acquainted with the various causes which may injure the health of their

offspring.

It appears from the annual registers of the dead, that almost one half

of the children born in Great Britain die under twelve years of age. To

many, indeed, this may appear a natural evil; but, on due examination,

it will be found to be one of our own creating. Were the death of

infants a natural evil, other animals would be as liable to die young as

man; but this we find is by no means the case.

It may seem strange that man, notwithstanding his superior reason,

should fall so far short of other animals in the management of his

young: But our surprise will soon cease, if we consider that brutes,

guided by instinct, never err in this respect; while man, trusting

solely to art, is seldom right. Were a catalogue of those infants who

perish annually by art alone exhibited to public view, it would astonish

most people.

If parents are above taking care of their children, others must be

employed for that purpose: these will always endeavour to recommend

themselves by the appearance of extraordinary skill and address. By this

means such a number of unnecessary and destructive articles have been

introduced into the diet, clothing, &c. of infants, that it is no wonder

so many of them perish.

Nothing can be more preposterous than a mother who thinks it below her

to take care of her own child, or who is so ignorant as not to know what

is proper to be done for it. If we search Nature throughout, we cannot

find a parallel to this. Every other animal is the nurse of its own

offspring, and they thrive accordingly. Were the brutes to bring up

their young by proxy, they would share the same fate with those of the

human species.

We mean not, however, to impose it as a task upon every mother to suckle

her own child. This, whatever speculative writers may allege, is in some

cases impracticable, and would inevitably prove destructive both to the

mother and child. Women of delicate constitutions, subject to hysteric

fits, or other nervous affections, make very bad nurses: and these

complaints are now so common, that it is rare to find a woman of fashion

free from them; such women, therefore, supposing them willing, are often

unable to suckle their own children.

Almost every mother would be in a condition to give suck, did mankind

live agreeably to Nature: but whoever considers how far many mothers

deviate from her dictates, will not be surprised to find some of them

unable to perform that necessary office. Mothers who do not eat a

sufficient quantity of solid food, nor enjoy the benefit of free air and

exercise, can neither have wholesome juices themselves, nor afford

proper nourishment to an infant. Hence children who are suckled by

delicate women, either die young, or continue weak and sickly all their

lives.

When we say that mothers are not always in a condition to suckle their

own children, we would not be understood as discouraging that practice.

Every mother who can, ought certainly to perform so tender and agreeable

an office[3]. But, suppose it to be out of her power, she may,

nevertheless, be of great service to her child. The business of nursing

is by no means confined to giving suck. To a woman who abounds with

milk, this is the easiest part of it. Numberless other offices are

necessary for a child, which the mother ought at least to see done.

A mother who abandons the fruit of her womb, as soon as it is born, to

the sole care of an hireling, hardly deserves that name. A child, by

being brought up under the mother’s eye, not only secures her affection,

but may reap all the advantages of a parent’s care, though it be suckled

by another. How can a mother be better employed than in superintending

the nursery? This is at once the most delightful and important office;

yet the most trivial business or insipid amusements are often preferred

to it! A strong proof both of the bad taste and wrong education of

modern females.

It is indeed to be regretted, that more care is not bestowed in teaching

the proper management of children to those whom Nature has designed for

mothers. This, instead of being made the principal, is seldom considered

as any part of female education. Is it any wonder, when females so

educated come to be mothers, that they should be quite ignorant of the

duties belonging to that character? However strange it may appear, it is

certainly true, that many mothers, and those of fashion too, are as

ignorant, when they have brought a child into the world, of what is to

be done for it, as the infant itself. Indeed, the most ignorant of the

sex are generally reckoned most knowing in the business of nursing.

Hence, sensible people become the dupes of ignorance and superstition;

and the nursing of children, instead of being conducted by reason, is

the result of whim and caprice[4].

Were the time that is generally spent by females in the acquisition of

trifling accomplishments, employed in learning how to bring up their

children; how to dress them so as not to hurt, cramp, or confine their

motions; how to feed them with wholesome and nourishing food; how to

exercise their tender bodies, so as best to promote their growth and

strength: were these made the objects of female instruction, mankind

would derive the greatest advantages from it. But while the education of

females implies little more than what relates to dress and public shew,

we have nothing to expect from them but ignorance even in the most

important concerns.

Did mothers reflect on their own importance, and lay it to heart, they

would embrace every opportunity of informing themselves of the duties

which they owe to their infant offspring. It is their province, not only

to form the body, but also to give the mind its most early bias. They

have it very much in their power to make men healthy or valetudinary,

useful in life, or the pests of society.

But the mother is not the only person concerned in the management of

children. The father has an equal interest in their welfare, and ought

to assist in every thing that respects either the improvement of the

body or mind.

It is pity that the men should be so inattentive to this matter. Their

negligence is one reason why females know so little of it. Women will

ever be desirous to excel in such accomplishments as recommend them to

the other sex. But men generally keep at such a distance from even the

smallest acquaintance with the affairs of the nursery, that many would

reckon it an affront, were they supposed to know any thing of them. Not

so, however, with the kennel or the stables: a gentleman of the first

rank is not ashamed to give directions concerning the management of his

dogs or horses, yet would blush were he surprised in performing the same

office for that being who derived its exigence from himself, who is the

heir of his fortunes, and the future hope of his country.

Nor have physicians themselves been sufficiently attentive to the

management of children: this has been generally considered as the sole

province of old women, while men of the first character in physic have

refused to visit infants even when sick. Such conduct in the faculty has

not only caused this branch of medicine to be neglected, but has also

encouraged the other sex to assume an absolute title to prescribe for

children in the most dangerous diseases. The consequence is, that a

physician is seldom called till the good women have exhausted all their

skill; when his attendance can only serve to divide the blame, and

appease the disconsolate parents.

Nurses should do all in their power to prevent diseases; but when a

child is taken ill, some person of skill ought immediately to be

consulted. The diseases of children are generally acute, and the least

delay is dangerous.

Were physicians more attentive to the diseases of infants, they would

not only be better qualified to treat them properly when sick, but

likewise to give useful directions for their management when well. The

diseases of children are by no means so difficult to be understood as

many imagine. It is true, children cannot tell their complaints; but the

causes of them may be pretty certainly discovered by observing the

symptoms, and putting proper questions to the nurses. Besides, the

diseases of infants being less complicated, are easier cured than those

of adults[5].

It is really astonishing, that so little attention should in general be

paid to the preservation of infants. What labour and expence are daily

bestowed to prop an old tottering carcase for a few years, while

thousands of those who might be useful in life, perish without being

regarded! Mankind are too apt to value things according to their

present, not their future, usefulness. Though this is of all others the

most erroneous method of estimation; yet upon no other principle is it

possible to account for the general indifference with respect to the

death of infants.

_Of Diseased Parents._

One great source of the diseases of children is, the UNHEALTHINESS OF

PARENTS. It would be as reasonable to expect a rich crop from a barren

soil, as that strong and healthy children should be born of parents

whose constitutions have been worn out with intemperance or disease.

An ingenious writer[6] observes, that on the constitution of mothers

depends originally that of their offspring. No one who believes this,

will be surprised, on a view of the female world, to find diseases and

death so frequent among children. A delicate female, brought up within

doors, an utter stranger to exercise and open air, who lives on tea and

other slops, may bring a child into the world, but it will hardly be fit

to live. The first blast of disease will nip the tender plant in the

bud: or, should it struggle through a few years existence, its feeble

frame, shaken with convulsions from every trivial cause, will be unable

to perform the common functions of life, and prove a burden to society.

If to the delicacy of mothers, we add the irregular lives of fathers, we

shall see further cause to believe that children are often hurt by the

constitution of their parents. A sickly frame may be originally induced

by hardships or intemperance, but chiefly by the latter. It is

impossible that a course of vice should not spoil the best constitution:

and, did the evil terminate here, it would be a just punishment for the

folly of the sufferer; but when once a disease is contracted and riveted

in the habit, it is entailed on posterity. What a dreadful inheritance

is the gout, the scurvy, or the King’s evil, to transmit to our

offspring! how happy had it been for the heir of many a great estate,

had he been born a beggar, rather than to inherit his father’s fortunes

at the expence of inheriting his diseases!

A person labouring under any incurable malady ought not to marry. He

thereby not only shortens his own life, but transmits misery to others:

but when both parties are deeply tainted with the scrophula, the scurvy,

or the like, the effects must be still worse. If such have any issue,

they must be miserable indeed. Want of attention to these things, in

forming connexions for life, has rooted out more families than plague,

famine, or the sword; and as long as these connexions are formed from

mercenary views, the evil will be continued[7].

In our matrimonial contracts, it is amazing so little regard is had to

the health and form of the object. Our sportsmen know, that the generous

courser cannot be bred out of the foundered jade, nor the sagacious

spaniel out of the snarling cur. This is settled upon immutable laws.

The man who marries a woman of a sickly constitution, and descended of

unhealthy parents, whatever his views may be, cannot be said to act a

prudent part. A diseased woman may prove fertile; should this be the

case, the family must become an infirmary: what prospect of happiness

the father of such a family has, we shall leave any one to judge[8].

Such children as have the misfortune to be born of diseased parents,

will require to be nursed with greater care than others. This is the

only way to make amends for the defects of constitution; and it will

often go a great length. A healthy nurse, wholesome air, and sufficient

exercise, will do wonders. But when these are neglected, little is to be

expected from any other quarter. The defects of constitution cannot be

supplied by medicine.

Those who inherit any family disease ought to be very circumspect in

their manner of living. They should consider well the nature of such

disease, and guard against it by a proper regimen. It is certain, that

family diseases have often, by proper care, been kept off for one

generation; and there is reason to believe, that, by persisting in the

same course, such diseases might at length be wholly eradicated. This is

a subject very little regarded, though of the greatest importance.

Family constitutions are as capable of improvement as family estates;

and the libertine, who impairs the one, does greater injury to his

posterity, than the prodigal who squanders away the other.

_Of the Clothing of Children._

The clothing of an infant is so simple a matter, that it is surprising

how any person should err in it; yet many children lose their lives, and

others are deformed, by inattention to this article.

Nature knows no use of clothes to an infant, but to keep it warm. All

that is necessary for this purpose, is to wrap it in a soft loose

covering. Were a mother left to the dictates of Nature alone, she would

certainly pursue this course. But the business of dressing an infant has

long been out of the hands of mothers, and has at last become a secret

which none but adepts pretend to understand.

From the most early ages it has been thought necessary, that a woman in

labour should have some person to attend her. This in time became a

business; and, as in all others, those who were employed in it strove to

outdo one another in the different branches of their profession. The

dressing of a child came of course to be considered as the midwife’s

province, who no doubt imagined, that the more dexterity she could shew

in this article, the more her skill would be admired. Her attempts were

seconded by the vanity of parents, who, too often desirous of making a

shew of the infant as soon as it was born, were ambitious to have as

much finery heaped upon it as possible. Thus it came to be thought as

necessary for a midwife to excel in bracing and dressing an infant, as

for a surgeon to be expert in applying bandages to a broken limb; and

the poor child, as soon as it came into the world, had as many rollers

and wrappers applied to its body, as if every bone had been fractured in

the birth; while these were often so tight, as not only to gall and

wound its tender frame, but even to obstruct the motion of the heart,

lungs, and other organs necessary for life.

In most parts of Britain, the practice of rolling children with so many

bandages is now, in some measure, laid aside; but it would still be a

difficult task to persuade the generality of mankind, that the shape of

an infant does not entirely depend on the care of the midwife. So far,

however, are all her endeavours to mend the shape from being successful,

that they constantly operate the contrary way, and mankind become

deformed in proportion to the means used to prevent it. How little

deformity of body is to be found among uncivilized nations? So little

indeed, that it is vulgarly believed they put all their deformed

children to death. The truth is, they hardly know such a thing as a

deformed child. Neither should we, if we followed their example. Savage

nations never think of manacling their children. They allow them the

full use of every organ, carry them abroad in the open air, wash their

bodies daily in cold water, &c. By this management, their children

become so strong and hardy, that, by the time our puny infants get out

of the nurse’s arms, theirs are able to shift for themselves[9].

Among brute animals, no art is necessary to procure a fine shape. Though

many of them are extremely delicate when they come into the world, yet

we never find them grow crooked for want of swaddling bands. Is nature

less generous to the human kind? No: but we take the business out of

Nature’s hands.

Not only the analogy of other animals, but the very feelings of infants

tell us, they ought to be kept easy and free from all pressure. They

cannot indeed tell their complaints; but they can shew signs of pain;

and this they never fail to do, by crying when hurt by their clothes. No

sooner are they freed from their bracings, than they seem pleased and

happy; yet, strange infatuation! the moment they hold their peace, they

are again committed to their chains.

If we consider the body of an infant as a bundle of soft pipes,

replenished with fluids in continual motion, the danger of pressure will

appear in the strongest light. Nature, in order to make way for the

growth of children, has formed their bodies soft and flexible; and lest

they should receive any injury from pressure in the womb, has surrounded

the _fœtus_ every where with fluids. This shews the care which Nature

takes to prevent all unequal pressure on the bodies of infants, and to

defend them against every thing that might in the least cramp or confine

their motions.

Even the bones of an infant are so soft and cartilaginous, that they

readily yield to the slightest pressure, and easily assume a bad shape,

which can never after be remedied. Hence it is, that so many people

appear with high shoulders, crooked spines, and flat breasts, who were

as well proportioned at their birth as others, but had the misfortune to

be squeezed out of shape by the application of stays and bandages.

Pressure, by obstructing the circulation, likewise prevents the equal

distribution of nourishment to the different parts of the body, by which

means the growth becomes unequal. One part grows too large, while

another remains too small; and thus in time the whole frame becomes

disproportioned and misshapen. To this we must add, that when a child is

cramped in its clothes, it naturally shrinks from the part that is hurt;

and, by putting its body into unnatural postures it becomes deformed by

habit.

Deformity of body may indeed proceed from weakness or disease; but, in

general, it is the effect of improper clothing. Nine-tenths, at least,

of the deformity among mankind, must be imputed to this cause. A

deformed body is not only disagreeable to the eye, but by a bad figure

both the animal and vital functions must be impeded, and of course

health impaired. Hence few people remarkably mishapen are strong or

healthy.

The new motions which commence at the birth, as the circulation of the

whole mass of blood through the lungs, respiration, the peristaltic

motion, &c. afford another strong argument for keeping the body of an

infant free from all pressure. These organs, not having been accustomed

to move, are easily stopped; but when this happens, death must ensue.

Hardly any method could be devised more effectually to stop these

motions, than bracing the body too tight with rollers[10] and bandages.

Were these to be applied in the same manner to the body of an adult for

an equal length of time, they would hardly fail to hurt the digestion

and make him sick. How much more hurtful they must prove to the tender

bodies of infants, we shall leave any one to judge.

Whoever considers these things will not be surprised, that so many

children die of convulsions soon after the birth. These fits are

generally attributed to some inward cause; but in fact, they oftener

proceed from our own imprudent conduct. I have known a child seized with

convulsion-fits soon after the midwife had done swaddling it, who, upon

taking off the rollers and bandages, was immediately relieved, and never

had the disease afterwards. Numerous examples of this might be given,

were they necessary.

It would be safer to fasten the cloths of an infant with strings than

pins, as these often gall and irritate their tender skins, and occasion

disorders. Pins have been found sticking above half an inch into the

body of a child, after it had died of convulsion fits, which, in all

probability, proceeded from that cause.

Children are not only hurt by the tightness of their clothes, but also

by the quantity. Every child has some degree of fever after the birth;

and if it be loaded with too many clothes, the fever must be increased.

But this is not all; the child is generally laid in bed with the mother,

who is often likewise feverish; to which we may add the heat of the

bed-chamber, the wines, and other heating things, too frequently given

to children immediately after the birth. When all these are combined,

which does not seldom happen, they must increase the fever to such a

degree as will endanger the life of the infant.

The danger of keeping infants too hot will further appear, if we

consider that, after they have been for some time in the situation

mentioned above, they are often sent into the country to be nursed in a

cold house. Is it any wonder, if a child, from such a transition,

catches a mortal cold, or contracts some other fatal disease? When an

infant is kept too hot, its lungs, not being sufficiently expanded, are

apt to remain weak and flaccid for life; hence proceed coughs,

consumptions, and other diseases of the breast.

It would answer little purpose to specify the particular species of

dress proper for an infant. These will always vary in different

countries, according to custom and the humour of parents. The great rule

to be observed is, _That a child have no more clothes than are necessary

to keep it warm, and that they be quite easy for its body_.

Stays are the very bane of infants. A volume would not suffice to point

out all the bad effects of this ridiculous piece of dress both on

children and adults. The madness in favour of stays seems, however, to

be somewhat abated; and it is to be hoped the world will, in time,

become wise enough to know, that the human shape does not solely depend

upon whale-bone and bend-leather[11].

I shall only add with respect to the clothes of children, that they

ought to be kept thoroughly clean. Children perspire more than adults;

and if their clothes be not frequently changed, they become very

hurtful. Dirty clothes not only gall and fret the tender skins of

infants, but likewise occasion ill smells; and, what is worse, tend to

produce vermin and cutaneous diseases.

Cleanliness is not only agreeable to the eye, but tends greatly to

preserve the health of children. It promotes the perspiration, and, by

that means, frees the body from superfluous humours, which, if retained,

could not fail to occasion diseases. No mother or nurse can have any

excuse for allowing a child to be dirty. Poverty may oblige her to give

it coarse clothes; but if she does not keep them clean, it must be her

own fault.

_Of the Food of Children._

Nature not only points out the food proper for an infant, but actually

prepares it. This, however, is not sufficient to prevent some who think

themselves wiser than Nature, from attempting to bring up their children

without her provision. Nothing can shew the disposition which mankind

have to depart from Nature, more than their endeavouring to bring up

children without the breast. The mother’s milk, or that of a healthy

nurse, is unquestionably the best food for an infant. Neither art nor

nature can afford a proper substitute for it. Children may seem to

thrive for a few months without the breast; but, when teething, the

small-pox, and other diseases incident to childhood, come on, they

generally perish.

A child, soon after the birth, shews an inclination to suck; and there

is no reason why it should not be gratified. It is true, the mother’s

milk does not always come immediately after the birth; but this is the

way to bring it: besides, the first milk that the child can squeeze out

of the breast answers the purpose of cleansing, better than all the

drugs in the apothecary’s shop, and at the same time prevents

inflammations of the breast, fevers, and other diseases incident to

mothers.

It is strange how people came to think that the first thing given to a

child should be drugs. This is beginning with medicine by times, and no

wonder if they generally ended with it. It sometimes happens, indeed,

that a child does not discharge the _meconium_ so soon as could be

wished; this has induced physicians, in such cases, to give something of

an opening nature to cleanse the first passages. Midwives have improved

upon this hint, and never fail to give syrups, oils, &c. whether they be

necessary or not. Cramming an infant with such indigestible stuff as

soon as it is born, can hardly fail to make it sick, and is more likely

to occasion diseases, than to prevent them. Children are seldom long

after the birth without having passage both by stool and urine; though

these evacuations may be wanting for some time without any danger. But

if children must have something before they be allowed the breast, let

it be a little thin water-pap, to which may be added an equal quantity

of new milk; or rather water alone, with the addition of a little raw

sugar. If this be given without any wines or spiceries, it will neither

heat the blood, load the stomach, nor occasion gripes.

Upon the first sight of an infant, almost every person is struck with

the idea of its being weak, feeble, and wanting support. This naturally

suggests the need of cordials. Accordingly wines are universally mixed

with the first food of children. Nothing can be more fallacious than

this way of reasoning, or more hurtful to infants than the conduct

founded upon it. Children require very little food for some time after

the birth; and what they receive should be thin, weak, light, and of a

cooling quality. A very small quantity of wine is sufficient to heat and

inflame the blood of an infant; but every person conversant in these

matters must know, that most of the diseases of infants proceed from the

heat of their humours.

If the mother or nurse has enough of milk, the child will need little or

no other food before the third or four month. It will then be proper to

give it, once or twice a day, a little of some food that is easy of

digestion, as water-pap, milk-pottage, weak broth with bread in it, and

such like. This will ease the mother, will accustom the child by degrees

to take food, and will render the weaning both less difficult and less

dangerous. All great and sudden transitions are to be avoided in

nursing. For this purpose, the food of children ought not only to be

simple, but to resemble, as nearly as possible, the properties of milk.

Indeed milk itself should make a principal part of their food, not only

before they are weaned, but for some time after.

Next to milk, we would recommend good light bread. Bread may be given to

a child as soon as it shews an inclination to chew; and it may at all

times be allowed as much plain bread as it will eat. The very chewing of

bread will promote the cutting of the teeth, and the discharge of

_saliva_, while, by mixing with the nurse’s milk in the stomach, it will

afford an excellent nourishment. Children discover an early inclination

to chew whatever is put into their hands. Parents observe the

inclination, but generally mistake the object. Instead of giving the

child something which may at once exercise its gums and afford it

nourishment, they commonly put into its hands a piece of hard metal, or

impenetrable coral. A crust of bread is the best gum-stick. It not only

answers the purpose better than any thing else, but has the additional

properties of nourishing the child and carrying the saliva down to the

stomach, which is too valuable a liquor to be lost.

Bread, besides being used dry, may be many ways prepared into food for

children. One of the best methods is to boil it in water, afterwards

pouring the water off, and mixing with the bread a proper quantity of

new milk unboiled. Milk is both more wholesome and nourishing this way

than boiled, and is less apt to occasion costiveness. For a child

farther advanced, bread may be mixed in veal or chicken broth, made into

puddings, or the like. Bread is a proper food for children at all times,

provided it be plain, made of wholesome grain, and well fermented; but

when enriched with fruits, sugars, or such things, it becomes very

unwholesome.

It is soon enough to allow children animal food when they have got teeth

to eat it. They should never taste it till after they are weaned, and

even then they ought to use it sparingly. Indeed, when children live

wholly on vegetable food, it is apt to sour on their stomachs; but, on

the other hand, too much flesh heats the body, and occasions fevers and

other inflammatory diseases. This plainly points out a due mixture of

animal and vegetable food as most proper for children.

Few things prove more hurtful to infants, than the common method of

sweetening their food. It entices them to take more than they ought to

do, which makes them grow fat and bloated. It is pretty certain, if the

food of children were quite plain, that they would never take more than

enough. Their excesses are entirely owing to nurses. If a child be

gorged with food at all hours, and enticed to take it, by making it

sweet and agreeable to the palate, is it any wonder that such a child

should in time be induced to crave more food than it ought to have?

Children may be hurt by too little as well as too much food. After a

child is weaned, it ought to be fed four or five times a day; but should

never be accustomed to eat in the night; neither should it have too much

at a time. Children thrive best with small quantities of food frequently

given. This neither overloads the stomach nor hurts the digestion, and

is certainly most agreeable to Nature.

Writers on nursing have inveighed with such vehemence against giving

children too much food, that many parents, by endeavouring to shun that

error, have run into the opposite extreme, and ruined the constitutions

of their children. But the error of pinching children in their food is

more hurtful than the other extreme. Nature has many ways of relieving

herself when overcharged; but a child, who is pinched with hunger, will

never become a strong or healthy man. That errors are frequently

committed on both sides, we are ready to acknowledge; but where one

child is hurt by the quantity of its food, ten suffer from the quality.

This is the principal evil, and claims our strictest attention.

Many people imagine, that the food which they themselves love cannot be

bad for their children: but this notion is very absurd. In the more

advanced periods of life we often acquire an inclination for food, which

when children we could not endure. Besides, there are many things that

by habit may agree very well with the stomach of a grown person, which

would be hurtful to a child; as high-seasoned, salted, and smoke-dried

provisions, &c. It would also be improper to feed children with fat

meat, strong broths, rich soups, or the like.

All strong liquors are hurtful to children. Some parents teach their

children to guzzle ale, and other fermented liquors, at every meal. Such

a practice cannot fail to do mischief. These children seldom escape the

violence of the small-pox, measles, hooping cough, or some inflammatory

disorder. Milk, water, butter-milk, or whey, are the most proper for

children to drink. If they have any thing stronger, it may be fine small

beer, or a little wine mixed with water. The stomachs of children can

digest well enough without the assistance of warm stimulants: besides,

being naturally hot, they are easily hurt by every thing of a heating

quality.

Few things are more hurtful to children than unripe fruits. They weaken

the powers of digestion, and sour and relax the stomach, by which means

it becomes a proper nest for insects. Children indeed shew a great

inclination for fruit, and I am apt to believe, that if good ripe fruit

were allowed them in proper quantity, it would have no bad effects. We

never find a natural inclination wrong, if properly regulated. Fruits

are generally of a cooling nature, and correct the heat and acrimony of

the humours. This is what most children require; only care should be

taken lest they exceed. Indeed the best way to prevent children from

going to excess in the use of fruit, or eating that which is bad, is to

allow them a proper quantity of what is good[12].

Roots which contain a crude viscid juice should be sparingly given to

children. They fill the body with gross humours, and tend to produce

eruptive diseases. This caution is peculiarly necessary for the poor;

glad to obtain at a small price what will fill the bellies of their

children, they stuff them two or three times a day with greasy potatoes,

or other crude vegetables. Children had better eat a smaller quantity of

food which yields a wholesome nourishment, than be crammed with what

their digestive powers are unable properly to assimilate.

Butter ought likewise to be sparingly given to children. It both relaxes

the stomach, and produces gross humours. Indeed, most things that are

fat or oily, have this effect. Butter, when salted, becomes still more

hurtful. Instead of butter, so liberally given to children in most parts

of Britain, we would recommend honey. Honey is not only wholesome, but

cooling, cleansing, and tends to sweeten the humours. Children who eat

honey are seldom troubled with worms: they are also less subject to

cutaneous diseases, as itch, scabbed head, &c.

Many people err in thinking that the diet of children ought to be

altogether moist. When children live entirely upon slops, it relaxes

their solids, renders them weak, and disposes them to the rickets, the

scrophula, and other glandular disorders. Relaxation is one of the most

general causes of the diseases of children. Every thing therefore which

tends to unbrace their solids, ought to be carefully avoided.

We would not be understood by these observations as confining children

to any particular kind of food. Their diet may be frequently varied,

provided always that sufficient regard be had to simplicity.

_Of the Exercise of Children._

Of all the causes which conspire to render the life of man short and

miserable, none has greater influence than the want of proper EXERCISE:

healthy parents, wholesome food, and proper clothing, will avail little,

where exercise is neglected. Sufficient exercise will make up for

several defects in nursing; but nothing can supply the want of it. It is

absolutely necessary to the health, the growth, and the strength of

children.

The desire of exercise is coëval with life itself. Were this principle

attended to, many diseases might be prevented. But, while indolence and

sedentary employments prevent two-thirds of mankind from either taking

sufficient exercise themselves, or giving it to their children, what

have we to expect but diseases and deformity among their offspring? The

rickets, so destructive to children, never appeared in Britain till

manufactures began to flourish, and people, attracted by the love of

gain, left the country to follow sedentary employments in great towns.

It is amongst these people that this disease chiefly prevails, and not

only deforms, but kills many of their offspring.

The conduct of other young animals shews the propriety of giving

exercise to children. Every other animal makes use of its organs of

motion as soon as it can, and many of them, even when under no necessity

of moving in quest of food, cannot be restrained without force. This is

evidently the case with the calf, the lamb, and most other young

animals. If these creatures were not permitted to frisk about and take

exercise, they would soon die or become diseased. The same inclination

appears very early in the human species; but as they are not able to

take exercise themselves, it is the business of their parents and nurses

to assist them.

Children may be exercised various ways. The best method, while they are

light, is to carry them about in the nurse’s arms[13]. This gives the

nurse an opportunity of talking to the child, and of pointing out every

thing that may please and delight its fancy. Besides, it is much safer

than swinging an infant in a machine, or leaving it to the care of such

as are not fit to take care of themselves. Nothing can be more absurd

than to set one child to keep another: this conduct has proved fatal to

many infants, and has rendered others miserable for life.

When children begin to walk, the safest and best method of leading them

about, is by the hands. The common way, of swinging them in

leading-strings fixed to their backs, has several bad consequences. It

makes them throw their bodies forward, and press with their whole weight

upon the stomach and breast; by this means the breathing is obstructed,

the breast flattened, and the bowels compressed; which must hurt the

digestion, and occasion consumptions of the lungs, and other diseases.

It is a common notion, that if children are set upon their feet too

soon, their legs will become crooked. There is reason to believe, that

the very reverse of this is true. Every member acquires strength in

proportion as it is exercised. The limbs of children are weak indeed,

but their bodies are proportionally light; and had they skill to direct

themselves, they would soon be able to support their own weight. Who

ever heard of any other animal that became crooked by using its legs too

soon? Indeed, if a child is not permitted to make any use of its legs

till a considerable time after the birth, and be then set upon them with

its whole weight at once, there may be some danger; but this proceeds

entirely from the child’s not having been accustomed to use its legs

from the beginning.

Mothers of the poorer sort think they are great gainers by making their

children lie or sit while they themselves work. In this they are greatly

mistaken. By neglecting to give their children exercise, they are

obliged to keep them a long time before they can do any thing for

themselves, and to spend more on medicine than would have paid for

proper care.

To take care of their children, is the most useful business in which

even the poor can be employed: but, alas! it is not always in their

power. Poverty often obliges them to neglect their offspring, in order

to procure the necessaries of life. When this is the case, it becomes

the interest as well as the duty of the public to assist them. Ten

thousand times more benefit would accrue to the State, by enabling the

poor to bring up their own children, than from all the hospitals[14]

that ever can be erected for that purpose.

Whoever considers the structure of the human body will soon be convinced

of the necessity of exercise for the health of children. The body is

composed of an infinite number of tubes, whose fluids cannot be pushed

on without the action and pressure of the muscles. But, if the fluids

remain inactive, obstructions must happen, and the humours will of

course be vitiated, which cannot fail to occasion diseases. Nature has

furnished both the vessels which carry the blood and lymph with numerous

valves, in order that the action of every muscle might push forward

their contents; but without action, this admirable contrivance can have

no effect. This part of the animal œconomy proves to a demonstration the

necessity of exercise for the preservation of health.

Arguments to shew the importance of exercise might be drawn from every

part of the animal œconomy; without exercise, the circulation of the

blood cannot be properly carried on, nor the different secretions duly

performed; without exercise, the fluids cannot be properly prepared, nor

the solids rendered strong or firm. The action of the heart, the motion

of the lungs, and all the vital functions, are greatly assisted by

exercise. But to point out the manner in which these effects are

produced, would lead us farther into the œconomy of the human body, than

most of those for whom this treatise is intended would be able to

follow. We shall therefore only add, that, where exercise is neglected,

none of the animal functions can be duly performed; and when that is the

case, the whole constitution must go to wreck.

A good constitution ought certainly to be our first object in the

management of children. It lays a foundation for their being useful and

happy in life; and whoever neglects it, not only fails in his duty to

his offspring, but to society.

One very common error of parents, by which they hurt the constitutions

of their children, is the sending them too young to school. This is

often done solely to prevent trouble. When the child is at school, he

needs no keeper. Thus the schoolmaster is made the nurse; and the poor

child is fixed to a seat seven or eight hours a day, which time ought to

be spent in exercise and diversions. Sitting so long cannot fail to

produce the worst effects upon the body; nor is the mind less injured.

Early application weakens the faculties, and often fixes in the mind an

aversion to books, which continues for life[15].

But, suppose this were the way to make children scholars, it certainly

ought not to be done at the expence of their constitutions. Our

ancestors, who seldom went to school very young, were not less learned

than we. But we imagine the boy’s education will be quite marred, unless

he be carried to school in his nurse’s arms. No wonder if such hotbed

plants seldom become either scholars or men!

Not only the confinement of children in public schools, but their

number, often proves hurtful. Children are much injured by being kept in

crowds within doors; their breathing not only renders the place

unwholesome, but if any one of them happens to be diseased, the rest

catch the infection. A single child has been often known to communicate

the bloody flux, the hooping-cough, the itch, or other diseases, to

almost every individual in a numerous school.

But, if fashion must prevail, and infants are to be sent to school, we

would recommend it to teachers, as they value the interests of society,

not to confine them too long at a time, but allow them to run about and

play at such active diversions as may promote their growth, and

strengthen their constitutions. Were boys, instead of being whipped for

stealing an hour to run, ride, swim, or the like, encouraged to employ a

proper part of their time in these manly and useful exercises, it would

have many excellent effects.

It would be of great service to boys, if, at a proper age, they were

taught the military exercise. This would increase their strength,

inspire them with courage, and when their country called for their

assistance, would enable them to act in her defence, without being

obliged to undergo a tedious and troublesome course of instructions, at

a time when they are less fit to learn new motions, gestures, &c.[16]

An effeminate education will infallibly spoil the best natural

constitution; and if boys are brought up in a more delicate manner than

even girls ought to be, they never will be men.

Nor is the common education of girls less hurtful to the constitution

than that of boys. Miss is set down to her frame before she can put on

her clothes; and is taught to believe, that to excel at the needle is

the only thing that can entitle her to general esteem. It is unnecessary

here to insist upon the dangerous consequences of obliging girls to sit

too much. They are pretty well known, and are too often felt at a

certain time of life. But supposing this critical period to be got over,

greater dangers still await them when they come to be mothers. Women who

have been early accustomed to a sedentary life, generally run great

hazard in child-bed; while those who have been used to romp about, and

take sufficient exercise, are seldom in any danger.

One hardly meets with a girl who can at the same time boast of early

performances by the needle, and a good constitution. Close and early

confinement generally occasions indigestions, head-achs, pale

complexions, pain of the stomach, loss of appetite, coughs, consumptions

of the lungs, and deformity of body. The last of these indeed is not to

be wondered at, considering the awkward postures in which girls sit at

many kinds of needle-work, and the delicate flexible state of their

bodies in the early periods of life.

Would mothers, instead of having their daughters instructed in many

trifling accomplishments, employ them in plain work and housewifery, and

allow them sufficient exercise in the open air, they would both make

them more healthy mothers, and more useful members of society. I am no

enemy to genteel accomplishments, but would have them only considered as

secondary, and always disregarded when they impair health.

Many people imagine it a great advantage for children to be early taught

to earn their bread. This opinion is certainly right, provided they were

so employed as not to hurt their health or growth; but, when these

suffer, society, instead of being benefited, is a real loser by their

labour. There are few employments, except sedentary ones, by which

children can earn a livelihood; and if they be set to these too soon, it

ruins their constitutions. Thus, by gaining a few years from childhood,

we generally lose twice as many in the latter period of life, and even

render the person less useful while he does live.

In order to be satisfied of the truth of this observation, we need only

look into the great manufacturing towns, where we shall find a puny

degenerate race of people, weak and sickly all their lives, seldom

exceeding the middle period of life; or if they do, being unfit for

business, they become a burden to society. Thus arts and manufactures,

though they may increase the riches of a country, are by no means

favourable to the health of its inhabitants. Good policy would therefore

require, that such people as labour during life, should not be set too

early to work. Every person conversant in the breed of horses, or other

working animals, knows, that if they be set to hard labour too soon,

they never will turn out to advantage. This is equally true with respect

to the human species.

There are nevertheless various ways of employing young people without

hurting their health. The easier parts of gardening, husbandry, or any

business carried on without doors, are most proper. These are

employments which most young people are fond of, and some parts of them

may always be adapted to their age, taste, and strength[17].

Such parents, however, as are under the necessity of employing their

children within doors, ought to allow them sufficient time for active

diversions without. This would both encourage them to do more work, and

prevent their constitutions from being hurt.

Some imagine, that exercise within doors is sufficient; but they are

greatly mistaken. One hour spent in running, or any other exercise

without doors, is worth ten within. When children cannot go abroad, they

may indeed be exercised at home. The best method of doing this, is to

make them run about in a long room, or dance. This last kind of

exercise, if not carried to excess, is of excellent service to young

people. It cheers the spirits, promotes perspiration, strengthens the

limbs, &c. I know an eminent physician who used to say, that he made his

children dance, instead of giving them physic. It were well if more

people followed his example.

The COLD BATH may be considered as an aid to exercise. By it the body is

braced and strengthened, the circulation and secretions promoted, and,

were it conducted with prudence, many diseases, as the rickets,

scrophula, &c. might thereby be prevented. The ancients, who took every

method to render children hardy and robust, were no strangers to the use

of the cold bath; and, if we may credit report, the practice of

immersing children daily in cold water must have been very common among

our ancestors.

The greatest objection to the use of the cold bath arises from the

superstitious prejudices of nurses. These are often so strong, that it

is impossible to bring them to make a proper use of it. I have known

some of them who would not dry a child’s skin after bathing it, lest it

should destroy the effect of the water. Others will even put cloths dipt

in the water upon the child, and either put it to bed, or suffer it to

go about in that condition. Some believe, that the whole virtue of the

water depends upon its being dedicated to a particular saint: while

others place their confidence in a certain number of dips, as three,

seven, nine, or the like; and the world could not persuade them, if

these do not succeed, to try it a little longer. Thus, by the whims of

nurses, children lose the benefit of the cold bath, and the hopes of the

physician from that medicine are often frustrated.

We ought not, however, entirely to set aside the cold bath, because some

nurses make a wrong use of it. Every child, when in health, should at

least have its extremities daily washed in cold water. This is a partial

use of the cold bath, and is better than none. In winter this may

suffice; but, in the warm season, if a child be relaxed, or seem to have

a tendency to the rickets or scrophula, its whole body ought to be

frequently immersed in cold water. Care however must be taken not to do

this when the body is hot, or the stomach full. The child should be dipt

only once at a time, should be taken out immediately, and have its skin

well rubbed with a dry cloth.

_The bad Effects of unwholesome Air upon Children._

Few things prove more destructive to children than confined or

unwholesome air. This is one reason why so few of those infants, who are

put into hospitals, or parish workhouses, live. These places are

generally crowded with old, sickly, and infirm people; by which means

the air is rendered so extremely pernicious, that it becomes a poison to

infants.

Want of wholesome air is likewise destructive to many of the children

born in great towns. There the poorer sort of inhabitants live in low,

dirty, confined houses, to which the fresh air has hardly any access.

Though grown people, who are hardy and robust, may live in such

situations, yet they generally prove fatal to their offspring, few of

whom arrive at maturity, and those who do are weak and deformed. As such

people are not in a condition to carry their children abroad into the

open air, we must lay our account with losing the greater part of them.

But the rich have not this excuse. It is their business to see that

their children be daily carried abroad, and that they be kept in the

open air for a sufficient time. This will always succeed better if the

mother goes along with them. Servants are often negligent in these

matters, and allow a child to sit or lie on the damp ground, instead of

leading or carrying it about. The mother surely needs air as well as her

children; and how can she be better employed than in attending them?

A very bad custom prevails, of making children sleep in small

apartments, or crowding two or three beds into one chamber. Instead of

this, the nursery ought always to be the largest and best aired room in

the house. When children are confined in small apartments, the air not

only becomes unwholesome, but the heat relaxes their solids, renders

them delicate, and disposes them to colds and many other disorders. Nor

is the custom of wrapping them up too close in cradles less pernicious.

One would think that nurses were afraid lest children should suffer by

breathing free air, as many of them actually cover the child’s face

while asleep, and others wrap a covering over the whole cradle, by which

means the child is forced to breathe the same air over and over all the

time it sleeps. Cradles indeed are on many accounts hurtful to children,

and it would be better if the use of them were totally laid aside[18].

A child is generally laid to sleep with all its clothes on; and if a

number of others are heaped above them, it must be overheated; by which

means it cannot fail to catch cold on being taken out of the cradle, and

exposed to the open air with only its usual clothing, which is too

frequently the case.

Children who are kept within doors all day, and sleep all night in warm

close apartments, may, with great propriety, be compared to plants,

nursed in a hot-house, instead of the open air. Though such plants may

by this means be kept alive for some time, they will never arrive at

that degree of strength, vigour, and magnitude, which they would have

acquired in the open air, nor would they be able to bear it afterwards,

should they be exposed to it.

Children brought up in the country, who have been accustomed to open

air, should not be too early sent to great towns, where it is confined

and unwholesome. This is frequently done with a view to forward their

education, but proves very hurtful to their health. All schools and

seminaries of learning ought, if possible, to be so situated as to have

fresh, dry, wholesome air, and should never be too much crowded.

Without entering into a detail of the particular advantages of wholesome

air to children, or of the bad consequences which proceed from the want

of it, I shall only observe, that, of several thousands of children

which have been under my care, I do not remember one instance of a

single child who continued healthy in a close confined situation; but

have often known the most obstinate diseases cured by removing them from

such a situation to an open free air.

_Of Nurses._

It is not here intended to lay down rules for the choice of nurses. This

would be wasting time. Common sense will direct every one to chuse a

woman who is healthy, and has plenty of milk[19]. If she be at the same

time cleanly, careful, and goodnatured, she can hardly fail to make a

proper nurse. After all, however, the only certain proof of a good

nurse, is a healthy child upon her breast. But, as the misconduct of

nurses often proves fatal to children, it will be of importance to point

out a few of their most baneful errors, in order to rouse the attention

of parents, and to make them look more strictly into the conduct of

those to whom they commit the care of their infant offspring.

Though it admits of some exceptions, yet we may lay it down as a general

rule, _that every woman who nurses for hire should be carefully looked

after, otherwise she will not do her duty_. For this reason parents

ought always to have their children nursed under their own eye, if

possible; and where this cannot be done, they should be extremely

circumspect in the choice of those persons to whom they entrust them. It

is folly to imagine that any woman, who abandons her own child to suckle

another for the sake of gain, should feel all the affections of a parent

towards her nursing; yet so necessary are these affections in a nurse,

that, but for them, the human race would soon be extinct.

One of the most common faults of those who nurse for hire, is to dose

children with stupefactives, or such things as lull them asleep. An

indolent nurse, who does not give a child sufficient exercise in the

open air to make it sleep, and does not chuse to be disturbed by it in

the night, will seldom fail to procure for it a dose of laudanum,

diacodium, saffron, or what answers the same purpose, a dose of spirits,

or other strong liquors. These, though they be certain poison to

infants, are every day administered by many who bear the character of

very good nurses[20].

A nurse who has not milk enough is apt to imagine that this defect may

be supplied by giving the child wines, cordial waters, or other strong

liquors. This is an egregious mistake. The only thing that has any

chance to supply the place of the nurse’s milk, must be somewhat nearly

of the same quality, as cow’s milk, ass’s milk, or beef tea, with good

bread. It never can be done by the help of strong liquors. These,

instead of nourishing an infant, never fail to produce the contrary

effect.

Children are often hurt by nurses suffering them to cry long and

vehemently. This strains their tender bodies, and frequently occasions

ruptures, inflammations of the throat, lungs, &c. A child never

continues to cry long without some cause, which might always be

discovered by proper attention; and the nurse who can hear an infant cry

till it has almost spent itself, without endeavouring to please it, must

be cruel indeed, and is unworthy to be intrusted with the care of an

human creature.

Nurses who deal much in medicine are always to be suspected. They trust

to it, and neglect their duty. I never knew a good nurse who had her

Godfrey’s cordials, Daffy’s elixirs, &c. at hand. Such generally

imagine, that a dose of medicine will make up for all defects in food,

air, exercise, and cleanliness. By errors of this kind, I will venture

to say, that one half the children who die annually in London lose their

lives.

Allowing children to continue long wet, is another very pernicious

custom of indolent nurses. This is not only disagreeable, but it galls

and frets the infant, and by relaxing the solids, occasions scrophulas,

rickets, and other diseases. A dirty nurse is always to be suspected.

Nature often attempts to free the bodies of children from bad humours,

by throwing them upon the skin: by this means fevers and other diseases

are prevented. Nurses are apt to mistake such critical eruptions for an

itch, or some other infectious disorder. Accordingly they take every

method to drive them in. In this way many children lose their lives; and

no wonder, as Nature is opposed in the very method she takes to relieve

them. It ought to be a rule, which every nurse should observe, never to

stop any eruption without proper advice, or being well assured that it

is not of a critical nature. At any rate, it is never to be done without

previous evacuations.

Loose stools is another method by which Nature often prevents or carries

off the diseases of infants. If these proceed too far, no doubt they

ought to be checked; but this is never to be done without the greatest

caution. Nurses, upon the first appearance of loose stools, frequently

fly to the use of astringents, or such things as bind the body. Hence

inflammatory fevers, and other fatal diseases, are occasioned. A dose of

rhubarb, a gentle vomit, or some other evacuation, should always precede

the use of astringent medicines.

One of the greatest faults of nurses is, concealing the diseases of

children from their parents. This they are extremely ready to do,

especially when the disease is the effect of their own negligence. Many

instances might be given of persons who have been rendered lame for life

by a fall from their nurse’s arms, which she, through fear, concealed

till the misfortune was past cure. Every parent who intrusts a nurse

with the care of a child, ought to give her the strictest charge not to

conceal the most trifling disorder or misfortune that may befal it.

We can see no reason why a nurse, who conceals any misfortune which

happens to a child under her care, till it loses its life or limbs,

should not be punished. A few examples of this would save the lives of

many infants; but as there is little reason to expect that it ever will

be the case, we would earnestly recommend it to all parents to look

carefully after their children, and not to trust so valuable a treasure

entirely in the hands of an hireling.

No person ought to imagine these things unworthy of his attention. On

the proper management of children depend not only their health and

usefulness in life, but likewise the safety and prosperity of the state

to which they belong. Effeminacy ever will prove the ruin of any state

where it prevails; and, when its foundations are laid in infancy, it can

never afterwards be wholly eradicated. Parents who love their offspring,

and wish well to their country, ought therefore, in the management of

their children, to avoid every thing that may have a tendency to make

them weak or effeminate, and to take every method in their power to

render their constitutions strong and hardy.

——By arts like these

Laconia nurs’d of old her hardy sons;

And Rome’s unconquer’d legions urg’d their way,

Unhurt, thro’ every toil in every clime[21].

CHAP. II.

OF THE LABORIOUS, THE SEDENTARY, AND THE STUDIOUS.

That men are exposed to particular diseases from the occupations which

they follow, is a fact well known; but to remedy this evil is a matter

of some difficulty. Most people are under the necessity of following

those employments to which they have been bred, whether they be

favourable to health or not. For this reason, instead of inveighing, in

a general way, as some authors have done, against those occupations

which are hurtful to health, we shall endeavour to point out the

circumstances in each of them from which the danger chiefly arises, and

to propose the most rational methods of preventing it.

Chymists, founders, forgers, glass-makers, and several other artists,

are hurt by the unwholesome air which they are obliged to breathe. This

air is not only loaded with the noxious exhalations arising from metals

and minerals, but is so charged with phlogiston as to be rendered unfit

for expanding the lungs sufficiently, and answering the other important

purposes of respiration. Hence proceed asthmas, coughs, and consumptions

of the lungs, so incident to persons who follow these employments.

To prevent such consequences, as far as possible, the places where these

occupations are carried on, ought to be constructed in such a manner as

to discharge the smoke and other exhalations, and admit a free current

of fresh air. Such artists ought never to continue too long at work; and

when they give over, they should suffer themselves to cool gradually,

and put on their clothes before they go into the open air. They ought

never to drink large quantities of cold, weak, or watery liquors, while

their bodies are hot, nor to indulge in raw fruits, sallads, or any

thing that is cold on the stomach[22].

Miners, and all who work under ground, are likewise hurt by unwholesome

air. The air, by its stagnation in deep mines, not only loses its proper

spring and other qualities necessary for respiration, but is often

loaded with such noxious exhalations as to become a most deadly poison.

The two kinds of air which prove most destructive to miners, are what

they call the _fire damp_, and the _choke damp_. In both cases the air

becomes a poison, by its being loaded with phlogiston. The danger from

the former may be obviated by making it explode before it accumulates in

too great quantities; and the latter may be generally carried off by

promoting a free circulation of air in the mine.

Miners are not only hurt by unwholesome air, but likewise by the

particles of metal which adhere to their skin, clothes, &c. These are

absorbed, or taken up into the body, and occasion palsies, vertigoes,

and other nervous affections, which often prove fatal. Fallopius

observes, that those who work in mines of mercury seldom live above

three or four years. Lead, and several other metals, are likewise very

pernicious to the health.

Miners ought never to go to work fasting, nor to continue too long at

work. Their food ought to be nourishing, and their liquor generous:

nothing more certainly hurts them than living too low. They should by

all means avoid costiveness. This may either be done by chewing a little

rhubarb, or taking a sufficient quantity of sallad oil. Oil not only

opens the body, but sheaths and defends the intestines from the ill

effects of the metals. All who work in mines or metals ought to wash

carefully, and to change their clothes as soon as they give over

working. Nothing would tend more to preserve the health of such people

than a strict, and almost religious regard to cleanliness.

Plumbers, painters, gilders, smelters, makers of white lead, and many

others who work in metals, are liable to the same diseases as miners,

and ought to observe the same directions for avoiding them.

Tallow-chandlers, boilers of oil, and all who work in putrid animal

substances, are likewise liable to suffer from the unwholesome smells or

effluvia of these bodies. They ought to pay the same regard to

cleanliness as miners; and when they are affected with nausea, sickness,

or indigestion, we would advise them to take a vomit or a gentle purge.

Such substances ought always to be manufactured as soon as possible.

When long kept, they not only become unwholesome to those who

manufacture them, but likewise to people who live in the neighbourhood.

It would greatly exceed the limits of this part of our subject, to

specify the diseases peculiar to persons of every occupation; we shall

therefore consider mankind under the general classes of _Laborious_,

_Sedentary_, and _Studious_.

THE LABORIOUS.

Though those who follow laborious employments are in general the most

healthy of mankind, yet the nature of their occupations, and the places

where they are carried on, expose them more particularly to some

diseases. Husbandmen, for example, are exposed to all the vicissitudes

of the weather, which, in this country, are often very great and sudden,

and occasion colds, coughs, quinsies, rheumatisms, fevers, and other

acute disorders. They are likewise forced to work hard, and often to

carry burdens above their strength, which, by overstraining the vessels,

occasion asthmas, ruptures, pleurisies, &c.

Those who labour without doors are often afflicted with intermitting

fevers or agues, occasioned by the frequent vicissitudes of heat and

cold, poor living, bad water, sitting or lying on the damp ground,

evening dews, night air, &c. to which they are frequently exposed.

Such as bear heavy burdens, as porters, labourers, &c. are obliged to

draw in the air with much greater force, and also to keep their lungs

distended with more violence than is necessary for common respiration:

by this means the tender vessels of the lungs are overstretched, and

often burst, insomuch that a spitting of blood or fever ensues.

Hippocrates mentions an instance to this purpose, of a man, who, upon a

wager, carried an ass; but was soon after seized with a fever, a

vomiting of blood, and a rupture.

Carrying heavy burdens is generally the effect of mere laziness, which

prompts people to do at once what should be done at twice. Sometimes it

proceeds from vanity or emulation. Hence it is, that the strongest men

are most commonly hurt by heavy burdens, hard labour, or feats of

activity. It is rare to find one who boasts of his strength without a

rupture, a spitting of blood, or some other disease, which he reaps as

the fruit of his folly. One would imagine, the daily instances we have,

of the fatal effects of carrying great weights, running, wrestling, and

the like, would be sufficient to prevent such practices.

There are indeed some employments which necessarily require a great

exertion of strength, as porters, blacksmiths, carpenters, &c. None

ought to follow these but men of strong body; and they should never

exert their strength to the utmost, nor work too long. When the muscles

are violently strained, frequent rest is necessary, in order that they

may recover their tone; without this, the strength and constitution will

soon be worn out, and a premature old age be induced.

The erysipelas, or St. Anthony’s fire, is a disease very incident to the

laborious. It is occasioned by whatever gives a sudden check to the

perspiration, as drinking cold water when the body is warm, wet feet,

keeping on wet clothes, sitting or lying on the damp ground, &c. It is

impossible for those who labour without doors always to guard against

these inconveniences; but it is known from experience, that their ill

consequences might often be prevented by proper care.

The iliac passion, the cholic, and other complaints of the bowels, are

often occasioned by the same causes as the erysipelas; but they may

likewise proceed from flatulent and indigestible food. Labourers

generally eat unfermented bread, made of peas, beans, rye, and other

windy ingredients. They also devour great quantities of unripe fruits,

baked, stewed, or raw, with various kinds of roots and herbs, upon which

they often drink sour milk, stale small beer, or the like. Such a

mixture cannot fail to fill the bowels with wind, and occasion diseases

of those parts.

Inflammations, whitloes, and other diseases of the extremities, are

likewise common among those who labour without doors. These diseases are

often attributed to venom, or some kind of poison; but they generally

proceed either from sudden heat after cold, or the contrary. When

labourers, milk-maids, &c. come from the field, cold or wet, they run to

the fire, and often plunge their hands in warm water, by which means the

blood and other humours in those parts are suddenly expanded, and, the

vessels not yielding so quickly, a strangulation happens, and an

inflammation or a mortification ensues.

When such persons come home cold, they ought to keep at a distance from

the fire for some time, to wash their hands in cold water, and to rub

them well with a dry cloth. It sometimes happens, that people are so

benumbed with cold, as to be quite deprived of the use of their limbs.

In this case, the only remedy is to rub the parts affected with snow,

or, where it cannot be had, with cold water. If they be held near the

fire, or plunged into warm water, a mortification will generally ensue.

Labourers in the hot season are apt to lie down, and sleep in the sun.

This practice is so dangerous, that they often wake in a burning fever.

These ardent fevers, which prove so fatal about the end of summer and

beginning of autumn, are frequently occasioned by this means. When

labourers leave off work, which they ought always to do during the heat

of the day, they should go home, or, at least, get under some cover,

where they may repose themselves in safety.

Many people follow their employments in the fields from morning till

night, without eating any thing. This cannot fail to hurt their health.

However homely their fare be, they ought to have it at regular times;

and the harder they work, the more frequently they should eat. If the

humours be not frequently replenished with fresh nourishment, they soon

become putrid, and produce fevers of the very worst kind.

Many peasants are extremely careless with respect to what they eat or

drink, and often, through mere indolence, use unwholesome food, when

they might for the same expence have that which is wholesome. In some

parts of Britain, the peasants are too careless even to take the trouble

of dressing their own victuals. Such people would live upon one meal a

day in indolence, rather than labour, though it were to procure them the

greatest affluence.

Fevers of a very bad kind are often occasioned among labourers by _poor

living_. When the body is not sufficiently nourished, the humours become

vitiated, and the solids weak; from whence the most fatal consequences

ensue. _Poor living_ is likewise productive of many of those cutaneous

diseases so frequent among the lower class of people. It is remarkable

that cattle, when pinched in their food, are generally affected with

diseases of the skin, which seldom fail to disappear, when they are put

upon a good pasture. This shews how much a good state of the humours

depends upon a sufficient quantity of proper nourishment.

Poverty not only occasions, but aggravates, many of the diseases of the

laborious. Few of them have much foresight; and, if they had, it is

seldom in their power to save any thing. They are glad to make a shift

to live from day to day; and, when any disease overtakes them, they are

miserable indeed. Here the godlike virtue of charity ought always to

exert itself. To relieve the industrious poor in distress, is surely the

most exalted act of religion and humanity. They alone, who are witnesses

of those scenes of calamity, can form a notion of what numbers perish in

diseases, for want of proper assistance, and even for want of the

necessaries of life.

Labourers are often hurt by a foolish emulation, which prompts them to

vie with one another, till they overheat themselves to such a degree as

to occasion a fever, or even to drop down dead. Such as wantonly throw

away their lives in this manner, deserve to be looked upon in no better

light than self-murderers.

The office of a _soldier_, in time of war, may be ranked among the

laborious employments. Soldiers suffer many hardships from the

inclemency of seasons, long marches, bad provisions, hunger, watching,

unwholesome climates, bad water, &c. These occasion fevers, fluxes,

rheumatisms, and other fatal diseases, which generally do greater

execution than the sword, especially when campaigns are continued too

late in the season. A few weeks of cold rainy weather will often prove

more fatal than an engagement.

Those who have the command of armies should take care that their

soldiers be well clothed and well fed. They ought also to finish their

campaigns in due season, and to provide their men with dry and

well-aired winter quarters. These rules, taking care, at the same time,

to keep the sick at a proper distance from those in health, would tend

greatly to preserve the lives of the soldiery[23].

Sailors may also be numbered among the laborious. They undergo great

hardships from change of climate, the violence of weather, hard labour,

bad provisions, &c. Sailors are of so great importance both to the trade

and safety of this kingdom, that too much pains can never be bestowed in

pointing out the means of preserving their lives.

One great source of the diseases of sea-faring people is excess. When

they get on shore, after having been long at sea, without regard to the

climate, or their own constitutions, they plunge headlong into all

manner of riot, and often persist till a fever puts an end to their

lives. Thus intemperance, and not the climate, is often the cause why so

many of our brave sailors die on foreign coasts. Such people ought not

to live too low; but they will find moderation the best defence against

fevers, and many other maladies.

Sailors, when on duty, cannot avoid sometimes getting wet. When this

happens, they should change their clothes as soon as they are relieved,

and take every method to restore the perspiration. They should not, in

this case, make too free with spirits or other strong liquors, but

should rather drink them diluted with warm water, and go immediately to

bed, where a sound sleep and a gentle sweat would set all to rights.

But the health of sailors suffers most from unwholesome food. The

constant use of salted provisions vitiates their humours, and occasions

the scurvy, and other obstinate maladies. It is no easy matter to

prevent this disease in long voyages; yet we cannot help thinking, that

much might be done towards effecting so desirable an end, were due pains

bestowed for that purpose. For example, various roots, greens, and

fruits, might be kept a long time at sea, as onions, potatoes, cabbages,

lemons, oranges, tamarinds, apples, &c. When fruits cannot be kept, the

juices of them, either fresh or fermented, may. With these all the

drink, and even the food of the ship’s company, ought to be acidulated

in long voyages.

Stale bread and beer likewise contribute to vitiate the humours. Flour

will keep for a long time on board, of which fresh bread might

frequently be made. Malt too might be kept, and infused with boiling

water at any time. This liquor, when drank even in form of wort, is very

wholesome, and is found to be an antidote against the scurvy. Small

wines and cyder might likewise be plentifully laid in; and should they

turn sour, they would still be useful as vinegar. Vinegar is a great

antidote against diseases, and should be used by all travellers,

especially at sea. It may either be mixed with the water they drink, or

taken in their food.

Such animals as can be kept alive, ought likewise to be carried on

board, as hens, ducks, pigs, &c. Fresh broths made of portable soup, and

puddings made of peas, or other vegetables, ought to be used

plentifully. Many other things will readily occur to people conversant

in these matters, which would tend to preserve the health of that brave

and useful set of men[24].

We have reason to believe, if due attention were paid to the diet, air,

clothing, and above all things to the cleanliness of sea-faring people,

they would be the most healthy set of men in the world; but when these

are neglected, the very reverse will happen.

The best _medical antidote_ that we can recommend to sailors or

soldiers, on foreign coasts, especially where dampness prevails, is the

Peruvian bark. This will often prevent fevers, and other fatal diseases.

About a drachm of it may be chewed every day; or if this should prove

disagreeable, an ounce of bark, with half an ounce of orange peel, and

two drachms of snake-root coarsely powdered, may be infused for two or

three days in an English quart of brandy, and half a wine glass of it

taken twice or thrice a-day, when the stomach is empty. This has been

found to be an excellent antidote against fluxes, putrid, intermitting,

and other fevers, in unhealthy climates. It is not material in what form

this medicine is taken. It may either be infused in water, wine, or

spirits, as recommended above, or made into an electuary with syrup of

lemons, oranges, or the like.

THE SEDENTARY.

Though nothing can be more contrary to the nature of man than a

sedentary life, yet this class comprehends by far the greater part of

the species. Almost the whole female world, and in manufacturing

countries, the major part of the males, may be reckoned sedentary[25].

Agriculture, the first and most healthful of all employments, is now

followed by few who are able to carry on any other business. But those

who imagine that the culture of the earth is not sufficient to employ

all its inhabitants are greatly mistaken. An ancient Roman, we are told,

could maintain his family from the produce of one acre of ground. So

might a modern Briton, if he would be contented to live like a Roman.

This shews what an immense increase of inhabitants Britain might admit

of, and all of them live by the culture of the ground.

Agriculture is the great source of domestic riches. Where it is

neglected, whatever wealth may be imported from abroad, poverty and

misery will abound at home. Such is, and ever will be, the fluctuating

state of trade and manufactures, that thousands of people may be in full

employment to-day, and in beggary to-morrow. This can never happen to

those who cultivate the ground. They can eat the fruit of their labour,

and can always by industry obtain, at least, the necessaries of life.

Though sedentary employments are necessary, yet there seems to be no

reason why any person should be confined for life to these alone. Were

such employments intermixed with the more active and laborious, they

would never do hurt. It is constant confinement that ruins the health. A

man may not be hurt by sitting five or six hours a-day; but if he is

obliged to sit ten or twelve, he will soon become diseased.

But it is not want of exercise alone which hurts sedentary people; they

likewise suffer from the confined air which they breathe. It is very

common to see ten or a dozen taylors[26], or staymakers, for example,

crowded into one small apartment, where there is hardly room for one

person to breathe freely. In this situation they generally continue for

many hours at a time, often with the addition of several candles, which

tend likewise to waste the air, and render it less fit for respiration.

Air that is breathed repeatedly becomes unfit for expanding the lungs.

This is one cause of the phthisical coughs, and other complaints of the

breath, so incident to sedentary artificers.

Even the perspiration from a great number of persons pent up together,

renders the air unwholesome. The danger from this quarter will be

greatly increased, if any one of them happens to have bad lungs, or to

be otherwise diseased. Those who sit near him, being forced to breathe

the same air, can hardly fail to be infected. It would be a rare thing,

however, to find a dozen of sedentary people all in good health. The

danger of crowding them together must therefore be evident to every one.

Many of those who follow sedentary employments are constantly in a

bending posture, as shoemakers, taylors, cutlers, &c. Such a situation

is extremely hurtful. A bending posture obstructs all the vital motions,

and of course must destroy the health. Accordingly we find such

artificers generally complaining of indigestions, flatulencies,

head-achs, pains of the breast, &c.

The aliment in sedentary people, instead of being pushed forwards by an

erect posture, and the action of the muscles, is in a manner confined in

the bowels. Hence indigestions, costiveness, wind, and other

hypochondriacal affections, the constant companions of the sedentary.

Indeed none of the excretions can be duly performed where exercise is

wanting; and when the matter which ought to be discharged in this way is

retained too long in the body, it must have bad effects, as it is again

taken up into the mass of humours.

A bending posture is likewise hurtful to the lungs. When this organ is

compressed, the air cannot have free access into all its parts, so as to

expand them properly. Hence tubercles, adhesions, &c. are formed, which

often end in consumptions. Besides, the proper action of the lungs being

absolutely necessary for making good blood, when that organ fails, the

humours soon become universally depraved, and the whole constitution

goes to wreck.

Sedentary artificers are not only hurt by pressure on the bowels, but

also on the inferior extremities, which obstructs the circulation in

these parts, and renders them weak and feeble. Thus taylors, shoemakers,

&c. frequently lose the use of their legs altogether: besides, the blood

and humours are, by stagnation, vitiated, and the perspiration is

obstructed: from whence proceed the scab, ulcerous sores, foul blotches,

and other cutaneous diseases, so common among sedentary artificers.

A bad figure of body is a very common consequence of close application

to sedentary employments. The spine, for example, by being continually

bent, puts on a crooked shape, and generally remains so ever after. But

a bad figure of body has already been observed to be hurtful to health,

as the vital functions are thereby impeded.

A sedentary life seldom fails to occasion an universal relaxation of the

solids. This is the great source from whence most of the diseases of

sedentary people flow. The scrophula, consumption, hysterics, and

nervous diseases, now so common, were very little known in this country

before sedentary artificers became so numerous: and they are very little

known still among such of our people as follow active employments

without doors, though in great towns at least two-thirds of the

inhabitants are afflicted with them.

It is very difficult to remedy those evils, because many who have been

accustomed to a sedentary life, like rickety children, lose all

inclination for exercise; we shall, however, throw out a few hints with

respect to the most likely means for preserving the health of this

useful set of people, which some of them, we hope, will be wise enough

to take.

It has been already observed, that sedentary artificers are often hurt

by their bending posture. They ought therefore to stand or sit as erect

as the nature of their employments will permit. They should likewise

change their posture frequently, and should never sit too long at a

time, but leave off work, and walk, ride, run, or do any thing that will

promote the vital functions.

Sedentary artificers are generally allowed too little time for exercise;

yet, short as it is, they seldom employ it properly. A journeyman taylor

or weaver, for example, instead of walking abroad for exercise and fresh

air, at his hours of leisure, chuses often to spend them in a

public-house, or in playing at some sedentary game, by which he

generally loses both his time and his money.

The awkward postures in which many sedentary artificers work, seem

rather to be the effect of custom than necessity. For example, a table

might surely be contrived for ten or a dozen taylors to sit round, with

liberty for their legs either to hang down, or rest upon a foot-board,

as they should chuse. A place might likewise be cut out for each person,

in such a manner that he might sit as conveniently for working as in the

present mode of sitting cross-legged.

All sedentary artificers ought to pay the most religious regard to

cleanliness. Both their situation and occupations render this highly

necessary. Nothing would contribute more to preserve their health, than

a strict attention to it; and such of them as neglect it, not only run

the hazard of losing health, but of becoming a nuisance to their

neighbours.

Sedentary people ought to avoid food that is windy, or hard of

digestion, and should pay the strictest regard to sobriety. A person who

works hard without doors will soon throw off a debauch; but one who sits

has by no means an equal chance. Hence it often happens, that sedentary

people are seized with fevers after hard drinking. When such persons

feel their spirits low, instead of running to the tavern for relief,

they should ride, or walk in the fields. This would remove the complaint

more effectually than strong liquor, and would never hurt the

constitution.

Instead of multiplying rules for preserving the health of the sedentary,

we shall recommend to them the following general plan, viz. That every

person who follows a sedentary employment should cultivate a piece of

ground with his own hands. This he might dig, plant, sow, and weed at

leisure hours, so as to make it both an exercise and amusement, while it

produced many of the necessaries of life. After working an hour in a

garden, a man will return with more keenness to his employment within

doors, than if he had been all the while idle.

Labouring the ground is every way conducive to health. It not only gives

exercise to every part of the body, but the very smell of the earth and

fresh herbs revives and cheers the spirits, whilst the perpetual

prospect of something coming to maturity, delights and entertains the

mind. We are so formed as to be always pleased with somewhat in

prospect, however distant or however trivial. Hence the happiness that

most men feel in planting, sowing, building, &c. These seem to have been

the chief employments of the more early ages: and, when kings and

conquerors cultivated the ground, there is reason to believe that they

knew as well wherein true happiness consisted as we do.

It may seem romantic to recommend gardening to manufacturers in great

towns; but observation proves that the plan is very practicable. In the

town of Sheffield, in Yorkshire, where the great iron manufacture is

carried on, there is hardly a journeyman cutler who does not possess a

piece of ground, which he cultivates as a garden. This practice has many

salutary effects. It not only induces these people to take exercise

without doors, but also to eat many greens, roots, &c. of their own

growth, which they would never think of purchasing. There can be no

reason why manufacturers in any other town in Great Britain should not

follow the same plan. It is indeed to be regretted, that in such a place

as London a plan of this kind is not practicable; yet even there

sedentary artificers may find opportunities of taking air and exercise,

if they chuse to embrace them.

Mechanics are too much inclined to crowd into great towns. The situation

may have some advantages; but it has likewise many disadvantages. All

mechanics who live in the country have it in their power to cultivate a

piece of ground; which indeed most of them do. This not only gives them

exercise, but enables them to live more comfortably. So far at least as

my observation extends, mechanics who live in the country are far more

happy than those in great towns. They enjoy better health, live in

greater affluence, and seldom fail to rear a healthy and numerous

offspring.

In a word, exercise without doors, in one shape or another, is

absolutely necessary to health. Those who neglect it, though they may

for a while drag out life, can hardly be said to enjoy it. Weak and

effeminate, they languish for a few years, and soon drop into an

untimely grave.

THE STUDIOUS.

Intense thinking is so destructive to health, that few instances can be

produced of studious persons who are strong and healthy. Hard study

always implies a sedentary life; and when intense thinking is joined to

the want of exercise, the consequences must be bad. We have frequently

known even a few months of close application to study ruin an excellent

constitution, by inducing a train of nervous complaints which could

never be removed. Man is evidently not formed for continual thought more

than for perpetual action, and would be as soon worn out by the one as

by the other.

So great is the power of the mind over the body, that, by its influence,

the whole vital motions may be accelerated or retarded, to almost any

degree. Thus cheerfulness and mirth quicken the circulation, and promote

all the secretions; whereas sadness and profound thought never fail to

retard them. Hence it would appear, that even a degree of

thoughtlessness is necessary to health. Indeed, the perpetual thinker

seldom enjoys either health or spirits; while the person, who can hardly

be said to think at all, generally enjoys both.

Perpetual thinkers, as they are called, seldom think long. In a few

years they generally become quite stupid, and exhibit a melancholy proof

how readily the greatest blessings may be abused. Thinking, like every

thing else, when carried to extreme, becomes a vice: nor can any thing

afford a greater proof of wisdom, than for a man frequently and

reasonably to unbend his mind. This may generally be done by mixing in

cheerful company, active diversions, or the like.

Instead of attempting to investigate the nature of that connection which

subsists between the mind and body, or to inquire into the manner in

which they mutually affect each other, we shall only mention those

diseases to which the learned are more peculiarly liable, and endeavour

to point out the means of avoiding them.

Studious persons are very subject to the gout. This painful disease in a

great measure proceeds from indigestion, and an obstructed perspiration.

It is impossible that the man who sits from morning till night should

either digest his food, or have any of the secretions in due quantity.

But when that matter, which should be thrown off by the skin, is

retained in the body, and the humours are not duly prepared, diseases

must ensue.

The studious are likewise very liable to the stone and gravel. Exercise

greatly promotes both the secretion and discharge of urine; consequently

a sedentary life must have the contrary effect. Any one may be satisfied

of this by observing, that he passes much more urine by day than in the

night, and also when he walks or rides, than when he sits.

The circulation in the liver being flow, obstructions in that organ can

hardly fail to be the consequence of inactivity. Hence sedentary people

are frequently afflicted with schirrous livers. But the proper secretion

and discharge of the bile is so necessary a part of the animal œconomy,

that where these are not duly performed, the health must soon be

impaired. Jaundice, indigestion, loss of appetite, and a wasting of the

whole body, seldom fail to be the consequences of a vitiated state of

the liver, or obstructions of the bile.

Few diseases prove more fatal to the studious than consumptions of the

lungs. It has already been observed, that this organ cannot be duly

expanded in those who do not take proper exercise; and where that is the

case, obstructions and adhesions will ensue. Not only want of exercise,

but the posture in which studious persons generally sit, is very hurtful

to the lungs. Those who read or write much are ready to contract a habit

of bending forwards, and often press with their breast upon a table or

bench. This posture cannot fail to hurt the lungs.

The functions of the heart may likewise by this means be injured. I

remember to have seen a man opened, whose pericardium adhered to the

breast-bone in such a manner as to obstruct the motion of the heart, and

occasion his death. The only probable cause that could be assigned for

this singular symptom was, that the man, whose business was writing,

used constantly to sit in a bending posture, with his breast pressing

upon the edge of a plain table.

No person can enjoy health who does not properly digest his food. But

intense thinking and inactivity never fail to weaken the powers of

digestion. Hence the humours become crude and vitiated, the solids weak

and relaxed, and the whole constitution goes to ruin.

Long and intense thinking often occasions grievous head-achs, which

bring on vertigoes, apoplexies, palsies, and other fatal disorders. The

best way to prevent these is, never to study too long at one time, and

to keep the body regular, either by proper food, or taking frequently a

little of some opening medicine.

Those who read or write much are often afflicted with sore eyes.

Studying by candle-light is peculiarly hurtful to the sight. This ought

to be practised as seldom as possible. When it is unavoidable, the eyes

should be shaded, and the head should not be held too low. When the eyes

are weak or painful, they should be bathed every night and morning in

cold water, to which a little brandy may be added.

It has already been observed, that the excretions are very defective in

the studious. The dropsy is often occasioned by the retention of those

humours which ought to be carried off in this way. Any person may

observe, that sitting makes his legs swell, and that this goes off by

exercise; which clearly points out the method of prevention.

Fevers, especially of the nervous kind, are often the effect of study.

Nothing affects the nerves so much as intense thought. It in a manner

unhinges the whole human frame, and not only hurts the vital motions,

but disorders the mind itself. Hence a delirium, melancholy, and even

madness, are often the effect of close application to study. In fine,

there is no disease which can proceed either from a bad state of the

humours, a defect of the usual secretions, or a debility of the nervous

system, which may not be induced by intense thinking.

But the most afflicting of all the diseases which attack the studious is

the hypochondriac. This disease seldom fails to be the companion of deep

thought. It may rather be called a complication of maladies than a

single one. To what a wretched condition are the best of men often

reduced by it! Their strength and appetite fail; a perpetual gloom hangs

over their minds; they live in the constant dread of death, and are

continually in search of relief from medicine, where, alas! it is not to

be found. Those who labour under this disorder, though they are often

made the subject of ridicule, justly claim our highest sympathy and

compassion.

Hardly any thing can be more preposterous than for a person to make

study his sole business. A mere student is seldom an useful member of

society. He often neglects the most important duties of life, in order

to pursue studies of a very trifling nature. Indeed it rarely happens,

that any useful invention is the effect of mere study. The farther men

dive into profound researches, they generally deviate the more from

common sense, and too often lose sight of it altogether. Profound

speculations, instead of making men wiser or better, generally render

them absolute sceptics, and overwhelm them with doubt and uncertainty.

All that is necessary for man to know, in order to be happy, is easily

obtained; and the rest, like the forbidden fruit, serves only to

increase his misery.

Studious persons, in order to relieve their minds, must not only

discontinue to read and write, but engage in some employment or

diversion, that will so far occupy the thought as to make them forget

the business of the closet. A solitary ride or walk are so far from

relaxing the mind, that they rather encourage thought. Nothing can

divert the mind, when it gets into a train of serious thinking, but

attention to subjects of a more trivial nature. These prove a kind of

play to the mind, and consequently relieve it.

Learned men often contract a contempt for what they call trifling

company. They are ashamed to be seen with any but philosophers. This

however is no proof of their being philosophers themselves. No man

deserves that name who is ashamed to unbend his mind, by associating

with the cheerful and gay. Even the society of children will relieve the

mind, and expel the gloom which application to study is too apt to

occasion.

As studious people are necessarily much within doors, they should make

choice of a large and well-aired place for study. This would not only

prevent the bad effects which attend confined air, but would cheer the

spirits, and have a most happy influence both on the body and mind. It

is said of Euripides the tragedian, that he used to retire to a dark

cave to compose his tragedies, and of Demosthenes the Grecian orator,

that he chose a place for study where nothing could be either heard or

seen. With all deference to such venerable names, we cannot help

condemning their taste. A man may surely think to as good purpose in an

elegant apartment as in a cave; and may have as happy conceptions where

the all-cheering rays of the sun render the air wholesome, as in places

where they never enter.

Those who read or write much should be very attentive to their posture.

They ought to sit and stand by turns, always keeping as nearly in an

erect posture as possible. Those who dictate, may do it walking. It has

an excellent effect frequently to read or speak aloud. This not only

exercises the lungs, but almost the whole body. Hence studious people

are greatly benefited by delivering discourses in public. Public

speakers, indeed, sometimes hurt themselves by overacting their part;

but this is their own fault. The martyr to mere vociferation merits not

our sympathy.

The morning has, by all medical writers, been reckoned the best time for

study. It is so. But it is also the most proper season for exercise,

while the stomach is empty, and the spirits refreshed with sleep.

Studious people should therefore sometimes spend the morning in walking,

riding, or some manly diversions without doors. This would make them

return to study with greater alacrity, and would be of more service than

twice the time after their spirits are worn out with fatigue. It is not

sufficient to take diversion only when we can think no longer. Every

studious person should make it a part of his business, and should let

nothing interrupt his hours of recreation more than those of study.

Music has a very happy effect in relieving the mind when fatigued with

study. It would be well if every studious person were so far acquainted

with that science as to amuse himself after severe thought, by playing

such airs as have a tendency to raise the spirits, and inspire

cheerfulness and good humour.

It is a reproach to Learning, that any of her votaries, to relieve the

mind after study, should betake themselves to the use of strong liquors.

This indeed is a remedy; but it is a desperate one, and always proves

destructive. Would such persons, when their spirits are low, get on

horseback, and ride ten or a dozen miles, they would find it a more

effectual remedy than any cordial medicine in the apothecary’s shop, or

all the strong liquors in the world.

The following is my plan, and I cannot recommend a better to others.

When my mind is fatigued with study, or other serious business, I mount

my horse, and ride ten or twelve miles into the country, where I spend a

day, and sometimes two, with a cheerful friend; after which I never fail

to return to town with new vigour, and to pursue my studies or business

with fresh alacrity.

It is much to be regretted, that learned men, while in health, pay so

little regard to these things! There is not any thing more common than

to see a miserable object over-run with nervous diseases, bathing,

walking, riding, and, in a word, doing every thing for health after it

is gone; yet, if any one had recommended these things to him by way of

prevention, the advice would, in all probability, have been treated with

contempt, or, at least, with neglect. Such is the weakness and folly of

mankind, and such the want of foresight, even in those who ought to be

wiser than others!

With regard to the diet of the studious, we see no reason why they

should abstain from any kind of food that is wholesome, provided they

use it in moderation. They ought, however, to be sparing in the use of

every thing that is windy, rancid, or hard of digestion. Their suppers

should always be light, or taken soon in the evening. Their drink may be

water, fine malt liquor, not too strong, good cyder, wine and water, or,

if troubled with acidities, water mixed with a little brandy, rum, or

any other genuine spirit.

We shall only observe, with regard to those kinds of exercise which are

most proper for the studious, that they should not be too violent, nor

ever carried to the degree of excessive fatigue. They ought likewise to

be frequently varied so as to give action to all the different parts of

the body; and should, as often as possible, be taken in the open air. In

general, riding on horseback, walking, working in a garden, or playing

at some active diversions, are the best.

We would likewise recommend the use of the cold bath to the studious. It

will, in some measure, supply the place of exercise, and should not be

neglected by persons of a relaxed habit, especially in the warm season.

No person ought either to take violent exercise, or to study immediately

after a full meal.

CHAP. III.

OF ALIMENT.

Unwholesome food, and irregularities in diet, occasion many diseases.

There is no doubt but the whole constitution of body may be changed by

diet alone. The fluids may be thereby attenuated or condensed, rendered

mild or acrimonious, coagulated or diluted, to almost any degree. Nor

are its effects upon the solids less considerable. They may be braced or

relaxed, have their sensibility, motions, &c. greatly increased or

diminished, by different kinds of aliment. A very small attention to

these things will be sufficient to shew, how much the preservation of

health depends upon a proper regimen of the diet.

Nor is an attention to diet necessary for the preservation of health

only: it is likewise of importance in the cure of diseases. Every

intention in the cure of many diseases, may be answered by diet alone.

Its effects, indeed, are not always so quick as those of medicine, but

they are generally more lasting: besides, it is neither so disagreeable

to the patient, nor so dangerous as medicine, and is always more easily

obtained.

Our intention here is not to inquire minutely into the nature and

properties of the various kinds of aliment in use among mankind; nor to

shew their effects upon the different constitutions of the human body;

but to mark some of the most pernicious errors which people are apt to

fall into, with respect both to the quantity and qualities of their

food, and to point out their influence upon health.

It is not indeed an easy matter to ascertain the exact quantity of food

proper for every age, sex, and constitution: but a scrupulous nicety

here is by no means necessary. The best rule is to avoid all extremes.

Mankind were never intended to weigh and measure their food. Nature

teaches every creature when it has enough; and the calls of thirst and

hunger are sufficient to inform them when more is necessary.

Though _moderation_ is the chief rule with regard to the quantity, yet

the quality of food merits a farther consideration. There are many ways

by which provisions may be rendered unwholesome. Bad seasons may either

prevent the ripening of grain, or damage it afterwards. These, indeed,

are acts of Providence, and we must submit to them; but surely no

punishment can be too severe for those who suffer provisions to spoil by

hoarding them, on purpose to raise the price, or who promote their own

interest by adulterating the necessaries of life[27].

Animal, as well as vegetable food, may be rendered unwholesome, by being

kept too long. All animal substances have a constant tendency to

putrefaction; and, when that has proceeded too far, they not only become

offensive to the senses, but hurtful to health. Diseased animals, and

such as die of themselves, ought never to be eaten. It is a common

practice, however, in some grazing countries, for servants and poor

people to eat such animals as die of any disease, or are killed by

accident. Poverty, indeed, may oblige people to do this; but they had

better eat a smaller quantity of what is sound and wholesome: it would

both afford a better nourishment, and be attended with less danger.

The injunctions given to the Jews, not to eat any creature which died of

itself, seem to have a strict regard to health; and ought to be observed

by Christians as well as Jews. Animals never die themselves without some

previous disease; but how a diseased animal should be wholesome food, is

inconceivable: even those which die by accident must be hurtful, as

their blood is mixed with the flesh, and soon turns putrid.

Animals which feed grossly, as tame ducks, hogs, &c. are neither so

easily digested, nor afford such wholesome nourishment as others. No

animal can be wholesome which does not take sufficient exercise. Most of

our stalled cattle are crammed with gross food, but not allowed exercise

nor free air; by which means they indeed grow fat, but their juices not

being properly prepared or assimilated, remain crude, and occasion

indigestions, gross humours, and oppression of the spirits, in those who

feed upon them.

Animals are often rendered unwholesome by being overheated. Excessive

heat causes a fever, exalts the animal salts, and mixes the blood so

intimately with the flesh, that it cannot be separated. For this reason,

butchers should be severely punished who over-drive their cattle. No

person would chuse to eat the flesh of an animal which had died in a

high fever; yet that is the case with all over-drove cattle; and the

fever is often raised even to the degree of madness.

But this is not the only way by which butchers render meat unwholesome.

The abominable custom of filling the cellular membrane of animals with

air, in order to make them appear fat, is every day practised. This not

only spoils the meat, and renders it unfit for keeping, but is such a

dirty trick, that the very idea of it is sufficient to disgust a person

of any delicacy at every thing which comes from the shambles. Who can

bear the thought of eating meat which has been blown up with air from

the lungs of a dirty fellow, perhaps labouring under the very worst of

diseases?

Butchers have likewise a method of filling the cellular membranes of

animals with blood. This makes the meat seem fatter, and likewise weigh

more, but is notwithstanding a very pernicious custom, as it both

renders the meat unwholesome and unfit for keeping. I seldom see a piece

of meat from the shambles, where the blood is not diffused through the

cellular texture. I shall not say that this is always the effect of

design; but I am certain it is not the case with animals that are killed

for domestic use, and properly blooded. Veal seems to be most frequently

spoilt in this way. Perhaps that may in some measure be owing to the

practice of carrying calves from a great distance to market, by which

means their tender flesh is bruised, and many of their vessels burst.

No people in the world eat such quantities of animal food as the

English, which is one reason why they are so generally tainted with the

scurvy and its numerous train of consequences, indigestion, low spirits,

hypochondriacism, &c. Animal food was surely designed for man, and, with

a proper mixture of vegetables, it will be found the most wholesome; but

to gorge beef, mutton, pork, fish, and fowl, twice or thrice a day, is

certainly too much. All who value health ought to be contented with

making one meal of flesh in the twenty-four hours, and this ought to

consist of one kind only.

The most obstinate scurvy has often been cured by a vegetable diet; nay,

milk alone will frequently do more in that disease than any medicine.

Hence it is evident, that if vegetables and milk were more used in diet,

we should have less scurvy, and likewise fewer putrid and inflammatory

fevers. Fresh vegetables, indeed, come to be daily more used in diet;

this laudable practice we hope will continue to gain ground.

Our aliment ought neither to be too moist nor too dry. Moist aliment

relaxes the solids, and renders the body feeble. Thus we see females,

who live much on tea and other watery diet, generally become weak, and

unable to digest solid food: hence proceed hysterics, and all their

dreadful consequences. On the other hand, food that is too dry, renders

the solids in a manner rigid, and the humours viscid, which disposes the

body to inflammatory fevers, scurvies, and the like.

Much has been said on the ill effects of tea in diet. They are, no

doubt, numerous; but they proceed rather from the imprudent use of it,

than from any bad qualities in the tea itself. Tea is now the universal

breakfast in this part of the world; but the morning is surely the most

improper time of the day for drinking it. Most delicate persons, who, by

the bye, are the greatest tea-drinkers, cannot eat any thing in the

morning. If such persons, after fasting ten or twelve hours, drink four

or five cups of tea without eating almost any bread, it must hurt them.

Good tea, taken in moderate quantity, not too strong, nor too hot, nor

drank upon an empty stomach, will seldom do harm; but if it be bad,

which is often the case, or substituted in the room of solid food, it

must have many ill effects.

The arts of cookery render many things unwholesome, which are not so in

their own nature. By jumbling together a number of different

ingredients, in order to make a poignant sauce or rich soup, the

composition proves almost a poison. All high seasoning, pickles, &c. are

only incentives to luxury, and never fail to hurt the stomach. It were

well for mankind, if cookery, as an art, were entirely prohibited. Plain

roasting or boiling is all that the stomach requires. These alone are

sufficient for people in health, and the sick have still less need of a

cook.