BAHIA BLANCA
Bahia Blanca--Geology--Numerous gigantic Quadrupeds--Recent
Extinction--Longevity of species--Large Animals do not require a
luxuriant vegetation--Southern Africa--Siberian Fossils--Two Species of
Ostrich--Habits of Oven-bird--Armadilloes--Venomous Snake, Toad,
Lizard--Hybernation of Animal--Habits of Sea-Pen--Indian Wars and
Massacres--Arrow-head, antiquarian Relic.
The Beagle arrived here on the 24th of August, and a week afterwards
sailed for the Plata. With Captain Fitz Roy's consent I was left
behind, to travel by land to Buenos Ayres. I will here add some
observations, which were made during this visit and on a previous
occasion, when the Beagle was employed in surveying the harbour.
The plain, at the distance of a few miles from the coast, belongs to
the great Pampean formation, which consists in part of a reddish clay,
and in part of a highly calcareous marly rock. Nearer the coast there
are some plains formed from the wreck of the upper plain, and from mud,
gravel, and sand thrown up by the sea during the slow elevation of the
land, of which elevation we have evidence in upraised beds of recent
shells, and in rounded pebbles of pumice scattered over the country. At
Punta Alta we have a section of one of these later-formed little
plains, which is highly interesting from the number and extraordinary
character of the remains of gigantic land-animals embedded in it. These
have been fully described by Professor Owen, in the Zoology of the
voyage of the Beagle, and are deposited in the College of Surgeons. I
will here give only a brief outline of their nature.
First, parts of three heads and other bones of the Megatherium, the
huge dimensions of which are expressed by its name. Secondly, the
Megalonyx, a great allied animal. Thirdly, the Scelidotherium, also an
allied animal, of which I obtained a nearly perfect skeleton. It must
have been as large as a rhinoceros: in the structure of its head it
comes according to Mr. Owen, nearest to the Cape Anteater, but in some
other respects it approaches to the armadilloes. Fourthly, the Mylodon
Darwinii, a closely related genus of little inferior size. Fifthly,
another gigantic edental quadruped. Sixthly, a large animal, with an
osseous coat in compartments, very like that of an armadillo.
Seventhly, an extinct kind of horse, to which I shall have again to
refer. Eighthly, a tooth of a Pachydermatous animal, probably the same
with the Macrauchenia, a huge beast with a long neck like a camel,
which I shall also refer to again. Lastly, the Toxodon, perhaps one of
the strangest animals ever discovered: in size it equalled an elephant
or megatherium, but the structure of its teeth, as Mr. Owen states,
proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the Gnawers, the
order which, at the present day, includes most of the smallest
quadrupeds: in many details it is allied to the Pachydermata: judging
from the position of its eyes, ears, and nostrils, it was probably
aquatic, like the Dugong and Manatee, to which it is also allied. How
wonderfully are the different Orders, at the present time so well
separated, blended together in different points of the structure of the
Toxodon!
The remains of these nine great quadrupeds, and many detached bones,
were found embedded on the beach, within the space of about 200 yards
square. It is a remarkable circumstance that so many different species
should be found together; and it proves how numerous in kind the
ancient inhabitants of this country must have been. At the distance of
about thirty miles from Punta Alta, in a cliff of red earth, I found
several fragments of bones, some of large size. Among them were the
teeth of a gnawer, equalling in size and closely resembling those of
the Capybara, whose habits have been described; and therefore,
probably, an aquatic animal. There was also part of the head of a
Ctenomys; the species being different from the Tucutuco, but with a
close general resemblance. The red earth, like that of the Pampas, in
which these remains were embedded, contains, according to Professor
Ehrenberg, eight fresh-water and one salt-water infusorial animalcule;
therefore, probably, it was an estuary deposit.
The remains at Punta Alta were embedded in stratified gravel and
reddish mud, just such as the sea might now wash up on a shallow bank.
They were associated with twenty-three species of shells, of which
thirteen are recent and four others very closely related to recent
forms. [1] From the bones of the Scelidotherium, including even the
knee-cap, being intombed in their proper relative positions, and from
the osseous armour of the great armadillo-like animal being so well
preserved, together with the bones of one of its legs, we may feel
assured that these remains were fresh and united by their ligaments,
when deposited in the gravel together with the shells. [2] Hence we
have good evidence that the above enumerated gigantic quadrupeds, more
different from those of the present day than the oldest of the tertiary
quadrupeds of Europe, lived whilst the sea was peopled with most of its
present inhabitants; and we have confirmed that remarkable law so often
insisted on by Mr. Lyell, namely, that the "longevity of the species in
the mammalia is upon the whole inferior to that of the testacea." [3]
The great size of the bones of the Megatheroid animals, including the
Megatherium, Megalonyx, Scelidotherium, and Mylodon, is truly
wonderful. The habits of life of these animals were a complete puzzle
to naturalists, until Professor Owen [4] solved the problem with
remarkable ingenuity. The teeth indicate, by their simple structure,
that these Megatheroid animals lived on vegetable food, and probably on
the leaves and small twigs of trees; their ponderous forms and great
strong curved claws seem so little adapted for locomotion, that some
eminent naturalists have actually believed, that, like the sloths, to
which they are intimately related, they subsisted by climbing back
downwards on trees, and feeding on the leaves. It was a bold, not to
say preposterous, idea to conceive even antediluvian trees, with
branches strong enough to bear animals as large as elephants. Professor
Owen, with far more probability, believes that, instead of climbing on
the trees, they pulled the branches down to them, and tore up the
smaller ones by the roots, and so fed on the leaves. The colossal
breadth and weight of their hinder quarters, which can hardly be
imagined without having been seen, become on this view, of obvious
service, instead of being an incumbrance: their apparent clumsiness
disappears. With their great tails and their huge heels firmly fixed
like a tripod on the ground, they could freely exert the full force of
their most powerful arms and great claws. Strongly rooted, indeed,
must that tree have been, which could have resisted such force! The
Mylodon, moreover, was furnished with a long extensile tongue like that
of the giraffe, which, by one of those beautiful provisions of nature,
thus reaches with the aid of its long neck its leafy food. I may
remark, that in Abyssinia the elephant, according to Bruce, when it
cannot reach with its proboscis the branches, deeply scores with its
tusks the trunk of the tree, up and down and all round, till it is
sufficiently weakened to be broken down.
The beds including the above fossil remains, stand only from fifteen to
twenty feet above the level of high-water; and hence the elevation of
the land has been small (without there has been an intercalated period
of subsidence, of which we have no evidence) since the great quadrupeds
wandered over the surrounding plains; and the external features of the
country must then have been very nearly the same as now. What, it may
naturally be asked, was the character of the vegetation at that period;
was the country as wretchedly sterile as it now is? As so many of the
co-embedded shells are the same with those now living in the bay, I was
at first inclined to think that the former vegetation was probably
similar to the existing one; but this would have been an erroneous
inference for some of these same shells live on the luxuriant coast of
Brazil; and generally, the character of the inhabitants of the sea are
useless as guides to judge of those on the land. Nevertheless, from
the following considerations, I do not believe that the simple fact of
many gigantic quadrupeds having lived on the plains round Bahia Blanca,
is any sure guide that they formerly were clothed with a luxuriant
vegetation: I have no doubt that the sterile country a little
southward, near the Rio Negro, with its scattered thorny trees, would
support many and large quadrupeds.
That large animals require a luxuriant vegetation, has been a general
assumption which has passed from one work to another; but I do not
hesitate to say that it is completely false, and that it has vitiated
the reasoning of geologists on some points of great interest in the
ancient history of the world. The prejudice has probably been derived
from India, and the Indian islands, where troops of elephants, noble
forests, and impenetrable jungles, are associated together in every
one's mind. If, however, we refer to any work of travels through the
southern parts of Africa, we shall find allusions in almost every page
either to the desert character of the country, or to the numbers of
large animals inhabiting it. The same thing is rendered evident by the
many engravings which have been published of various parts of the
interior. When the Beagle was at Cape Town, I made an excursion of
some days' length into the country, which at least was sufficient to
render that which I had read more fully intelligible.
Dr. Andrew Smith, who, at the head of his adventurous party, has lately
succeeded in passing the Tropic of Capricorn, informs me that, taking
into consideration the whole of the southern part of Africa, there can
be no doubt of its being a sterile country. On the southern and
south-eastern coasts there are some fine forests, but with these
exceptions, the traveller may pass for days together through open
plains, covered by a poor and scanty vegetation. It is difficult to
convey any accurate idea of degrees of comparative fertility; but it
may be safely said that the amount of vegetation supported at any one
time [5] by Great Britain, exceeds, perhaps even tenfold, the quantity
on an equal area, in the interior parts of Southern Africa. The fact
that bullock-waggons can travel in any direction, excepting near the
coast, without more than occasionally half an hour's delay in cutting
down bushes, gives, perhaps, a more definite notion of the scantiness
of the vegetation. Now, if we look to the animals inhabiting these
wide plains, we shall find their numbers extraordinarily great, and
their bulk immense. We must enumerate the elephant, three species of
rhinoceros, and probably, according to Dr. Smith, two others, the
hippopotamus, the giraffe, the bos caffer--as large as a full-grown
bull, and the elan--but little less, two zebras, and the quaccha, two
gnus, and several antelopes even larger than these latter animals. It
may be supposed that although the species are numerous, the individuals
of each kind are few. By the kindness of Dr. Smith, I am enabled to
show that the case is very different. He informs me, that in lat. 24
degs., in one day's march with the bullock-waggons, he saw, without
wandering to any great distance on either side, between one hundred and
one hundred and fifty rhinoceroses, which belonged to three species:
the same day he saw several herds of giraffes, amounting together to
nearly a hundred; and that although no elephant was observed, yet they
are found in this district. At the distance of a little more than one
hour's march from their place of encampment on the previous night, his
party actually killed at one spot eight hippopotamuses, and saw many
more. In this same river there were likewise crocodiles. Of course it
was a case quite extraordinary, to see so many great animals crowded
together, but it evidently proves that they must exist in great
numbers. Dr. Smith describes the country passed through that day, as
"being thinly covered with grass, and bushes about four feet high, and
still more thinly with mimosa-trees." The waggons were not prevented
travelling in a nearly straight line.
Besides these large animals, every one the least acquainted with the
natural history of the Cape, has read of the herds of antelopes, which
can be compared only with the flocks of migratory birds. The numbers
indeed of the lion, panther, and hyaena, and the multitude of birds of
prey, plainly speak of the abundance of the smaller quadrupeds: one
evening seven lions were counted at the same time prowling round Dr.
Smith's encampment. As this able naturalist remarked to me, the
carnage each day in Southern Africa must indeed be terrific! I confess
it is truly surprising how such a number of animals can find support in
a country producing so little food. The larger quadrupeds no doubt
roam over wide tracts in search of it; and their food chiefly consists
of underwood, which probably contains much nutriment in a small bulk.
Dr. Smith also informs me that the vegetation has a rapid growth; no
sooner is a part consumed, than its place is supplied by a fresh stock.
There can be no doubt, however, that our ideas respecting the apparent
amount of food necessary for the support of large quadrupeds are much
exaggerated: it should have been remembered that the camel, an animal
of no mean bulk, has always been considered as the emblem of the desert.
The belief that where large quadrupeds exist, the vegetation must
necessarily be luxuriant, is the more remarkable, because the converse
is far from true. Mr. Burchell observed to me that when entering
Brazil, nothing struck him more forcibly than the splendour of the
South American vegetation contrasted with that of South Africa,
together with the absence of all large quadrupeds. In his Travels, [6]
he has suggested that the comparison of the respective weights (if
there were sufficient data) of an equal number of the largest
herbivorous quadrupeds of each country would be extremely curious. If
we take on the one side, the elephant, [7] hippopotamus, giraffe, bos
caffer, elan, certainly three, and probably five species of rhinoceros;
and on the American side, two tapirs, the guanaco, three deer, the
vicuna, peccari, capybara (after which we must choose from the monkeys
to complete the number), and then place these two groups alongside each
other, it is not easy to conceive ranks more disproportionate in size.
After the above facts, we are compelled to conclude, against anterior
probability, [8] that among the mammalia there exists no close relation
between the bulk of the species, and the _quantity_ of the vegetation,
in the countries which they inhabit.
With regard to the number of large quadrupeds, there certainly exists
no quarter of the globe which will bear comparison with Southern
Africa. After the different statements which have been given, the
extremely desert character of that region will not be disputed. In the
European division of the world, we must look back to the tertiary
epochs, to find a condition of things among the mammalia, resembling
that now existing at the Cape of Good Hope. Those tertiary epochs,
which we are apt to consider as abounding to an astonishing degree with
large animals, because we find the remains of many ages accumulated at
certain spots, could hardly boast of more large quadrupeds than
Southern Africa does at present. If we speculate on the condition of
the vegetation during these epochs we are at least bound so far to
consider existing analogies, as not to urge as absolutely necessary a
luxuriant vegetation, when we see a state of things so totally
different at the Cape of Good Hope.
We know [9] that the extreme regions of North America, many degrees
beyond the limit where the ground at the depth of a few feet remains
perpetually congealed, are covered by forests of large and tall trees.
In a like manner, in Siberia, we have woods of birch, fir, aspen, and
larch, growing in a latitude [10] (64 degs.) where the mean temperature
of the air falls below the freezing point, and where the earth is so
completely frozen, that the carcass of an animal embedded in it is
perfectly preserved. With these facts we must grant, as far as
_quantity alone_ of vegetation is concerned, that the great quadrupeds
of the later tertiary epochs might, in most parts of Northern Europe
and Asia, have lived on the spots where their remains are now found. I
do not here speak of the kind of vegetation necessary for their
support; because, as there is evidence of physical changes, and as the
animals have become extinct, so may we suppose that the species of
plants have likewise been changed.
These remarks, I may be permitted to add, directly bear on the case of
the Siberian animals preserved in ice. The firm conviction of the
necessity of a vegetation possessing a character of tropical
luxuriance, to support such large animals, and the impossibility of
reconciling this with the proximity of perpetual congelation, was one
chief cause of the several theories of sudden revolutions of climate,
and of overwhelming catastrophes, which were invented to account for
their entombment. I am far from supposing that the climate has not
changed since the period when those animals lived, which now lie buried
in the ice. At present I only wish to show, that as far as _quantity_
of food _alone_ is concerned, the ancient rhinoceroses might have
roamed over the _steppes_ of central Siberia (the northern parts
probably being under water) even in their present condition, as well as
the living rhinoceroses and elephants over the _Karros_ of Southern
Africa.
I will now give an account of the habits of some of the more
interesting birds which are common on the wild plains of Northern
Patagonia: and first for the largest, or South American ostrich. The
ordinary habits of the ostrich are familiar to every one. They live on
vegetable matter, such as roots and grass; but at Bahia Blanca I have
repeatedly seen three or four come down at low water to the extensive
mud-banks which are then dry, for the sake, as the Gauchos say, of
feeding on small fish. Although the ostrich in its habits is so shy,
wary, and solitary, and although so fleet in its pace, it is caught
without much difficulty by the Indian or Gaucho armed with the bolas.
When several horsemen appear in a semicircle, it becomes confounded,
and does not know which way to escape. They generally prefer running
against the wind; yet at the first start they expand their wings, and
like a vessel make all sail. On one fine hot day I saw several
ostriches enter a bed of tall rushes, where they squatted concealed,
till quite closely approached. It is not generally known that ostriches
readily take to the water. Mr. King informs me that at the Bay of San
Blas, and at Port Valdes in Patagonia, he saw these birds swimming
several times from island to island. They ran into the water both when
driven down to a point, and likewise of their own accord when not
frightened: the distance crossed was about two hundred yards. When
swimming, very little of their bodies appear above water; their necks
are extended a little forward, and their progress is slow. On two
occasions I saw some ostriches swimming across the Santa Cruz river,
where its course was about four hundred yards wide, and the stream
rapid. Captain Sturt, [11] when descending the Murrumbidgee, in
Australia, saw two emus in the act of swimming.
The inhabitants of the country readily distinguish, even at a distance,
the cock bird from the hen. The former is larger and darker-coloured,
[12] and has a bigger head. The ostrich, I believe the cock, emits a
singular, deep-toned, hissing note: when first I heard it, standing in
the midst of some sand-hillocks, I thought it was made by some wild
beast, for it is a sound that one cannot tell whence it comes, or from
how far distant. When we were at Bahia Blanca in the months of
September and October, the eggs, in extraordinary numbers, were found
all over the country. They lie either scattered and single, in which
case they are never hatched, and are called by the Spaniards huachos;
or they are collected together into a shallow excavation, which forms
the nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three contained
twenty-two eggs each, and the fourth twenty-seven. In one day's hunting
on horseback sixty-four eggs were found; forty-four of these were in
two nests, and the remaining twenty, scattered huachos. The Gauchos
unanimously affirm, and there is no reason to doubt their statement,
that the male bird alone hatches the eggs, and for some time afterwards
accompanies the young. The cock when on the nest lies very close; I
have myself almost ridden over one. It is asserted that at such times
they are occasionally fierce, and even dangerous, and that they have
been known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on
him. My informer pointed out to me an old man, whom he had seen much
terrified by one chasing him. I observe in Burchell's travels in South
Africa, that he remarks, "Having killed a male ostrich, and the
feathers being dirty, it was said by the Hottentots to be a nest bird."
I understand that the male emu in the Zoological Gardens takes charge
of the nest: this habit, therefore, is common to the family.
The Gauchos unanimously affirm that several females lay in one nest. I
have been positively told that four or five hen birds have been watched
to go in the middle of the day, one after the other, to the same nest.
I may add, also, that it is believed in Africa, that two or more
females lay in one nest. [13] Although this habit at first appears very
strange, I think the cause may be explained in a simple manner. The
number of eggs in the nest varies from twenty to forty, and even to
fifty; and according to Azara, some times to seventy or eighty. Now,
although it is most probable, from the number of eggs found in one
district being so extraordinarily great in proportion to the parent
birds, and likewise from the state of the ovarium of the hen, that she
may in the course of the season lay a large number, yet the time
required must be very long. Azara states, [14] that a female in a
state of domestication laid seventeen eggs, each at the interval of
three days one from another. If the hen was obliged to hatch her own
eggs, before the last was laid the first probably would be addled; but
if each laid a few eggs at successive periods, in different nests, and
several hens, as is stated to be the case, combined together, then the
eggs in one collection would be nearly of the same age. If the number
of eggs in one of these nests is, as I believe, not greater on an
average than the number laid by one female in the season, then there
must be as many nests as females, and each cock bird will have its fair
share of the labour of incubation; and that during a period when the
females probably could not sit, from not having finished laying. [15] I
have before mentioned the great numbers of huachos, or deserted eggs;
so that in one day's hunting twenty were found in this state. It
appears odd that so many should be wasted. Does it not arise from the
difficulty of several females associating together, and finding a male
ready to undertake the office of incubation? It is evident that there
must at first be some degree of association between at least two
females; otherwise the eggs would remain scattered over the wide plain,
at distances far too great to allow of the male collecting them into
one nest: some authors have believed that the scattered eggs were
deposited for the young birds to feed on. This can hardly be the case
in America, because the huachos, although often found addled and
putrid, are generally whole.
When at the Rio Negro in Northern Patagonia, I repeatedly heard the
Gauchos talking of a very rare bird which they called Avestruz Petise.
They described it as being less than the common ostrich (which is there
abundant), but with a very close general resemblance. They said its
colour was dark and mottled, and that its legs were shorter, and
feathered lower down than those of the common ostrich. It is more
easily caught by the bolas than the other species. The few inhabitants
who had seen both kinds, affirmed they could distinguish them apart
from a long distance. The eggs of the small species appeared, however,
more generally known; and it was remarked, with surprise, that they
were very little less than those of the Rhea, but of a slightly
different form, and with a tinge of pale blue. This species occurs
most rarely on the plains bordering the Rio Negro; but about a degree
and a half further south they are tolerably abundant. When at Port
Desire, in Patagonia (lat. 48 degs.), Mr. Martens shot an ostrich; and
I looked at it, forgetting at the moment, in the most unaccountable
manner, the whole subject of the Petises, and thought it was a not
full-grown bird of the common sort. It was cooked and eaten before my
memory returned. Fortunately the head, neck, legs, wings, many of the
larger feathers, and a large part of the skin, had been preserved; and
from these a very nearly perfect specimen has been put together, and is
now exhibited in the museum of the Zoological Society. Mr. Gould, in
describing this new species, has done me the honour of calling it after
my name.
Among the Patagonian Indians in the Strait of Magellan, we found a half
Indian, who had lived some years with the tribe, but had been born in
the northern provinces. I asked him if he had ever heard of the
Avestruz Petise? He answered by saying, "Why, there are none others in
these southern countries." He informed me that the number of eggs in
the nest of the petise is considerably less than in that of the other
kind, namely, not more than fifteen on an average, but he asserted that
more than one female deposited them. At Santa Cruz we saw several of
these birds. They were excessively wary: I think they could see a
person approaching when too far off to be distinguished themselves. In
ascending the river few were seen; but in our quiet and rapid descent,
many, in pairs and by fours or fives, were observed. It was remarked
that this bird did not expand its wings, when first starting at full
speed, after the manner of the northern kind. In conclusion I may
observe, that the Struthio rhea inhabits the country of La Plata as far
as a little south of the Rio Negro in lat. 41 degs., and that the
Struthio Darwinii takes its place in Southern Patagonia; the part about
the Rio Negro being neutral territory. M. A. d'Orbigny, [16] when at
the Rio Negro, made great exertions to procure this bird, but never had
the good fortune to succeed. Dobrizhoffer [17] long ago was aware of
there being two kinds of ostriches, he says, "You must know, moreover,
that Emus differ in size and habits in different tracts of land; for
those that inhabit the plains of Buenos Ayres and Tucuman are larger,
and have black, white and grey feathers; those near to the Strait of
Magellan are smaller and more beautiful, for their white feathers are
tipped with black at the extremity, and their black ones in like manner
terminate in white."
A very singular little bird, Tinochorus rumicivorus, is here common: in
its habits and general appearance, it nearly equally partakes of the
characters, different as they are, of the quail and snipe. The
Tinochorus is found in the whole of southern South America, wherever
there are sterile plains, or open dry pasture land. It frequents in
pairs or small flocks the most desolate places, where scarcely another
living creature can exist. Upon being approached they squat close, and
then are very difficult to be distinguished from the ground. When
feeding they walk rather slowly, with their legs wide apart. They dust
themselves in roads and sandy places, and frequent particular spots,
where they may be found day after day: like partridges, they take wing
in a flock. In all these respects, in the muscular gizzard adapted for
vegetable food, in the arched beak and fleshy nostrils, short legs and
form of foot, the Tinochorus has a close affinity with quails. But as
soon as the bird is seen flying, its whole appearance changes; the long
pointed wings, so different from those in the gallinaceous order, the
irregular manner of flight, and plaintive cry uttered at the moment of
rising, recall the idea of a snipe. The sportsmen of the Beagle
unanimously called it the short-billed snipe. To this genus, or rather
to the family of the Waders, its skeleton shows that it is really
related.
The Tinochorus is closely related to some other South American birds.
Two species of the genus Attagis are in almost every respect ptarmigans
in their habits; one lives in Tierra del Fuego, above the limits of the
forest land; and the other just beneath the snow-line on the Cordillera
of Central Chile. A bird of another closely allied genus, Chionis
alba, is an inhabitant of the antarctic regions; it feeds on sea-weed
and shells on the tidal rocks. Although not web footed, from some
unaccountable habit, it is frequently met with far out at sea. This
small family of birds is one of those which, from its varied relations
to other families, although at present offering only difficulties to
the systematic naturalist, ultimately may assist in revealing the grand
scheme, common to the present and past ages, on which organized beings
have been created.
The genus Furnarius contains several species, all small birds, living
on the ground, and inhabiting open dry countries. In structure they
cannot be compared to any European form. Ornithologists have generally
included them among the creepers, although opposed to that family in
every habit. The best known species is the common oven-bird of La
Plata, the Casara or housemaker of the Spaniards. The nest, whence it
takes its name, is placed in the most exposed situations, as on the top
of a post, a bare rock, or on a cactus. It is composed of mud and bits
of straw, and has strong thick walls: in shape it precisely resembles
an oven, or depressed beehive. The opening is large and arched, and
directly in front, within the nest, there is a partition, which reaches
nearly to the roof, thus forming a passage or antechamber to the true
nest.
Another and smaller species of Furnarius (F. cunicularius), resembles
the oven-bird in the general reddish tint of its plumage, in a peculiar
shrill reiterated cry, and in an odd manner of running by starts. From
its affinity, the Spaniards call it Casarita (or little housebuilder),
although its nidification is quite different. The Casarita builds its
nest at the bottom of a narrow cylindrical hole, which is said to
extend horizontally to nearly six feet under ground. Several of the
country people told me, that when boys, they had attempted to dig out
the nest, but had scarcely ever succeeded in getting to the end of the
passage. The bird chooses any low bank of firm sandy soil by the side
of a road or stream. Here (at Bahia Blanca) the walls round the houses
are built of hardened mud, and I noticed that one, which enclosed a
courtyard where I lodged, was bored through by round holes in a score
of places. On asking the owner the cause of this he bitterly
complained of the little casarita, several of which I afterwards
observed at work. It is rather curious to find how incapable these
birds must be of acquiring any notion of thickness, for although they
were constantly flitting over the low wall, they continued vainly to
bore through it, thinking it an excellent bank for their nests. I do
not doubt that each bird, as often as it came to daylight on the
opposite side, was greatly surprised at the marvellous fact.
I have already mentioned nearly all the mammalia common in this
country. Of armadilloes three species occur namely, the Dasypus
minutus or _pichy_, the D. villosus or _peludo_, and the _apar_. The
first extends ten degrees further south than any other kind; a fourth
species, the _Mulita_, does not come as far south as Bahia Blanca. The
four species have nearly similar habits; the _peludo_, however, is
nocturnal, while the others wander by day over the open plains, feeding
on beetles, larvae, roots, and even small snakes. The _apar_, commonly
called _mataco_, is remarkable by having only three moveable bands; the
rest of its tesselated covering being nearly inflexible. It has the
power of rolling itself into a perfect sphere, like one kind of English
woodlouse. In this state it is safe from the attack of dogs; for the
dog not being able to take the whole in its mouth, tries to bite one
side, and the ball slips away. The smooth hard covering of the
_mataco_ offers a better defence than the sharp spines of the hedgehog.
The _pichy_ prefers a very dry soil; and the sand-dunes near the coast,
where for many months it can never taste water, is its favourite
resort: it often tries to escape notice, by squatting close to the
ground. In the course of a day's ride, near Bahia Blanca, several were
generally met with. The instant one was perceived, it was necessary,
in order to catch it, almost to tumble off one's horse; for in soft
soil the animal burrowed so quickly, that its hinder quarters would
almost disappear before one could alight. It seems almost a pity to
kill such nice little animals, for as a Gaucho said, while sharpening
his knife on the back of one, "Son tan mansos" (they are so quiet).
Of reptiles there are many kinds: one snake (a Trigonocephalus, or
Cophias [18]), from the size of the poison channel in its fangs, must
be very deadly. Cuvier, in opposition to some other naturalists, makes
this a sub-genus of the rattlesnake, and intermediate between it and
the viper. In confirmation of this opinion, I observed a fact, which
appears to me very curious and instructive, as showing how every
character, even though it may be in some degree independent of
structure, has a tendency to vary by slow degrees. The extremity of the
tail of this snake is terminated by a point, which is very slightly
enlarged; and as the animal glides along, it constantly vibrates the
last inch; and this part striking against the dry grass and brushwood,
produces a rattling noise, which can be distinctly heard at the
distance of six feet. As often as the animal was irritated or
surprised, its tail was shaken; and the vibrations were extremely
rapid. Even as long as the body retained its irritability, a tendency
to this habitual movement was evident. This Trigonocephalus has,
therefore, in some respects the structure of a viper, with the habits
of a rattlesnake: the noise, however, being produced by a simpler
device. The expression of this snake's face was hideous and fierce;
the pupil consisted of a vertical slit in a mottled and coppery iris;
the jaws were broad at the base, and the nose terminated in a
triangular projection. I do not think I ever saw anything more ugly,
excepting, perhaps, some of the vampire bats. I imagine this repulsive
aspect originates from the features being placed in positions, with
respect to each other, somewhat proportional to those of the human
face; and thus we obtain a scale of hideousness.
Amongst the Batrachian reptiles, I found only one little toad
(Phryniscus nigricans), which was most singular from its colour. If we
imagine, first, that it had been steeped in the blackest ink, and then,
when dry, allowed to crawl over a board, freshly painted with the
brightest vermilion, so as to colour the soles of its feet and parts of
its stomach, a good idea of its appearance will be gained. If it had
been an unnamed species, surely it ought to have been called
_Diabolicus_, for it is a fit toad to preach in the ear of Eve. Instead
of being nocturnal in its habits, as other toads are, and living in
damp obscure recesses, it crawls during the heat of the day about the
dry sand-hillocks and arid plains, where not a single drop of water can
be found. It must necessarily depend on the dew for its moisture; and
this probably is absorbed by the skin, for it is known, that these
reptiles possess great powers of cutaneous absorption. At Maldonado, I
found one in a situation nearly as dry as at Bahia Blanca, and thinking
to give it a great treat, carried it to a pool of water; not only was
the little animal unable to swim, but I think without help it would
soon have been drowned. Of lizards there were many kinds, but only one
(Proctotretus multimaculatus) remarkable from its habits. It lives on
the bare sand near the sea coast, and from its mottled colour, the
brownish scales being speckled with white, yellowish red, and dirty
blue, can hardly be distinguished from the surrounding surface. When
frightened, it attempts to avoid discovery by feigning death, with
outstretched legs, depressed body, and closed eyes: if further
molested, it buries itself with great quickness in the loose sand. This
lizard, from its flattened body and short legs, cannot run quickly.
I will here add a few remarks on the hybernation of animals in this
part of South America. When we first arrived at Bahia Blanca,
September 7th, 1832, we thought nature had granted scarcely a living
creature to this sandy and dry country. By digging, however, in the
ground, several insects, large spiders, and lizards were found in a
half-torpid state. On the 15th, a few animals began to appear, and by
the 18th (three days from the equinox), everything announced the
commencement of spring. The plains were ornamented by the flowers of a
pink wood-sorrel, wild peas, cenotherae, and geraniums; and the birds
began to lay their eggs. Numerous Lamellicorn and Heteromerous
insects, the latter remarkable for their deeply sculptured bodies, were
slowly crawling about; while the lizard tribe, the constant inhabitants
of a sandy soil, darted about in every direction. During the first
eleven days, whilst nature was dormant, the mean temperature taken from
observations made every two hours on board the Beagle, was 51 degs.;
and in the middle of the day the thermometer seldom ranged above 55
degs. On the eleven succeeding days, in which all living things became
so animated, the mean was 58 degs., and the range in the middle of the
day between 60 and 70 degs. Here, then, an increase of seven degrees
in mean temperature, but a greater one of extreme heat, was sufficient
to awake the functions of life. At Monte Video, from which we had just
before sailed, in the twenty-three days included between the 26th of
July and the 19th of August, the mean temperature from 276 observations
was 58.4 degs.; the mean hottest day being 65.5 degs., and the coldest
46 degs. The lowest point to which the thermometer fell was 41.5
degs., and occasionally in the middle of the day it rose to 69 or 70
degs. Yet with this high temperature, almost every beetle, several
genera of spiders, snails, and land-shells, toads and lizards were all
lying torpid beneath stones. But we have seen that at Bahia Blanca,
which is four degrees southward and therefore with a climate only a
very little colder, this same temperature with a rather less extreme
heat, was sufficient to awake all orders of animated beings. This shows
how nicely the stimulus required to arouse hybernating animals is
governed by the usual climate of the district, and not by the absolute
heat. It is well known that within the tropics, the hybernation, or
more properly aestivation, of animals is determined not by the
temperature, but by the times of drought. Near Rio de Janeiro, I was
at first surprised to observe, that, a few days after some little
depressions had been filled with water, they were peopled by numerous
full-grown shells and beetles, which must have been lying dormant.
Humboldt has related the strange accident of a hovel having been
erected over a spot where a young crocodile lay buried in the hardened
mud. He adds, "The Indians often find enormous boas, which they call
Uji or water serpents, in the same lethargic state. To reanimate them,
they must be irritated or wetted with water."
I will only mention one other animal, a zoophyte (I believe Virgularia
Patagonica), a kind of sea-pen. It consists of a thin, straight,
fleshy stem, with alternate rows of polypi on each side, and
surrounding an elastic stony axis, varying in length from eight inches
to two feet. The stem at one extremity is truncate, but at the other
is terminated by a vermiform fleshy appendage. The stony axis which
gives strength to the stem may be traced at this extremity into a mere
vessel filled with granular matter. At low water hundreds of these
zoophytes might be seen, projecting like stubble, with the truncate end
upwards, a few inches above the surface of the muddy sand. When
touched or pulled they suddenly drew themselves in with force, so as
nearly or quite to disappear. By this action, the highly elastic axis
must be bent at the lower extremity, where it is naturally slightly
curved; and I imagine it is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte
is enabled to rise again through the mud. Each polypus, though closely
united to its brethren, has a distinct mouth, body, and tentacula. Of
these polypi, in a large specimen, there must be many thousands; yet we
see that they act by one movement: they have also one central axis
connected with a system of obscure circulation, and the ova are
produced in an organ distinct from the separate individuals. [19] Well
may one be allowed to ask, what is an individual? It is always
interesting to discover the foundation of the strange tales of the old
voyagers; and I have no doubt but that the habits of this Virgularia
explain one such case. Captain Lancaster, in his voyage [20] in 1601,
narrates that on the sea-sands of the Island of Sombrero, in the East
Indies, he "found a small twig growing up like a young tree, and on
offering to pluck it up it shrinks down to the ground, and sinks,
unless held very hard. On being plucked up, a great worm is found to
be its root, and as the tree groweth in greatness, so doth the worm
diminish, and as soon as the worm is entirely turned into a tree it
rooteth in the earth, and so becomes great. This transformation is one
of the strangest wonders that I saw in all my travels: for if this tree
is plucked up, while young, and the leaves and bark stripped off, it
becomes a hard stone when dry, much like white coral: thus is this worm
twice transformed into different natures. Of these we gathered and
brought home many."
During my stay at Bahia Blanca, while waiting for the Beagle, the place
was in a constant state of excitement, from rumours of wars and
victories, between the troops of Rosas and the wild Indians. One day
an account came that a small party forming one of the postas on the
line to Buenos Ayres, had been found all murdered. The next day three
hundred men arrived from the Colorado, under the command of Commandant
Miranda. A large portion of these men were Indians (mansos, or tame),
belonging to the tribe of the Cacique Bernantio. They passed the night
here; and it was impossible to conceive anything more wild and savage
than the scene of their bivouac. Some drank till they were
intoxicated; others swallowed the steaming blood of the cattle
slaughtered for their suppers, and then, being sick from drunkenness,
they cast it up again, and were besmeared with filth and gore.
Nam simul expletus dapibus, vinoque sepultus Cervicem inflexam posuit,
jacuitque per antrum Immensus, saniem eructans, ac frusta cruenta Per
somnum commixta mero.
In the morning they started for the scene of the murder, with orders to
follow the "rastro," or track, even if it led them to Chile. We
subsequently heard that the wild Indians had escaped into the great
Pampas, and from some cause the track had been missed. One glance at
the rastro tells these people a whole history. Supposing they examine
the track of a thousand horses, they will soon guess the number of
mounted ones by seeing how many have cantered; by the depth of the
other impressions, whether any horses were loaded with cargoes; by the
irregularity of the footsteps, how far tired; by the manner in which
the food has been cooked, whether the pursued travelled in haste; by
the general appearance, how long it has been since they passed. They
consider a rastro of ten days or a fortnight, quite recent enough to be
hunted out. We also heard that Miranda struck from the west end of the
Sierra Ventana, in a direct line to the island of Cholechel, situated
seventy leagues up the Rio Negro. This is a distance of between two
and three hundred miles, through a country completely unknown. What
other troops in the world are so independent? With the sun for their
guide, mare's flesh for food, their saddle-cloths for beds,--as long as
there is a little water, these men would penetrate to the end of the
world.
A few days afterwards I saw another troop of these banditti-like
soldiers start on an expedition against a tribe of Indians at the small
Salinas, who had been betrayed by a prisoner cacique. The Spaniard who
brought the orders for this expedition was a very intelligent man. He
gave me an account of the last engagement at which he was present. Some
Indians, who had been taken prisoners, gave information of a tribe
living north of the Colorado. Two hundred soldiers were sent; and they
first discovered the Indians by a cloud of dust from their horses'
feet, as they chanced to be travelling. The country was mountainous
and wild, and it must have been far in the interior, for the Cordillera
were in sight. The Indians, men, women, and children, were about one
hundred and ten in number, and they were nearly all taken or killed,
for the soldiers sabre every man. The Indians are now so terrified
that they offer no resistance in a body, but each flies, neglecting
even his wife and children; but when overtaken, like wild animals, they
fight against any number to the last moment. One dying Indian seized
with his teeth the thumb of his adversary, and allowed his own eye to
be forced out sooner than relinquish his hold. Another, who was
wounded, feigned death, keeping a knife ready to strike one more fatal
blow. My informer said, when he was pursuing an Indian, the man cried
out for mercy, at the same time that he was covertly loosing the bolas
from his waist, meaning to whirl it round his head and so strike his
pursuer. "I however struck him with my sabre to the ground, and then
got off my horse, and cut his throat with my knife." This is a dark
picture; but how much more shocking is the unquestionable fact, that
all the women who appear above twenty years old are massacred in cold
blood! When I exclaimed that this appeared rather inhuman, he answered,
"Why, what can be done? they breed so!"
Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war,
because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that
such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?
The children of the Indians are saved, to be sold or given away as
servants, or rather slaves for as long a time as the owners can make
them believe themselves slaves; but I believe in their treatment there
is little to complain of.
In the battle four men ran away together. They were pursued, one was
killed, and the other three were taken alive. They turned out to be
messengers or ambassadors from a large body of Indians, united in the
common cause of defence, near the Cordillera. The tribe to which they
had been sent was on the point of holding a grand council, the feast of
mare's flesh was ready, and the dance prepared: in the morning the
ambassadors were to have returned to the Cordillera. They were
remarkably fine men, very fair, above six feet high, and all under
thirty years of age. The three survivors of course possessed very
valuable information and to extort this they were placed in a line. The
two first being questioned, answered, "No se" (I do not know), and were
one after the other shot. The third also said "No se;" adding, "Fire,
I am a man, and can die!" Not one syllable would they breathe to injure
the united cause of their country! The conduct of the above-mentioned
cacique was very different; he saved his life by betraying the intended
plan of warfare, and the point of union in the Andes. It was believed
that there were already six or seven hundred Indians together, and that
in summer their numbers would be doubled. Ambassadors were to have been
sent to the Indians at the small Salinas, near Bahia Blanca, whom I
have mentioned that this same cacique had betrayed. The communication,
therefore, between the Indians, extends from the Cordillera to the
coast of the Atlantic.
General Rosas's plan is to kill all stragglers, and having driven the
remainder to a common point, to attack them in a body, in the summer,
with the assistance of the Chilenos. This operation is to be repeated
for three successive years. I imagine the summer is chosen as the time
for the main attack, because the plains are then without water, and the
Indians can only travel in particular directions. The escape of the
Indians to the south of the Rio Negro, where in such a vast unknown
country they would be safe, is prevented by a treaty with the
Tehuelches to this effect;--that Rosas pays them so much to slaughter
every Indian who passes to the south of the river, but if they fail in
so doing, they themselves are to be exterminated. The war is waged
chiefly against the Indians near the Cordillera; for many of the tribes
on this eastern side are fighting with Rosas. The general, however,
like Lord Chesterfield, thinking that his friends may in a future day
become his enemies, always places them in the front ranks, so that
their numbers may be thinned. Since leaving South America we have
heard that this war of extermination completely failed.
Among the captive girls taken in the same engagement, there were two
very pretty Spanish ones, who had been carried away by the Indians when
young, and could now only speak the Indian tongue. From their account
they must have come from Salta, a distance in a straight line of nearly
one thousand miles. This gives one a grand idea of the immense
territory over which the Indians roam: yet, great as it is, I think
there will not, in another half-century, be a wild Indian northward of
the Rio Negro. The warfare is too bloody to last; the Christians
killing every Indian, and the Indians doing the same by the Christians.
It is melancholy to trace how the Indians have given way before the
Spanish invaders. Schirdel [21] says that in 1535, when Buenos Ayres
was founded, there were villages containing two and three thousand
inhabitants. Even in Falconer's time (1750) the Indians made inroads
as far as Luxan, Areco, and Arrecife, but now they are driven beyond
the Salado. Not only have whole tribes been exterminated, but the
remaining Indians have become more barbarous: instead of living in
large villages, and being employed in the arts of fishing, as well as
of the chase, they now wander about the open plains, without home or
fixed occupation.
I heard also some account of an engagement which took place, a few
weeks previously to the one mentioned, at Cholechel. This is a very
important station on account of being a pass for horses; and it was, in
consequence, for some time the head-quarters of a division of the army.
When the troops first arrived there they found a tribe of Indians, of
whom they killed twenty or thirty. The cacique escaped in a manner
which astonished every one. The chief Indians always have one or two
picked horses, which they keep ready for any urgent occasion. On one
of these, an old white horse, the cacique sprung, taking with him his
little son. The horse had neither saddle nor bridle. To avoid the
shots, the Indian rode in the peculiar method of his nation namely,
with an arm round the horse's neck, and one leg only on its back. Thus
hanging on one side, he was seen patting the horse's head, and talking
to him. The pursuers urged every effort in the chase; the Commandant
three times changed his horse, but all in vain. The old Indian father
and his son escaped, and were free. What a fine picture one can form
in one's mind,--the naked, bronze-like figure of the old man with his
little boy, riding like a Mazeppa on the white horse, thus leaving far
behind him the host of his pursuers!
I saw one day a soldier striking fire with a piece of flint, which I
immediately recognised as having been a part of the head of an arrow.
He told me it was found near the island of Cholechel, and that they are
frequently picked up there. It was between two and three inches long,
and therefore twice as large as those now used in Tierra del Fuego: it
was made of opaque cream-coloured flint, but the point and barbs had
been intentionally broken off. It is well known that no Pampas Indians
now use bows and arrows. I believe a small tribe in Banda Oriental
must be excepted; but they are widely separated from the Pampas
Indians, and border close on those tribes that inhabit the forest, and
live on foot. It appears, therefore, that these arrow-heads are
antiquarian [22] relics of the Indians, before the great change in
habits consequent on the introduction of the horse into South America.
[1] Since this was written, M. Alcide d'Orbingy has examined these
shells, and pronounces them all to be recent.
[2] M. Aug. Bravard has described, in a Spanish work ('Observaciones
Geologicas,' 1857), this district, and he believes that the bones of
the extinct mammals were washed out of the underlying Pampean deposit,
and subsequently became embedded with the still existing shells; but I
am not convinced by his remarks. M. Bravard believes that the whole
enormous Pampean deposit is a sub-aerial formation, like sand-dunes:
this seems to me to be an untenable doctrine.
[3] Principles of Geology, vol. iv. p. 40.
[4] This theory was first developed in the Zoology of the Voyage of the
Beagle, and subsequently in Professor Owen's Memoir on Mylodon robustus.
[5] I mean this to exclude the total amount which may have been
successively produced and consumed during a given period.
[6] Travels in the Interior of South Africa, vol. ii. p. 207
[7] The elephant which was killed at Exeter Change was estimated (being
partly weighed) at five tons and a half. The elephant actress, as I was
informed, weighed one ton less; so that we may take five as the average
of a full-grown elephant. I was told at the Surry Gardens, that a
hippopotamus which was sent to England cut up into pieces was estimated
at three tons and a half; we will call it three. From these premises
we may give three tons and a half to each of the five rhinoceroses;
perhaps a ton to the giraffe, and half to the bos caffer as well as to
the elan (a large ox weighs from 1200 to 1500 pounds). This will give
an average (from the above estimates) of 2.7 of a ton for the ten
largest herbivorous animals of Southern Africa. In South America,
allowing 1200 pounds for the two tapirs together, 550 for the guanaco
and vicuna, 500 for three deer, 300 for the capybara, peccari, and a
monkey, we shall have an average of 250 pounds, which I believe is
overstating the result. The ratio will therefore be as 6048 to 250, or
24 to 1, for the ten largest animals from the two continents.
[8] If we suppose the case of the discovery of a skeleton of a
Greenland whale in a fossil state, not a single cetaceous animal being
known to exist, what naturalist would have ventured conjecture on the
possibility of a carcass so gigantic being supported on the minute
crustacea and mollusca living in the frozen seas of the extreme North?
[9] See Zoological Remarks to Capt. Back's Expedition, by Dr.
Richardson. He says, "The subsoil north of latitude 56 degs. is
perpetually frozen, the thaw on the coast not penetrating above three
feet, and at Bear Lake, in latitude 64 degs., not more than twenty
inches. The frozen substratum does not of itself destroy vegetation,
for forests flourish on the surface, at a distance from the coast."
[10] See Humboldt, Fragments Asiatiques, p. 386: Barton's Geography of
Plants: and Malte Brun. In the latter work it is said that the limit
of the growth of trees in Siberia may be drawn under the parallel of 70
degs.
[11] Sturt's Travels, vol. ii. p. 74.
[12] A Gaucho assured me that he had once seen a snow-white or Albino
variety, and that it was a most beautiful bird.
[13] Burchell's Travels, vol. i. p. 280.
[14] Azara, vol. iv. p. 173.
[15] Lichtenstein, however, asserts (Travels, vol. ii. p. 25) that the
hens begin sitting when they have laid ten or twelve eggs; and that
they continue laying, I presume, in another nest. This appears to me
very improbable. He asserts that four or five hens associate for
incubation with one cock, who sits only at night.
[16] When at the Rio Negro, we heard much of the indefatigable labours
of this naturalist. M. Alcide d'Orbigny, during the years 1825 to
1833, traversed several large portions of South America, and has made a
collection, and is now publishing the results on a scale of
magnificence, which at once places himself in the list of American
travellers second only to Humboldt.
[17] Account of the Abipones, A.D. 1749, vol. i. (English Translation)
p. 314
[18] M. Bibron calls it T. crepitans.
[19] The cavities leading from the fleshy compartments of the
extremity, were filled with a yellow pulpy matter, which, examined
under a microscope, presented an extraordinary appearance. The mass
consisted of rounded, semi-transparent, irregular grains, aggregated
together into particles of various sizes. All such particles, and the
separate grains, possessed the power of rapid movement; generally
revolving around different axes, but sometimes progressive. The
movement was visible with a very weak power, but even with the highest
its cause could not be perceived. It was very different from the
circulation of the fluid in the elastic bag, containing the thin
extremity of the axis. On other occasions, when dissecting small
marine animals beneath the microscope, I have seen particles of pulpy
matter, some of large size, as soon as they were disengaged, commence
revolving. I have imagined, I know not with how much truth, that this
granulo-pulpy matter was in process of being converted into ova.
Certainly in this zoophyte such appeared to be the case.
[20] Kerr's Collection of Voyages, vol. viii. p. 119.
[21] Purchas's Collection of Voyages. I believe the date was really
1537.
[22] Azara has even doubted whether the Pampas Indians ever used bows.