the interior, we may be sure that boating passages across the Thames
would be common, and very soon a link with the road to Dover would be
formed on this line. Thus, the road through Southwark must have followed
the foundation of London immediately. As is well known, Ptolemy put
Londinium in Kent, but he—as Dr. Bradley pointed out—was frequently very
wrong in regard to inland places.
[Illustration:
FIG. 171.
]
[Illustration:
FIG. 172.
]
An ancient bronze mace-head was discovered in the gravel taken from
under old London Bridge, which, I believe, has never been illustrated
(Fig. 171). It was one of the mace-heads which are classed in the
British Museum as of the Bronze Age, but they are, I think, early
British. I have found a drawing of the mace-head in question in some
interesting volumes of sketches by Fairholt at the South Kensington
Museum. Fairholt’s note reads: “Bronze mace found at Barnes, November
10, 1841, amongst the gravel taken from old London Bridge.” Fig. 172 is
an early bronze mace-head from Italy, in the British Museum, given for
comparison.
The conditions were favourable for establishing a way in the line of
London Bridge, for hard ground here approaches near to the south bank of
the river. That the Roman city spread from Walbrook Creek as a centre is
now generally agreed. Mr. Lambert’s plan of the finding-places of
Claudian and pre-Claudian coins shows them distributed near the
primitive port. Again, the city Watling Street is probably the beginning
of the old road from the port. Wren found traces of an old street
running aslant under the end of old St. Paul’s, and this probably formed
part of the way towards Aldersgate. The acceptance of such a route as
the main street of the oldest London would solve the difficulty of the
“fault” in the lines of Newgate Street and Cheapside. I suppose that the
Roman street through Newgate (which all would agree was formed at a late
time when the walls and gates were built) branched westward from the old
Verulam road I have been describing. In a similar way, the Roman road on
the course of Old Street probably branched to the east out of the same
ancient Verulam road. Mr. Codrington and others have supposed that the
road to the east was continued also westward, but no evidence of this
has been found. Stow, in his account of Aldersgate Street, says: “On the
east side at a Red Cross turneth the Ealde Street, so called for that it
was the old highway from Aldersgate Street for the north-east parts of
England before Bishopsgate was builded.”
[Illustration:
FIG. 173.
]
_The Westminster Crossing._—It was remarked above that the emergence of
Verulam into importance probably followed on the use of a river crossing
at Westminster and a trackway in the course of Edgware Road, which is
known to have been part of a later Roman highway—the Great Watling
Street. It is generally allowed, as by Dr. Rice Holmes, that a British
trackway underlies the general course of this great Roman highway from
Dover to St. Albans and beyond. The monk Higden, writing about 1360,
said that Watling Street passed to the west of Westminster, but it has
been objected that what the monk thought was not evidence. However, in
his time and until about two centuries ago, an important river crossing
was maintained at the Horse-Ferry. The Horse-Ferry Road appears to have
been made to divert a direct passage at Westminster when the great hall
of the new Palace was built, about 1100. Sighting the line of Tothill
Street, we see that it would have passed by the old Palace, but that the
Hall blocks the way. The Abbey lies at the side of this line, which
seems to mark the boundary of St. Margaret’s churchyard. Here, too, were
found the Roman tomb and what appears to be a terminus mark (T II). The
Horse-ferry is mentioned in an order of 1246: “The Bailiff of Kennington
is to cause a barge to be made to carry people and horses over the
Thames” (Hudson Turner’s _Domestic Architecture_, vol. i.). Canterbury
documents show that the ferry was later in the charge of the Archbishop
of Canterbury, and doubtless Lambeth Palace exists here as being on the
great road. In the more direct line there still exists a short street
called Stangate, which is an old name for a paved way. When Elizabeth,
daughter of Henry VII., died at Eltham, “her body was conveyed to
Stangate over against Westminster” (Sandford). A way to the river also
was long maintained through New Palace Yard to a landing-place (see Fig.
173), from Norden’s map, _c._ 1600). Matthew Paris, in his route map of
the way to Jerusalem, shows London Bridge and also the Westminster and
Lambeth route, because these were alternative crossings. Tothill Street
is mentioned in mediæval documents. It is possible that in early days
there was a ford at Westminster, for Mr. Lambert has given reasons for
thinking that formerly the tide did not rise so high as at present by 6
ft. Testimony on the course of the way from Westminster to Edgware Road
is given in Ogilvie’s _Road Book_, 1675: “Piccadilly ... on the left
falls in the way from Westminster by Tuttle Street; four poles from this
corner, you have a way on the right by the side of Hyde Park into the
other road at Tyburn.” The ancient road from Westminster would have
crossed what is now Green Park in the direction of Tyburn Lane, now Park
Lane. Here, in Tyburn Lane, was “Osulstone,” which gave its name to the
Hundred in which London city is situated (see map recently reproduced by
London Topographical Society). Tyburn, close by, was the place of
execution, and doubtless the place of meeting of the old folk-mote of
the Hundred, because it was at the cross roads. I have more detail
establishing the continuity of this route (on which Dr. Haverfield
expressed doubt), but I will pass to a few general final considerations.
The primitive road in Kent as far as Greenwich was on high ground, but
beyond was the wide river valley. By bending to the left on the edge of
higher ground, through Camberwell where Roman objects have been found,
the river might be more nearly approached opposite Westminster, and
there was solid land on the opposite bank also. Beyond, at Park Lane,
the higher firm ground pushed down towards Westminster, between two
little streams—the road here, indeed, was a low ridgeway. All evidence
suggests that a British road to Verulam passed the Thames at
Westminster. In Allen’s _Lambeth_, it is said that three “Celts” were
found in digging the foundations of Westminster Bridge. Now, in
Fairholt’s _Albums of Sketches_, at South Kensington, are drawings of
three bronze weapons thus described: “Swords and spear found August
1847, under Westminster Bridge by a ballast heaver.” The swords (Fig.
174) were 28½ in. and 23½ in. long, the spear-head or dagger was 16½ in.
long. Other pieces of British bronze work have been found in the river
in the neighbourhood of the Westminster crossing. Westminster Bridge
itself still carries on the tradition by crossing the river at this
point, and it is interesting to find recorded that the building of the
bridge in the line of the Horse-ferry was the first intention. The
importance of the Horse-ferry about 1700 is shown by the list of charges
given in Hatton’s _New View_ (1708).
[Illustration:
FIG. 174.
]
My general results in regard to the British and Roman road systems may
be summarised thus:
1. A primitive trackway along the North Downs near the south bank of the
river.
2. An ancient river-crossing by a ford at Westminster and thence
north-west through Britain.
3. The growth of Verulam on this road, and the rise of London as a port
in connection with it.
4. A direct London-Verulam road made over Islington—a ridgeway.
5. Hardly two or three persons possessing a boat could have been settled
on the site of London before a direct path across Southwark would be
taken to reach the Kentish road; thus the route marked by London Bridge
must be of pre-Roman origin.
6. Other ways were thrown out; along the Strand to the Westminster
crossing; along the comparatively high ground of Piccadilly to the west,
and by Old Street and Old Ford to the east.
7. The British road system was rectified by Roman engineers. The chief
route was now over London Bridge; the Roman road along Oxford Street was
made in connection with the enlarged Londinium issuing from it at
Newgate; it was continued to Brentford, where it met the older road by
Piccadilly; the old track from Westminster to Verulam was improved only
from this new road, and the link across the river became of secondary
importance; Mile End Road superseded the route by Old Ford. There were
thus older and newer roads—British ways following the higher and harder
ground; and Roman roads laid down in straight lines.
In saying that London had its origin as the port of Verulam, I would not
necessarily imply more than this: each may so have reacted on the other
that it would be impossible to say which was the first cause. It is
possible, indeed, that the Belgic kingdoms of south-east England were
founded by invasions striking up the river, and that a landing at the
site of London was earlier than settling down about St. Albans. It is
remarkable that the Cattivellauni and Atrabates occupied much the same
relative places in Britain as they did in their continental homes about
Chalons and Arras. In this case, however, London would be none the less
the port of Verulam.
Camden clearly saw that London began as a port. Discussing its name, he
suggested as one possibility that “It might have had its name from the
same original that it had its growth and glory; I mean ships, called by
the British Lhong; so that London is a Harbour or City of Ships. For
several cities have had their name from shipping, none of which can lay
better claim to the name of harbour than our London. For ’tis admirably
accommodated with both elements, and the river Thames brings it in the
riches of the world. Moreover, it is such a sure and complete station
for ships that one may liken it to a groved wood, so shaded it is with
masts and sails.”
Conyers, the old antiquary apothecary, two centuries and a half ago,
said: “Verulam was a kingly seat of the Britons, and the principal trade
they had was between Verulam and London. So that on Watling or Verulam
road there was a communication backward and forward.”
THE END
------------------------------------------------------------------------
+INDEX+
Alexandria, 8.
Alignment, 46, 53, 145, 152.
Altar, 128.
Ante-fix, 29.
Apotropaic sculpture, 140.
Apse, 33, 35, 42, 44, 47.
Arches, 12, 17, 18.
Atys, 139.
Augusta (Londinium), 219.
Bacchus, 144.
Barbican, 80.
Basilica, 16, 33.
Bastions, 62.
Baths, 49.
Bone objects, 203, 212.
Bricks, 10, 15, 37.
Bridge, 41, 44, 54, 80.
Britannia, 129.
Bronzes, 121, 139.
Buildings, 32, 33.
Capitals, 11.
Carpentry, 21, 30, 43.
Cemeteries, 84.
Chariot races, 51, 199, 204, 210.
Chimney, 24.
Christianity, 94, 96, 158, 160, 208, 212, 214, 217, 225.
City (the), 55, 83, 119, 129, 184.
Coffins, 92, 208.
Coins, 220.
Colour, 85, 112.
Columns, 11, 16, 28, 34, 35, 39, 135.
Commerce, 193, 202, 215, 230, 234.
Concrete, 10, 12, 27, 37.
Constantine, 220.
Copings, 11, 116.
Crosses, 156, 219.
Cymbeline, 230.
Dadoes, 167.
Decoration, 161.
Diana, 128.
Ditches, 79.
Education, 191.
Enamels, 206, 224.
Figure painting, 171.
Floors, 27, 158.
Flues, 15, 23, 43.
Foot-rule, 8.
Ford, 241.
Forum, 33.
Friezes, 136.
Gates, 76.
Gladiators, 199, 204.
Glass, 31, 148, 159, 194, 202.
Gods, 103, 127, 132.
Greek workmen, 160.
Hadrian, 121.
Hercules, 127.
Hinges, locks, etc., 30.
Houses, 23, 42, 44.
Hunting, 198.
Hypocausts, 23.
Imperial statues, 121.
Impersonations, 126.
Inscriptions, 42, 110, 115, 149, 161, 176.
Jove and giant columns, 101, 139.
Lamps, 222.
Latin, 20, 184, 193.
Leadwork, 32, 140, 208.
Leather work, 212.
Lettering, 176.
Lions, 140.
Londinium (origin of), 228.
Mace (bronze), 238.
Marbles, 42, 99, 174, 194.
Masonry, 9.
Mausolea, 109.
Mirror, 203.
Mithras, 133.
Monograms, 221, 225.
Mortar, 12.
Mosaics, 42, 142, 175.
Mouldings, 11.
_Opus signinum_, 17, 27.
Ornament, 135.
Orpheus, 149, 160.
Osulstone, 242.
Painting, 29, 33, 35, 42, 162.
Peacocks, 139, 151.
Pewter, 211, 225.
Piling, 14, 21, 43.
Pine-cones, 139.
Plastering, 23, 28, 35, 226.
Porphyry, 174.
Port, 28, 80, 193, 230.
Portraits, 124.
Pottery, 194, 200, 232.
Roads, 243.
Romanesque art, 30, 137, 143, 159.
Roofs, 10, 16, 25, 29, 39.
Saints of London, 218.
Sarcophagi, 94.
Sculpture, 85, 100, 114, 119.
Sewers and drains, 21, 37.
Site and soil, 84.
Skirtings, 29.
Statues, 42.
Streets, 33, 40, 43, 52.
Style, 7, 11.
Sun-dial, 161.
Symbolism, 138.
Tablets, 99.
Temples, 49, 150, 187, 191.
Thames impersonation, 132.
Thatch, 23.
Theatre, 51.
Tomb-houses, 116.
Tombs, 84, 100, 112.
Tools, 8, 30.
Turning, 30.
Vaults, 17, 35.
Walbrook, 61.
Wall (the City), 16, 57.
Wall tiles, 25.
Walling, 9, 13, 22, 33, 37.
Water-pipes, 21, 32.
Wattle and daub, 10, 22.
Wells, 44.
Westminster, 19, 240.
Windows, 29, 31.
Winds, 133.
Zodiac, 133.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
● Transcriber’s Notes:
○ This book uses the mid dot “·” to separate the integer part of a
number from the decimal fraction.
○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected.
○ Typographical errors were silently corrected.
○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only
when a predominant form was found in this book.
○ Text that:
was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_);
had extra character spacing by “plus” signs (+stretched+).