THE BEGINNING OF THE FACTORY.
The industry was entering on a new phase. The introduction of moulds had
required specialized block-cutters, flat and hollow-ware pressers and
casters. And the specializing in the mixtures of the clay body lead to
further changes. Till 1740 the same clay body served for both salt glaze
and lead glaze, but about this time manufacturers began to specialize in
either salt _or_ lead glaze, and to use different bodies and mixtures to
suit the varied glazes.
And, just as they had to arrange to import clays, so they had also to
arrange to export their wares. A London agent, a Liverpool agent, perhaps
a Birmingham agent became necessary. This sort of business could no
longer be carried on by a master potter on sixteen shillings a week. The
master potter became a capitalist. No business could be successfully
carried on with a turnover of one ovenful a week. The first attempt
to increase the output was made by either one Shrigley, of Burslem
Hadderidge,[54] or by John Mitchell of the Hill Top.[55] As no potter, so
goes the story, had ever had more than one oven, their inventive faculty
went no farther than to construct a larger oven than usual. The pioneer,
whoever he was, built a new one so large that it collapsed, to the great
joy of his conservative rivals. Soon afterwards, however, the Baddeleys,
said to have been the sons of a Moddershall flint-grinder, put up behind
their factory at Shelton a row of no fewer than four ovens; and about
1743, Thomas and John Wedgwood, known as “of the Big House,” built a
tiled factory with five ovens.[56]
The family of Baddeley continued as master potters in Shelton into
the nineteenth century. They were, with the exception of Wedgwood and
possibly Warburton, the largest exporters of earthenware of their
day.[57] Their cream colour was good, but their renown with later
generations is due to their basket-pattern salt glaze, often perforated.
John Baddeley died in 1772, but the family carried on the making of
enamelled and plain salt glaze to a later date than other manufacturers,
certainly after 1780, and good salt glaze of late date is usually
ascribed to the Baddeleys of Shelton.[58] The Wedgwoods of the Big
House made the white salt glaze of a somewhat earlier description—the
cast hexagonal cups and teapots in plain white—and with such financial
success, that they built for themselves in 1750 a “Big House” in Burslem,
which stands to this day at the corner of the Market Place looking south
down the new Waterloo Road.[59] It is now the Conservative Club. Thomas
was an expert thrower to begin with, and John the best oven fireman in
the town.[60] They retired from business in 1765 with a large fortune.
It is said that in 1750 no fewer than sixty factories were making salt
glaze in the Potteries, and every Saturday, for five hours at the time
of firing up, the whole country was black with the smoke of the burning
salt—so black, it is said, that people groped their way through the
streets of Burslem. But meanwhile Enoch Booth at Tunstall had invented
the fluid lead-glaze destined in time to turn plain earthenware into
“cream-colour”; Josiah Wedgwood at Burslem was already devising new
mixtures which should convert “cream-colour” into “Queen’s Ware”; and
in Hot Lane, near by, John Warburton was starting that enamelling
work which, applied to the Queen’s Ware, was to make it the standard
earthenware of the whole world. These three potters were to alter
entirely the course of the industry, and make salt glaze a thing of the
past, for museums and collections. Unfortunately they did not abolish the
smoke.
Enoch Booth had married Ann, daughter of Thomas Child of Tunstall. It
was on his father-in-law’s land that, about 1745, he started the first
considerable earthenware factory in Tunstall. Booth was the legitimate
successor of Astbury. He took the earthenware body, white as Astbury
had left it, and, instead of using it for salt glaze, he worked out the
most suitable lead glaze, and the best way of applying it to the piece.
Instead of dusting it over the ware in the dangerous dry condition, he
ground the lead ore up with flint and clay and water. Into this fluid
glaze the ware was dipped. Not only did this give a uniform glossy coat
on each piece of ware, but different pieces were all glazed alike.
Booth had the ware dipped after it had been fired, while it was in the
porous or “biscuit” condition but sufficiently firm to be handled. A
second firing to fuse on the glaze was given to the ware after dipping.
These two firings, in the biscuit oven and in the “glost” oven, are the
ordinary processes of manufacture to this day. Shaw gives 1750 as the
date of this important improvement;[61] it is possible that fluid glazes
were used before this and by others, but it was the combination of fluid
glaze and double firing that is important, and this with some certainty
we may put down to Enoch Booth and the year 1750.
Booth’s original factory at Tunstall was probably the “Old Bank” at the
corner of Cross Street and Well Street, but he extended his works at an
early date over the whole of the area now bounded by Well Street, Market
Square, High Street and Calver Street, where he built the Phœnix Works.
Sometime before 1781[62] he had been succeeded by Anthony Keeling who had
married his daughter Ann. Anthony Keeling built Calver House in 1793,
but his trade suffered in the French wars, and in 1810 he retired from
business and went to Liverpool where he died in 1816.[63] The Phœnix
Works were carried on by Thomas Goodfellow till they were pulled down
about 1860.
Ware, besides being thrown, moulded or cast, and coated with the
transparent glaze of salt or lead, requires decoration. This decoration
could be given by coloured clay slips, after the manner of the old Toft
dishes, or after the manner of Ralph Shaw’s “graffiato” ware, or as what
is called “scratched blue.” But decoration could also be given by means
of enamelling paints. Paints that is which are mixed with glass, and, on
being heated, fuse into the glaze and become fast. This enamelling was
in the early days a special trade and no part of the potter’s business.
The shopkeeper might, if he liked, employ somebody called an enameller
to enamel his particular cups and saucers. The enameller used a small
“muffle” stove where the ware could be heated sufficiently to fuse the
glaze and paint together, while at the same time it was kept away from
direct contact with flames or smoke.
[Illustration: Scratched blue salt glaze cup, dated 1750. From the
Stoke-on-Trent Museums.]
The best enamellers were to be found in London, engaged in enamelling the
porcelain of Bow and Chelsea; but it soon became obvious that enamellers
were wanted in the Staffordshire potteries also. It was again two
Dutchmen who initiated into this art the native potters of Staffordshire.
They probably knew the Warburtons and set up their enamelling ovens
near them in Hot Lane.[64] Here they worked and attempted to keep their
art secret, with the usual result of attracting special attention.
Their stoves, their mixtures and their temperatures soon became public
property, and a regular enamelling industry was soon established round
Hot Lane. It is said to have been Ralph Daniel, the man who had brought
the secret of plaster of Paris moulds from Paris, who did most to develop
enamelling.[65] He imported workmen from London, Bristol and Liverpool,
and soon after 1750 the enamelling of earthenware and salt glaze became
a Staffordshire industry. Among enamellers too should be mentioned a
Shelton potter, Walter Edwards, who was chemist and enameller as well as
potter. He had as partner the Rev. John Middleton, curate of Hanley from
1737-1802, but Edwards, unlike the curate, died young in 1753, leaving a
book full of receipts for glazes and enamels. The difficulty always was
to get metallic oxides which would stand heat.
From an artistic point of view they had much better have left their
salt glaze plain white, or drab, or uniformly tinted by a slip dip. The
salt-glaze body compared with Chinese porcelain; their painting did not
compare with Chinese painting, or only compared in an unfortunate sense
for Staffordshire. Earthenware, being made for use, had less decoration,
and what it got was less gaudy and more suited for serviceable articles.
[Illustration: Enamelled salt glaze jug, probably by Baddeley of Shelton,
dated 1760. From the Stoke-on-Trent Museums. The jug was a presentation
piece from the Rev. J. Middleton, who was a partner with the above
Baddeley.]
There was however one very successful, or at least artistically
successful, manner of colouring the salt glaze. It was practised by
William Littler and Aaron Wedgwood (1717-1763), two brothers-in-law who
about 1740 were making salt-glaze pottery at Brownhills. Taking a hint
from Astbury, they dipped their ware in a bath of carefully lawned
slip, so as to gave it a smooth surface before firing. In this slip they
proceeded to put cobalt, which gave a beautiful uniform blue to the
whole piece, and this smooth blue body, under the salt glaze, acquired
a tint of great brilliance. On the strength of Shaw’s account of this
process,[66] many writers have mistakenly attributed to William Littler
and Aaron Wedgwood the first introduction of liquid glazes, but it is
quite clear, as Mr Burton has pointed out, that this was no leaded blue
glaze, but a blue slip subsequently glazed with salt.[67]
Their success with the salt glaze induced Littler and Wedgwood to make
the first attempt to produce real porcelain in Staffordshire. The
proper distinction between earthenware and porcelain is the complete
vitrification of the body in the case of porcelain, as opposed to the
vitrifying and glazing of the surface only in the case of earthenware.
The Bow porcelain factory had started in 1744, Chelsea in 1745, Worcester
in 1751. In 1752 Littler and Wedgwood left their Brownhills factory and
removed to Longton Hall. Here they began to make the well-known Longton
Hall porcelain. Perhaps Wedgwood or Littler had worked at Chelsea.
However that may be, the porcelain manufactured was of the Chelsea
type. The body was largely made of ground glass, while china clay,
the basis of true porcelain, was not used at all. The characteristic
feature of this Longton Hall porcelain is the bright under-glaze blue
that previously adorned Littler’s salt-glaze ware. This Longton Hall
factory only continued till 1758.[68] Owing to the lack of demand for
this kind of ware, they lost all their money in the venture and finally
discontinued it. The stock-in-trade is said to have been bought up by
Duesbury, who transferred it to the Derby porcelain factory, started in
1756.[69] It was not till the discovery of China Clay and China Stone and
of their fusing properties in 1768 that porcelain was again attempted
in Staffordshire. Through his daughter Ann this Aaron Wedgwood was
the grandfather of William Clowes, known as the “founder” of Primitive
Methodism.
While the manufacture of salt glaze was flourishing, more especially
at the northern end of the district, the old soft-fired earthenware,
mottled, black and cloudy, was still being made, and the old slip
decorated ware had not entirely vanished. But the only famous potter in
what might be called the old Staffordshire style was Thomas Whieldon.
Thomas Whieldon began making pots at Little Fenton about 1740. He was a
better educated class of man than the ordinary potter. He potted well;
enjoyed trials and experiments for their own sake; and, through his
connection with both Wedgwood and Spode, he may be said to have had the
same influence on the taste and education of the Staffordshire potters
that Elers had unintentionally half a century before. If we are to
believe Shaw, writing in 1828, he began in a very humble way. He says:
“In 1740 Mr Thomas Whieldon’s manufactory at Little Fenton consisted of a
small range of low buildings, all thatched. His early productions were
knife hafts for the Sheffield cuttlers; and snuffboxes for the Birmingham
hardwaremen, to finish with hoops, hinges and springs; which he himself
usually carried in a basket to the tradesmen; and being much like agate
they were greatly in request.”[70]
Plot mentions how the old potters used to marble their ware by combing
together the different coloured slips, just as the paper on the inside of
book-bindings is now marbled. Whieldon carried on this imitation work,
and made it artistic and important. Instead, however, of marbling the
slip or the glaze, he marbled his clay body in the solid. Flat “bats” of
clay of different colours—coloured either naturally or else artificially
with manganese, cobalt or copper—were laid on each other, and pressed
and sliced again and again; care being taken to preserve the same run of
the grain. In this way a streaked body was produced, which, when pressed
into moulds, retained the curious markings of agate or marble. This was
Whieldon’s “solid agate,” with which the new trade in snuff boxes and
knife handles was supplied.[71]
He made toys, too, and chimney ornaments of this same new material, or
else glazed with brilliant coloured glazes in splashes of irregular
colour. He made larger goods also—teapots, dishes and vases in solid
agate. All these were pressed in moulds; and for moulder or block-cutter
he had, from about 1746 onwards, the celebrated Aaron Wood. The
cream-coloured body, with Enoch Booth’s transparent lead glaze, afforded
Whieldon another material on which to work. He took the colourless fluid
glaze and turned it madder brown with manganese, or yellow with iron
oxide, or green with copper, or blue with cobalt. Then he mixed them
to give every shade of coloured glaze, and laid these glazes on the
ware to give infinite variety. In this way he produced those beautiful
tortoiseshell wares for which he is most renowned. His agate ware is
solid; his tortoiseshell ware is a glaze.[72]
He had acquired fame as a skilful potter before Josiah Wedgwood joined
him in 1754, and probably produced already both the solid agate and the
tortoiseshell. In his last popular production—the melon, cauliflower,
and pineapple wares, with their brilliant green glaze—it is probable that
Wedgwood’s incessant experiments played a decisive part.
Besides having Wedgwood as a partner, he had in his employ such examples
of the new race of potters as Josiah Spode, Robert Garner, J. Barker, and
Wm. Greatbach. Jewitt[73] has preserved for us some of the hiring books
and accounts of Thomas Whieldon, in which the names and pay of three of
these four apprentices occur, and which, as they are unique evidence of
wages, are here given:
1749
Jany 27 Hired Jno Austin for placeing white &c. per week 5 6
Pd his whole earnest[74] 3 0
Feby 14 Then hired Thos. Dutton 6 6
Pd 1 pr Stockings 3 6
Earnest for vineing (? veining) 15 0
Feby 20 Hired Wm. Cope for handleing and vineing cast ware 7 0
Pd his whole earnest 10 6
28 Hird Robt. Garner per week 6 6
Earnest 10 6
Pd him towards it 1 0
I am to make his earnest about 5s. more in
something.[75]
Mar 8 Then hired Jno Barker for ye huvels (ovens) @ 5 6
Pd earnest in part 1 0
Pd it to pay more 1 0
Ap. 9 Hired Siah Spoade, to give him from this time
to Martelmas next 2s. 3d., or 2s. 6d. if he
deserves it
2nd year 2 9
3rd year 3 3
Pd full earnest 1 0
June 2 Hired a boy of Ann Blowers for treading ye lathe, @ 2 0
Pd earnest 6
1751
Jany 11 Then hired Saml. Jackson for Throwing Sagers and
fireing, per week 8 0
Whole earnest 2 2 0
Pd in part 1 2 0
Pd more [_sic_] 1 1 0
1752
Febry 22 Hired Josiah Spoad for next Martlemas, per week 7 0
I am to give him earn’ 5 0
Pd in part 1 0
Pd do. 4 0
1753
June 21 Hired Wm. Marsh for 3 years. He is to have 10s.
6d. earnest each year, and 7s. per week. I am
to give an old coat or something abt 5s. value.
Aug. 29 Hired Westaby’s 3 children, per week 4 0
Pd earnest 6
1754
Feby 25 Hired Siah Spode per week 7 6
Earnest 1 11 6
Pd in part 16 0
Apparently workmen were hired by the year,[76] and the highest wages
paid were 8s. a week. It will be seen that there has been practically
no increase in wages since the early days of the century. One wonders
where Wedgwood and Spode obtained the capital wherewith to start their
businesses.
Josiah Wedgwood was Whieldon’s partner from 1754 to 1759. One of the
stipulations of the partnership is said to have been that Wedgwood
might keep his experiments to himself. It is certain that he did
experiment extensively, and we may attribute to him the green glaze and
successful patterns of the “cauliflower” and “pineapple” wares.[77] It
would be a mistake to depreciate these patterns as being unsuitable
and vulgar imitations of nature. The natural shapes were adapted and
conventionalized in a thoroughly artistic way, as anyone who looks at
Whieldon’s or Wedgwood’s samples of this ware preserved in the South
Kensington Museum can see at a glance. Slavish imitations there were
later, but that was not Whieldon’s way.
[Illustration: Staffordshire figures decorated with Whieldon glaze,
probably by Wedgwood. _c._ 1760. Stoke-on-Trent Museums.]
Taste changed, however, and Whieldon’s wares became unfashionable. It is
only of quite recent years that the agate and marble, perfected later
by Wedgwood, or the quaint cottage chimney ornaments and tortoiseshell
ware of Whieldon, Wedgwood and Ralph Wood, have come to be valued as
a native and genuine Staffordshire art. When Whieldon found that his
market had left him he made no attempt to follow in the wake of his
pupils, and about 1780 retired from business. His factory was just south
of the present railway station at Stoke, and he built and lived in the
house which still looks down upon the Trent and the railway. In 1786 he
served as High Sheriff for the county. He died in 1798, and is buried at
Stoke. His widow died in 1828, and one of his sons, Edward, was for many
years Rector of Burslem, and lived at Hales Hall, near Cheadle. But his
descendants are now no longer to be found in the potteries.
We know of two other manufacturers who made agate and tortoiseshell
ware—Daniel Bird, called “the flint potter” because of his experiments
with different proportions of flint in the clay body,[78] and John and
Thomas Alders of Cliff Bank. There were probably many others. These two
made buttons and knife handles very largely. Both worked at the Stoke end
of the Potteries.
Before entering on the fresh epoch in the History of Potting which opens
with the work of Wedgwood, it will be as well to recount the end of the
salt-glaze industry. It was a risky manufacture. The ware was thin, and
many accidents happened in firing. Therefore the ware was costly; and
only small pieces could be so glazed. The fluid lead glazes used by
the skilful potters of the latter half of the century gave a surface
smoother and more suitable for food. The demand for ornamental salt glaze
was small, and the enormous demand for useful ware sent all the best
potters into the useful trade; while in the ornamental lines Wedgwood’s
Greek and Etruscan shapes entirely ruled the market. All these causes
conspired to ruin the salt glaze, and by 1770 it had fallen into general
disuse. The last considerable makers of salt glaze were the Baddeleys
and Christopher and Charles Whitehead of the Old Hall, Hanley.[79] No
single maker of salt glaze occurs on the 1787 lists. It was a fine ware,
characteristic of and peculiar to Staffordshire, and when one considers
the difficulties under which its production was carried on, a tribute of
praise is due to those potters who so quickly developed it to its highest
state of perfection.
Shaw had an account, from the lips of an old man of eighty-three, born
in 1720, showing the conditions under which this old-world industry was
carried on.[80] And before we come to the modern life with its canals
and steam and complete “factory system,” it is worth while to give this
recollection of potting in 1750.
“Ralph Leigh was employed by John Taylor of the Hill Top, to look after
his horses, and was the first man whose wages were raised from 10d. to
12d. a day. With four or six horses he went twice to Whitfield, or
thrice to Norton, in a day for coals; of which each horse brought 2½ cwt.
on its back; along lanes extremely dirty. At the pit, coals then cost
7d. the draught, whether 2, 2½, or 3 cwt., for the colliers guessed at
the quantity. The charge for carrying each load from Norton to Burslem
was 3d., a penny a mile.[81] During a long time he carried crates of
pottery to Winsford, and brought back ball clay. Each horse carried a
crate on a pack saddle, and a small panier on each side was used to hold
two or three balls of clay, weighing 60 or 70 lbs. Each horse was muzzled
to prevent it biting the hedges, and the roads were narrow and bad and
without toll gates. Afterwards with a cart and four horses he went to
Winsford and delivered his crates the same day; and on the second day
brought back a ton of Chester clay to Burslem. He was allowed four days
to take crates to Bridgenorth, and bring back shop goods for Newcastle.
He went with crates to Willington Ferry, and returned with flint,
plaister stone and shop goods. He has gone to Liverpool and also as far
as Exeter, before there were regular carriers.”
[Illustration: ETRURIA WORKS]