give us some idea of the many advantages gained by moving the factory
out into the country. Just opposite the lodge a sloping path leads to
the cycle-house, where some 200 machines are stored during work hours.
Beyond this, in the middle of a flower garden, stands the Estate
Office of the Bournville Village Trust, and in the background higher
up a girls' pavilion can be seen through the trees. Behind it stretch
asphalt tennis-courts and playing-fields, bordered by a belt of fine
old trees, under whose shade wind pretty shrubbery walks lined with
rustic seats. A passage under the road leads straight from the
works into these beautiful grounds, and on a summer's day few prettier
sights could be found than the numbers of white-robed girls who stream
across in the dinner-hour to revel in the sunshine of the open fields,
or sit in groups beneath the shady trees, enjoying a picnic lunch. A
little further along the road the trees and the rhododendron bushes
sweep backwards, leaving an open space, where a smooth lawn reaches to
the front of a fine old mansion, for many years used as a home for
some fifty of the work-girls whose own homes are at a distance, or who
have no home at all. The fruit gardens and vineries belonging to
"Bournville Hall" are used for the benefit of work-people who are ill.
[Illustration--Black and White Plate: Coronation Cricket Pavilion,
Bournville.]
Turning back again, we find on the other side of the road a
magnificent pavilion, the Coronation gift of the firm to their
employees, which overlooks the broad level stretch of one of the
finest cricket grounds in the Midlands. Away in the hollow beyond, the
Bourn forms a picturesque, shady pool, part of which is used to make a
capital open-air swimming bath for the men. In the rising background
are the pretty houses and the gardens of the model village. Still
retracing our steps, we now come to the original cottages built by the
firm. Plainer and less picturesque than those of more modern
construction, their air of comfort, and the creepers which cover many
of their walls, make them harmonize well with their surroundings. One
of them is now used as a youths' club, providing games, a circulating
library, and reading and lecture rooms. Another contains club rooms
for the office staff. In passing we catch sight of a fine swimming
bath for the girls.
Through the lodge and under the clematis, a few steps bring us to the
private railway-station, which in size would do credit to many a town.
Here trucks are loaded with finished goods and despatched to their
various destinations. Every working day of the year a long train,
extending often in the busiest season to as many as forty truck-loads,
steams out of this station to scatter the productions of Bournville
over the face of the Earth. Close by the station we turn into the
offices, where the fittings and general arrangement convey an air of
refined solidity according well with the goods produced.
[Illustration--Black and White Plate: Girls' Dining Hall, Bournville.]
Before proceeding to study the manufacture of cocoa essence and
chocolate from the bean as it is imported, it will be interesting to
see the careful provision that is made for the health and cleanliness
of the workers, for in connection with any food nothing is of greater
importance than the circumstances attending its preparation. A
gratuitous sick club is provided by the firm for the employees,
including the services of a doctor and three trained nurses. A special
retiring room, comfortably furnished, is provided for girls needing a
quiet hour's rest.
We are taken into the girls' dining-hall, capable of seating over two
thousand at a time, fitted with benches, the backs of which are
convertible into table tops. The far end of the dining-hall leads into
the huge kitchen, to which the girls can bring their own dinners to be
cooked, or where they can buy a large variety of things at
coffee-house prices. Here again the health of the workers is carefully
studied. Fruit is made a speciality, an experienced buyer being
employed to insure its better supply. A private dining-room is
provided for the forewomen.
Returning to the dining-hall, we descend a flight of steps into the
spacious dressing-rooms, with vistas of wooden screens, filled on each
side with numbered hooks. Here every morning the thousands of girls
not only divest themselves of their outer garments, but change their
dresses for washing frocks of white holland. The material for these is
provided by the firm, free for the first, and afterwards at less than
cost price, and the girls are required to start work in a clean frock
every Monday morning. It will be seen at once how this helps them to
keep neat and respectable; their strong white washing frocks only
being soiled by their work, after which they change back into their
own unstained clothes, and turn out looking as great a contrast to the
usually pictured type of factory girl as can be imagined. The
forewomen also conform to this arrangement, but wear washing dresses
of blue cotton to distinguish them from the girls. Round the walls of
this vast dressing-room hot-water pipes are placed, and over these are
shelves where on a rainy day wet boots can be deposited to dry.
Specially thoughtful is the provision of rubber snow-shoes, imported
from America for their use, and supplied under cost price. Beneath
each stool, too, is a shelf for heavy boots, which can be replaced in
the factory by slippers.
[Illustration--Drawing: BOOT-SHELF ON STOOL.]
Mention has already been made of the provision for illness or
accidents, and of the care shown in the many arrangements for
maintaining and improving the health and physical development of the
girls. Further evidence of this is found in the airy and well-lighted
work-rooms, from which funnels and exhaust fans collect and carry off
all dust, and improve the ventilation, so that in spite of the
multitudinous operations in progress, the whole place is kept as
"spick and span" as a ship of the line. But another aggressive sign of
the firm's belief in the motto _mens sana in corpore sano_ is the
presence of a lady whose whole time is devoted to the physical culture
of the girls. Trained in Swedish athletics, this lady and her
assistant undertake the teaching, not only of gymnastics, but of
swimming and numerous games. Every day drill classes are held, an
opportunity being thus provided for all the younger girls to attend a
half-hour's lesson twice a week.
The result of all this thoughtful care is abundantly evident in the
general air of health and comfort which pervades the whole factory,
and in the bright faces which greet us at every turn, as we pass to
and fro among the busy workers in this monster hive.
[Illustration--Black and White Plate: The Dinner Hour, Bournville.]
Entering now, and turning into the private station, we see thousands
of sacks of the freshly-imported beans being transferred to the
neighbouring stores. The new arrivals must first be sifted and picked
over to get rid of any that may be unsound, or of any foreign material
still remaining. This is accomplished by a sorting and winnowing
machine, which delivers by separate shoots the cleaned beans, graded
according to size, and the dust and foreign matter.
A battery of roasters await the survivors of this operation, which are
automatically conveyed to the hoppers. High-pressure steam supplies
the requisite heat without waste or smoke, and as the huge drums
slowly rotate, experienced workmen, on whose judgment great reliance
is placed, carefully watch their contents, and decide when precisely
the right degree of roasting has been attained to secure the richest
aroma. Then they are passed through a cooling chamber, after which
they are in condition for "breaking down."
This consists in cracking the shells of the beans, and releasing the
kernels or "nibs," from which the shells and dust are winnowed by a
powerful blast. It is accomplished by carrying the beans mechanically
to the cracking machine at a considerable height, whence husks and
nibs are allowed to fall before the winnower: the separated nibs are
assorted according to size. Some of the shells find their way to the
Emerald Isle, to be used by the peasants for the weak infusion called
"miserables."
Now comes the important process of grinding, performed between
horizontal mill-stones, the friction of which produces heat and melts
the "butter," while it grinds the "nibs" till the whole mass flows,
solidifying into a brittle cake when cold.
The thick fluid of the consistency of treacle flowing from the
grinding-mills is poured into round metal pots, the top and bottom of
which are lined with pads of felt, and these are, when filled, put
under a powerful hydraulic press, which extracts a large percentage of
the natural oil or butter. The pressure is at first light, but as soon
as the oil begins to flow the remaining mass in the press-pot is
stiffened into the nature of indiarubber, and upon this it is safe to
place any pressure that is desired. As it is not advisable to extract
all the butter possible, the pressure is regulated to give the
required result. In the end a firm, dry cake is taken from the press,
and when cool is ground again to the consistency of flour; this is the
"cocoa essence" for which the firm of Cadbury is so well known in all
parts of the world.[13]
Between cocoa and chocolate there are essential differences. Both are
made from the cocoa nib, but whereas in cocoa the nibs are ground
separately, and the butter extracted, in chocolate sugar and
flavourings are added to the nib, and all are ground together into a
paste, the sugar absorbing all the superfluous butter. If good quality
cocoa is used, the butter contained in the nib is all that is needful
to incorporate sugar and nib into one soft chocolate paste for
grinding and moulding, but in the commoner chocolates extra cocoa
butter has to be added. It is a regrettable fact that some
unprincipled makers are tempted to use cheaper vegetable fats as
substitutes for the natural butter, but none of these are really
palatable or satisfactory in use, and none of the leading British
firms are guilty of using such adulterants, or of the still more
objectionable practice of grinding cocoa-shells and mixing them with
their common chocolates.[14]
Flavouring is introduced according to the object in view; vanilla is
largely employed in this country, though in France and Spain cinnamon
is used, and elsewhere various spices. Willoughby, in his "Travels in
Spain" (1664), writes:
"To every three and a half pounds of powder they add two pounds
of sugar, twelve Vanillos, a little Guiny pepper (which is used
by the Spaniards only), and a little Achiote[15] to give a
colour. They melt the sugar, and then mingle all together, and
work it up either in rolls or leaves."
Another writer says: "The usual proportion at Madrid to a
hundred kernels of cocoa is to add two grains of Chile pepper,
a handful of anise, as many flowers--called by the natives
vinacaxtlides, or little ears--six white roses in powder, a pod
of campeche,[16] two drachms of cinnamon, a dozen almonds and
as many hazel-nuts, with achiote enough to give it a reddish
tincture; the sugar and vanilla are mixed at discretion, as
also the musk and ambergris. They frequently work this paste
with orange water, which they think gives it a greater
consistence and firmness."
[Illustration--Black and White Plate: Bournville Village: Laburnum Road.]
When the chocolate is sufficiently ground it is put into a stove to
attain the correct temperature, and is then passed on to a
moulding-table, where it is pressed into tin moulds, and shaken till
it settles. After passing through a refrigerating chamber, the
contents of these moulds are ready as cakes of hard chocolate for
putting up in the well-known blue "Mexican," or the dark-red "Milk,"
packets.
It would, of course, be interesting to proceed to an inspection of the
many processes involved in making all the dainties that are prepared
with chocolate, and of the numerous trades concerned in the production
of packages, boxes, and fancy cases, did space permit. Room after room
might be visited, bright in the daylight, or equally well lighted by
electricity at night, humming with busy machines; some peopled with
girls--among whom only men wearing a certain badge on their arms are
allowed--some with men and boys, but all vibrating with a genial air
of content as well as of busy occupation. Suffice it to say that half
the handicrafts of the town seem represented in this centre of
industry, in every department of which order and cheerfulness reign
supreme. Each would require a chapter to do it justice, for everything
employed in packing seems to be made on the premises, and that, too,
on a system of piece-work paid for, not at the lowest possible price,
but on the basis of securing a satisfactory living wage to the average
worker. No wonder the faces around are bright, no wonder that openings
at the Bournville factory are in demand, and that long service for the
firm is the boast of so many of the employees. Among these, a little
band of about thirty still upholds the traditions of the old firm that
laid the foundations of the present company in the city of Birmingham.
[Illustration--Black and White Plate: Packing Room, Bournville.]
The work hours are forty-eight each week, and the wages depend both
on age and length of service, no man of twenty-three years of age and
over twelve months' service receiving less than 24s. weekly. There are
no deductions for sick club or fines, the sick fund, as before stated,
being a free gift from the company. Offences and late time are entered
in a record book, and an opportunity is given to wipe off all past
records by two years' good service. The Athletic Club, with over 500
voluntary subscribers, runs three cricket, four football, and two
hockey teams, besides bowling, tennis, swimming, and other sports. One
of the most interesting events of the Cricket Club is the annual match
with a team representing Messrs. Fry and Sons, of Bristol, the oldest
established cocoa firm in this country. In friendly opposition to the
"Bournville Club" are the teams drawn from the "Youths' Club," and
other outside organizations. A summer camp of over a hundred boys has
been successfully held at the seaside for some years past.
[Illustration--Drawing: SUGGESTION BOX.]
The recent introduction of the system of suggestion-boxes throughout
the works has been a great success. All employees are invited to make
suggestions, which are dealt with each week by two committees, one for
the men and one for the girls. Prizes amounting to about £80 are
offered every half-year for the best suggestions. During the first
seven months of operation over 1,000 suggestions were received, a very
large percentage of which were found sufficiently useful to be
adopted. The result has been to draw all sections closer together,
as each feels sure of getting due credit for original ideas. Many
important alterations in organization and methods of working have been
carried into effect, entirely owing to this scheme.[17]
[Illustration--Black and White Plate: Bournville Village: Linden Road.]
In order to encourage thrift (at the same time insuring privacy), a
Savings Fund on a novel system has been working successfully for
several years at Bournville. The fund was opened in Jubilee year by
gifts of £1 to each employee who had been three years in the service
of the firm, and 10s. to those employed for a shorter time. Deposits
are received, and amounts withdrawn in the usual way during the year,
through collectors in each department, the depositors' cards being
called in quarterly for audit. At the end of each financial year, in
May, interest at the rate of four per cent. is added to the amount
standing to the credit of each depositor, and the whole amount paid
over to the Post Office Savings Bank. At this time also, Post Office
officials attend at the works, and enter the amounts to the credit of
each depositor, issuing new Post Office Savings books where necessary.
This system secures absolute privacy for the permanent savings, and
places the fund upon a secure basis. As some evidence that the scheme
is appreciated, it may be stated that the total balance transferred to
the Post Office Savings Bank has averaged over £3,200 per annum.
While in the district of Bournville, the opportunity must not be lost
of becoming more closely acquainted with the village around the works.
Away beyond the factory stretches an estate of nearly 500 acres, set
apart for the purpose of "alleviating the evils which arise from the
insanitary and insufficient accommodation supplied to large numbers of
the working classes, and of securing to workers in factories some of
the advantages of outdoor village life, with opportunities for the
natural and healthful occupation of cultivating the soil." As yet only
some 450 houses have been erected, pretty, picturesque cottages all of
them, for the most part semi-detached, each on its sixth of an acre,
more or less, housing in all a population of about 2,000.
[Illustration--Black and White Plate: Fishing Pool, Bournville.]
It was compassion for the ill-housed work-people of Birmingham that
led Mr. George Cadbury, the founder of the village, to undertake so
splendid a task, and having accomplished it, he crowned it by making a
gift of the whole to the nation, placing its administration in the
hands of a Trust. In doing so he laid down ideal stipulations for its
development, and for the regulation of the villages which may in the
future be built out of the income of the Trust. The principal of these
are that factories or workshops shall never occupy more than one
fifteenth of the area; that no house shall occupy more than one-fourth
of the ground allotted to it; that in addition to wide roads and the
ample gardens thus secured, one-tenth of the area shall be reserved
for public open spaces for ever, parts of which are to be used as
children's playgrounds. At present no intoxicants are sold or prepared
on the estate, and if ever the trustees should see fit to permit this,
it is to be as a co-operative undertaking, the profits of which shall
"be devoted to securing for the village community recreation and
counter-attraction to the liquor trade as ordinarily conducted."
Such a scheme affords a model for public bodies tackling the housing
problem in earnest, and is fraught with great hopes for the future.
The annual income, nearly £6,000, is to be applied first to the
development of this estate, and subsequently to the purchase of
estates near Birmingham or other large towns, and the establishment of
new villages thereon. A most important feature is, that although the
rents are calculated to yield a fair return on the cost, including a
proportion of development expenses, they are so low that a five-roomed
cottage with bath and every convenience can be had for the rent of a
two-roomed hovel in the slums. About two-fifths of the householders
find employment in the cocoa works, the rest in the adjoining villages
or in Birmingham.
[Illustration--Black and White Plate: Almshouse Quadrangle, Bournville.]
The gardens are a special feature, and before the houses are let, they
are laid out by the Trust, and planted with fruit trees. All are well
worked, and an average yield in vegetables and fruit of nearly two
shillings a week has been found possible, equivalent to something like
£60 an acre--more than twelve times as much food as would be produced
if under pasturage. Two professional gardeners, with several men under
them, are employed to look after the gardening department, and they
are always ready to give any information or advice required by the
tenants, so that the cottage gardens may be cultivated to the utmost
profit. At present the public buildings consist of a village inn and
baths; a school is shortly to be erected. Building is being steadily
proceeded with, and although the development of the estate may be
somewhat slow at first, it will advance with growing rapidity as the
revenue increases. No wonder that there is an omnipresent air of
comfort and prosperity, or that the death-rate is only about eight per
thousand, in comparison with nineteen in the neighbouring city.
No description of Bournville would be complete without a mention of
its picturesque alms-houses. Here a haven of rest is provided for
some of those who, in their best years, have rendered faithful service
to the firm. Thirty-three independent houses, brick and stone built,
each with its own doorway to the quiet greensward, and its windows to
the sun, form an inviting, reposeful quadrangle. They were the last
gift of a life devoted to the interests of others, and the happiness
and peace which characterize them are fitting memorials of the late
Richard Cadbury, the elder of the two brothers who founded this great
industry, and who have in their lives been favoured to see such untold
blessing upon their labours.
[Illustration--Colour Plate: Section of a Chocolate Factory.]
SECTION OF A CHOCOLATE FACTORY.
The accompanying diagram of a chocolate factory is reproduced
by kind permission of the Berlin publishers of Dr. Paul
Zipperer's well-known work on "The Manufacture of Chocolate,"
which contains much valuable information. The machinery
described is that of Messrs. Lehmann, of Dresden, one of the
largest makers on the Continent.
By means of the lift (1) all the raw materials, sugar, cocoa, packing,
etc., are carried up to the store-rooms (2). Here are the machines for
cleansing and picking the raw cocoa-beans, which are fed into the
elevator boxes (3) above the cleansing machine (4), which frees them
from dust; they then pass to the continuous band (5) on which they are
picked over, and from which they fall into movable boxes (6). They are
thence transferred to the hoppers (7), and fed by opening a slide in
the hopper, into the roasting machine (8). The quantity contained in
the hoppers is sufficient to charge the roasting machine. When the
roasting is completed the cocoa is emptied into trucks (9), and
carried to the exhaust arrangement (10), where the beans are cooled
down, the vapour given off passing out into the open air. At the same
time the air of the roasting chamber is sucked out through the
funnel-shaped tube fitted to the cover. The roasted cocoa is then
passed to boxes (11), to be conveyed by the elevator to the crushing
and cleansing machine (12). After being cleansed, the cocoa is carried
in trucks (13) to hoppers (14) by which it is fed into the mills (15)
on the lower floor. The sugar mill and sifting apparatus (26) placed
near the crushing and cleansing machines are also fed by a hopper from
above. Cocoa and sugar are now supplied to the mixing machine (16), to
be worked together before passing to the rolls (17) by which the final
grinding is effected. After passing once or more through the mill, the
finished chocolate mass is taken to the hot-room (18), where it
remains in boxes until further treated, after which it is taken to the
moulding-room. In the mixer (19) the mass acquires the consistency and
temperature requisite for moulding. The mass is then taken in lumps to
the dividing machine (20), and cut into pieces of the desired size and
weight. On the table (21) the moulds, lying upon boards, are filled
with chocolate and then taken to the shaking-table (22). By means of a
double lift (23) the moulded chocolate, still lying upon boards, is
conveyed to the cooling-room or cellar, in which there are benches or
frames (24) for receiving the moulds as they are slipped off the
boards. The cellar has to be cooled artificially, according to
situation. Adjoining the cellar is the wrapping-room (25), and further
on the warehouse. The goods so far finished are then taken by the lift
(1) to the rooms where they are packed for delivery.
FOOTNOTES:
[13] For ancient processes see Appendix I., p. 103.
[14] "Chocolate is an article so disguised in the manufacture that it
is impossible to tell its purity or value. The only safeguard is to
buy that which bears the name of a reputable maker."--Chambers,
"Manual of Diet."
[15] The heart-leaved bixa, or anotta.
[16] Log-wood.
[17] The regulations adopted are so interesting that a place has been
found for them in an Appendix (p. 106).
IV. ITS HISTORY.
[Illustration--Drawing: [_From Dufour._]
OLD DRAWING OF AN AMERICAN INDIAN, WITH CHOCOLATE-POT AND WHISK.]