[1] See _Early History of the Violin Family_ (London, 1883), pp.
24-36.
[2] See _A Tour round North Wales_ (London, 1804), vol. ii. p. 332.
[3] _History of Music_ (London, 1766), vol. ii. bk. iii. ch. iii.,
description and illustration.
[4] _Musical and Poetical Relicks of Welsh Bards_ (London, 1794),
illustration of crwth, also reproduced by Carl Engel; see note above.
[5] _Archaeologia_, vol. iii. (London, 1775).
[6] Venantius Fortunatus, Poemata, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245; see
Migne's _Patrologia Sacra_, vol. 88.
[7] _Op. cit._ chapters "Crwth," "Chrotta," "Rotta."
[8] See Kathleen Schlesinger, _Orchestral Instruments_, part ii.,
"The Precursors of the Violin Family" (London, 1909), pp. 14 to 23,
with illustrations.
[9] See also Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. ch. vii., "The Cithara in
Transition," pp. 111-135 with illustrations.
[10] See Auguste de Bastard, _Peintures et ornements des MSS. de
France_, and _Peintures, ornements, &c., de la bible de Charles le
Chauve_, in facsimile (Paris, 1883).
[11] See J. O. Westwood, _Photographic Facsimile of the Bible of St
Paul_ (London, 1876).
CROWE, EYRE EVANS (1799-1868), English journalist and historian, was
born about the year 1799. He commenced his work as a writer for the
London newspaper press in connexion with the _Morning Chronicle_, and he
afterwards became a leading contributor to the _Examiner_ and the _Daily
News_. Of the latter journal he was principal editor for some time
previous to his death. The department he specially cultivated was that
of continental history and foreign politics. He published _Lives of
Foreign Statesmen_ (1830), _The Greek and the Turk_ (1853), and _Reigns
of Louis XVIII. and Charles X._ (1854). These were followed by his most
important work, the _History of France_ (5 vols., 1858-1868). It was
founded upon original sources, in order to consult which the author
resided for a considerable time in Paris. He died in London on the 25th
of February 1868.
CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER (1828-1896), English consular official and art
critic, son of Eyre Crowe, was born in London on the 25th of October
1828. At an early age he showed considerable aptitude for painting and
entered the studio of Delaroche in Paris, where his father was
correspondent of the _Morning Chronicle_. During the Crimean War he was
the correspondent of the _Illustrated London News_, and during the
Austro-Italian War represented _The Times_ in Vienna. He was British
consul-general in Leipzig from 1860 to 1872, and in Dusseldorf from 1872
to 1880, when he was appointed commercial attache in Berlin, being
transferred in a like capacity to Paris in 1882. In 1883 he was
secretary to the Danube Conference in London; in 1889 plenipotentiary at
the Samoa Conference in Berlin; and in 1890 British envoy at the
Telegraph Congress in Paris, in which year he was made K.C.M.G. During a
sojourn in Italy, 1846-1847, he cemented a lifelong friendship with the
Italian critic Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle (1820-1897), and together
they produced several historical works on art of classic importance,
notably _Early Flemish Painters_ (London, 1857); _A New History of
Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century_ (London,
1864-1871, 5 vols.). In 1895 Crowe published _Reminiscences of
Thirty-Five Years of My Life_. He died at Schloss Gamburg in Bavaria on
the 6th of September 1896.
Crowe and Cavalcaselle's great _History of Painting_ was under
revision by Crowe up to the time of his death, and then by S. A.
Strong (d. 1904) and Langton Douglas, who in 1903 brought out vols. i.
and ii. of Murray's new six-volume edition, the 3rd vol., edited by
Langton Douglas, appearing in 1909. A reprint of the original edition,
brought up to date by annotations by Edward Huttons, was published by
Dent in 3 vols. in 1909.
CROW INDIANS, or ABSAROKAS (the name for a species of hawk), a tribe of
North American Indians of Siouan stock. They are now settled to the
number of some 1800 on a reservation in southern Montana to the south of
the Yellowstone river. Their original range included this reservation
and extended eastward and southward, and no part of the country for
hundreds of miles around was safe from their raids. They have ever been
known as marauders and horse-stealers, and, though they have generally
been cunning enough to avoid open war with the whites, they have robbed
them whenever opportunity served. Physically they are tall and athletic,
with very dark complexions.
CROWLAND, or CROYLAND, a market-town in the S. Kesteven or Stamford
parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; in a low fen district
on the river Welland, 8 m. N.E. of Peterborough, and 4 m. from Postland
station on the March-Spalding line of the Great Northern and Great
Eastern railways, and Peakirk on the Great Northern. Pop. (1901) 2747. A
monastery was founded here in 716 by King Aethelbald, in honour of St
Guthlac of Mercia (d. 714), a young nobleman who became a hermit and
lived here, and, it was said, had foretold Aethelbald's accession to the
throne. The site of St Guthlac's cell, not far from the abbey, is known
as Anchor (anchorite's) Church Hill. After the abbey had suffered from
the Danish incursions in 870, and had been burnt in that year and in
1091, a fine Norman abbey was raised in 1113. Remains of this building
appear in the ruined nave and tower arch, but the most splendid fragment
is the west front, of Early English date, with Perpendicular
restoration. The west tower is principally in this style. The north
aisle is restored and used as the parish church. Among the abbots was
Ingulphus (1085-1109), to whom was formerly attributed the _Historia
Monasterii Croylandensis_. A curious triangular bridge remains,
apparently of the 14th century, but referred originally to the middle of
the 9th century, which spanned three streams now covered, and affords
three footways which meet at an apex in the middle.
The town of Crowland grew up round the abbey. By a charter dated 716,
Aethelbald granted the isle of Crowland, free from all secular services,
to the abbey with a gift of money, and leave to build and enclose the
town. The privileges thus obtained were confirmed by numerous royal
charters extending over a period of nearly 800 years. Under Abbot
Aegelric the fens were tilled, the monastery grew rich, and the town
increased in size, enormous tracts of land being held by the abbey at
the Domesday Survey. The town was nearly destroyed by fire (1469-1476),
but the abbey tenants were given money to rebuild it. By virtue of his
office the abbot had a seat in parliament, but the town was never a
parliamentary borough. Abbot Ralph Mershe in 1257 obtained a grant of a
market every Wednesday, confirmed by Henry IV. in 1421, but it was
afterwards moved to Thorney. The annual fair of St Bartholomew, which
originally lasted twelve days, was first mentioned in Henry III.'s
confirmatory charter of 1227. The dissolution of the monastery in 1539
was fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered under the
thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the position of an
unimportant village. The abbey lands were granted by Edward VI. to Lord
Clinton, from whose family they passed in 1671 to the Orby family. The
inhabitants formerly carried on considerable trade in fish and wild
fowl.
See R. Gough, _History and Antiquities of Croyland_ (Bibl. Top. Brit.
iii. No. 11) (London, 1783); W. G. Searle, _Ingulf and the Historia
Croylandensis_ (Camb. Antiq. Soc., No. 27); Dugdale, _Monasticon_, ii.
91 (London, 1846; Cambridge, 1894).
CROWLEY, ROBERT (1518?-1588), English religious and social reformer, was
born in Gloucestershire, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, of
which he was successively demy and fellow. Coming to London, he set up a
printing-office in Ely Rents, Holborn, where he printed many of his own
writings. As a typographer, his most notable production was an edition
of _Pierce Plowman_ in 1550, and some of the earliest Welsh printed
books came from his press. As an author, his first venture seems to have
been his "Information and Petition against the Oppressors of the poor
Commons of this realm," which internal evidence shows to have been
addressed to the parliament of 1547. It contains a vigorous plea for a
further religious reformation, but is more remarkable for its attack on
the "more than Turkish tyranny" of the landlords and capitalists of that
day. While repudiating communism, Crowley was a Christian Socialist, and
warmly approved the efforts of Protector Somerset to stop enclosures. In
his _Way to Wealth_, published in 1550, he laments the failure of the
Protector's policy, and attributes it to the organized resistance of the
richer classes. In the same year he published (in verse) _The Voice of
the last Trumpet blown by the seventh Angel_; it is a rebuke in twelve
"lessons" to twelve different classes of people; and a similar
production was his _One-and-Thirty Epigrams_ (1550). These, with
_Pleasure and Pain_ (1551), were edited for the Early English Text
Society in 1872 (Extra Ser. xv.). The dozen or more other works which
Crowley published are more distinctly theological: indeed, the failure
of the temporal policy he advocated seems to have led Crowley to take
orders, and he was ordained deacon by Ridley on the 29th of September
1551. During Mary's reign he was among the exiles at Frankfort. At
Elizabeth's accession he became a popular preacher, was made archdeacon
of Hereford in 1559, and prebendary of St Paul's in 1563, and was
incumbent first of St Peter's the Poor in London, and then of St Giles'
without Cripplegate. He refused to minister in the "conjuring garments
of popery," and in 1566 was deprived and imprisoned for resisting the
use of the surplice by his choir. He stated his case in "A brief
Discourse against the Outward Apparel and Ministering Garments of the
Popish Church," a tract "memorable," says Canon Dixon, "as the first
distinct utterance of Nonconformity." He continued to preach
occasionally, and in 1576 was presented to the living of St Lawrence
Jewry. Nor had he abandoned his connexion with the book trade, and in
1578 he was admitted a freeman of the Stationers' Company. He died on
the 18th of June 1588, and was buried in St Giles'. The most important
of his works not hitherto mentioned is his continuation of Languet and
Cooper's _Epitome of Chronicles_ (1559).
See J. M. Cowper's _Pref. to the Select Works of Crowley_ (1872);
Strype's Works; Gough's _General Index to Parker Soc. Publ._;
Machyn's _Diary_; Macray's _Reg. Magdalen College_; Newcourt's _Rep.
Eccles. Lond._; Hennessy's _Nov. Rep. Eccl._ (1898); Le Neve's _Fasti
Eccl. Angl._; Pocock's Burnet; Pollard's _England under Somerset_; R.
W. Dixon's _Church History_. (A. F. P.)
CROWN, an English silver coin of the value of five shillings, hence
often used to express the sum of five shillings. It was originally of
gold and was first coined in the reign of Henry VIII. Edward VI.
introduced silver crowns and half-crowns, and down to the reign of
Charles II. crowns and half-crowns and sometimes double crowns were
struck both in gold and silver. In the reign of Edward VI. also was
introduced the practice of dating coins and marking them with their
current value. The "Oxford crown" struck in the reign of Charles I. was
designed by Rawlins (see NUMISMATICS: _Medieval_). Since the reign of
Charles II. the crown has been struck in silver only. At one time during
the 19th century it was proposed to abandon the issue of the crown, and
from 1861 until 1887 none was struck, but since the second issue in 1887
it has been freely in circulation again.
CROWN and CORONET, an official or symbolical ornament worn on or round
the head. The crown (Lat. _corona_) at first had no regal significance.
It was a garland, or wreath, of leaves or flowers, conferred on the
winners in the athletic games. Afterwards it was often made of gold, and
among the Romans was bestowed as a recognition of honourable service
performed or distinction won, and on occasion it took such a form as to
correspond with, or indicate the character of, the service rendered. The
_corona obsidionalis_ was formed of grass and flowers plucked on the
spot and given to the general who conquered a city. The _corona civica_,
made of oak leaves with acorns, was bestowed on the soldier who in
battle saved the life of a Roman citizen. The mural crown (_corona
muralis_) was the decoration of the soldier who was the first to scale
the walls of a besieged city, and was usually a circlet of gold adorned
with a series of turrets. The naval crown (_corona navalis_), decorated
in like manner with a series of miniature prows of ships, was the reward
of him who gained a notable victory at sea. These latter crowns form
charges in English heraldry (see HERALDRY).
Many other forms of crown were used by the Romans, as the conqueror's
triumphal crown of laurel, the myrtle crown, and the convivial, bridal,
funeral and other crowns. Some of the emperors wore crowns on occasion,
as Caligula and Domitian, at the games, and stellate or spike crowns are
depicted on the heads of several of the emperors on their coins, but no
idea of imperial sovereignty was indicated thereby. The Roman people,
who had accepted imperial rule as a fact, were very jealous of the
employment of its emblem on the part of their rulers. That emblem was
the diadem, and although the diadem and crown are frequently confused
with each other they were quite distinct, and it is well to bear this in
mind. The diadem, which was of eastern origin, was a fillet or band of
linen or silk, richly embroidered, and was worn tied round the forehead.
Selden (_Titles of Honour_, chap. viii. sect. 8) says that the diadem
and crown "have been from ancient times confounded, yet the diadem
strictly was a very different thing from what a crown now is or was, and
it was no other then than only a fillet of silk, linen, or some such
thing." It is desirable to remember the distinction, for, although
diadem and crown are now used as synonymous terms, the two were
originally quite distinct. The confusion between them has, perhaps, come
about from the fact that the modern crown seems to be rather an
evolution from the diadem than the lineal descendant of the older
crowns. The linen or silk diadem was eventually exchanged for a flexible
band of gold, which was worn in its place round the forehead. The
further development of the crown from this was readily effected by the
addition of an upper row of ornament. Thus the medieval and modern
crowns may be considered as radiated diadems, and so the diadem and
crown have become, as it were, merged in one another.
Among the historical crowns of Europe, the Iron Crown of Lombardy, now
preserved at Monza, claims notice. It is a band of iron, enclosed in a
circlet formed of six plates of gold, hinged one to the other, and
richly jewelled and enamelled. It is regarded with great reverence,
owing to a legend that the inner band of iron has been hammered out of
one of the nails of the true cross. The crown is so small, the diameter
being only 6 in., and the circlet only 2(1/2) in. in width, that doubts
have been felt as to whether it was originally intended to be worn on
the head or was merely meant to be a votive crown. The legend as to the
iron being that of one of the nails of the cross is rejected by Muratori
and others, and cannot be traced far back. How it arose or how any
credence came to be reposed in the legend, it is difficult to surmise.
Another historical crown is that of Charlemagne, preserved at Vienna. It
is composed of a series of four larger and four smaller plaques of gold,
rounded at the tops and set together alternately. The larger plaques are
richly ornamented with emeralds and sapphires, and the smaller plaques
have each an enamelled figure of Our Lord, David, Solomon, and Hezekiah
respectively. A jewelled cross rises from the large front plaque, and an
arch bearing the name of the emperor Conrad springs across from the back
of this cross to the back of the crown.
At Madrid there is preserved the crown of Svintilla, king of the
Visigoths, 621-631. It is a circlet of thick gold set with pearls,
sapphires and other stones. It has been given as a votive offering at
some period to a church, as was often the custom. Attached to its upper
rim are the chains whereby to suspend it, and from the lower rim hang
letters of red-coloured glass or paste which read +SVINTILANVS REX
OFFERET. Two other Visigothic crowns are also preserved with it in the
Armeria Real.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Papal Tiara (without the _infulae_).]
[Illustration: Figs. 2-4 from Meyer's _Konversations Lexikon_.