THE IRON AGE.
The age of Iron, like the Bronze ages, varies very much in point of time
in Europe as compared with Asia, and also there is a great overlapping
between the times of the Iron age in the northern, middle, and southern
parts of Europe. It is safe to say that the early part of this age
belongs to prehistoric times as far as Central and Northern Europe is
concerned, and although the Grecian Archipelago and Western Asia were in
a high state of civilised culture five or six centuries before the
Christian era, and were acquainted with the use of iron, it is clear
that the extensive employment and decoration of iron implements and arms
were chiefly in Switzerland, Northern Italy, and in the Valley of the
Danube. This iron culture soon spread over to Gaul and Spain, and to the
British Islands in the West, and Scandinavia in the North. The Romans,
under their first emperors, imported their swords and other arms from
Spain and the West on account of their good workmanship. From the many
“finds” that have been brought to light in the above countries it is
evident that, for five or six centuries before the commencement of the
Christian era, there was a great activity going on in the manufacture of
iron objects in these countries, principally swords and other warlike
arms. The two most important “finds” are the “Halstaat” in Austria, and
the La Têne “finds” near Marin, Lake Neuchâtel. The Halstaat find was
composed of many gold and bronze articles, pottery, and a few iron
weapons. The place where these things were found was a Celtic tomb, and
the iron articles found in it are among the earliest known in Europe,
which proves them to have been made at the transition period from the
Bronze to the Iron ages. Besides the purely geometric work the
decoration on these articles consists of sun and moon signs, wheel
crosses, half moons, the sacred ship, the swastika, triskele, &c.; crude
representations of men and animals, as horses, oxen, stags, he-goats,
and geese, all of which have a religious and symbolic meaning. All these
forms were used in the Bronze and Iron ages alike. The find at La Têne,
near Marin, Lake Neuchâtel, belongs to a later period and is more
important from an art point of view, for besides the usual sacred
decorations engraved on the objects, some of the sword handles and
sheaths are beautifully sculptured or chiselled in iron, with
well-designed ornament and animal forms. (See Fig. 81, D, of Gaulish or
late Celtic workmanship.)
The shapes and materials of the weapons found at La Têne, or of what is
called the “La Têne Period,” do not bear much resemblance to the weapons
of the Bronze age, and the sheaths of the swords and daggers are
sometimes bronze and sometimes iron, but the blades are of iron.
Communication with the Etruscans and the Greeks by the people of Central
Europe is proved by the coins, vases, and objects of personal ornament,
and by the imitations of Greek and Macedonian coins found in great
quantities in Middle and Western Europe and in Britain, that belong to
this late Celtic period. This accounts for the more “advanced” nature of
the decoration on the Marin swords and daggers of the “La Têne Period,”
and this particular culture-wave brought with it the beginnings of that
ornament which, in later centuries, developed into the peculiar Celtic
and Runic twistings and interlacings that are so common to Danish,
Norwegian, Swedish, Anglo-Saxon and Irish phases of decorative art, that
was practised so largely from the first to the twelfth centuries of our
era. This Celtic interlacing, though often more distressing than a
Chinese puzzle, and in some instances barbarous in the extreme, yet is
often very interesting and beautiful in execution. Most of it can be
traced to its origin in sacred signs and animal forms in classical
ornament.
It will be interesting to trace briefly some of these developments of
the Northern Runic and Celtic art of the Iron age. In the development of
nearly all historic art, we find that the religious aspirations of man
were the chief factors. In Egypt, Asia, Europe, or America, wherever art
had an individuality, the greatest monuments were erected, and the
finest works of art were created for the honour of the nation’s gods. We
have seen how the forms of ornament were generally derived from the
figurative signs of sacred animals, plants, and other mystic symbols of
a religious meaning, and were in the end converted in meaningless but
æsthetic ornament. This is the history of nine-tenths of historic
ornament that has survived the decay of nations. The ancient religion
and beliefs of the pre-Christian peoples were those which they had
brought with them when they first migrated from their Asiatic home,
namely, the worship of the sun, moon, and lightning. Cæsar mentions in
his “De Bello Gallico,” VI., 21, that the “Germani people worshipped the
visible helping gods, the sun, moon, and fire, and knew nothing whatever
of other divinities.” The symbolic signs and animal forms sacred to
these phenomena, already mentioned, are found more or less on the
utensils and weapons of the Gallic-German peoples of the Iron age, and
in addition to these we see the representation of the Northern gods, the
Trinity of the North, Thor, Odin and Frey, with and without the sacred
animals peculiar to each. In the earlier times close intercourse with
the Romans brought about a high degree of culture to the barbarian
people of the Rhine Valley and more northern places; many statuettes of
bronze inlaid with gold and silver, representing Roman gods, have been
dug up in Denmark and other places in the north.
[Illustration: Fig. 59.—Gold-plated Ornament found at Thorsberg.
(_Danish Arts._)]
These statuettes were transformations of the Roman and Etruscan gods
that served for the Gallo-Germanic gods. An illustration of the Roman
influence is seen in a round ornament of this period plated with gold,
found at Thorsberg, Slesvig. It is the decoration of an iron coat of
mail. The illustration of this (Fig. 59) is taken from Worsaae’s “Danish
Arts,” and is thus described by him:
“Five suns are placed crosswise, and between two of the outer ones is
seen a barbarised figure of Jupiter with horns on his helmet; the sun in
the centre is surrounded by a circle of helmeted heads. Just as this
recalls to our minds the Germanic and Scandinavian god of thunder, Thor,
who, later, was often represented with a helmet on his head, so the thin
barbaric golden figures of horses, geese, and fish, riveted on the
ornament or brooch itself, remind us of the sun-god Frey.” The Figs. 60
and 61 are metal mountings decorated with the triskele formed of
sun-snakes, the swastika with straight arms, and the compound variety of
the fylfot on the larger mounting. These illustrate a transition of the
sacred sun form to more purely ornamental designs.
[Illustration: Fig. 60]
[Illustration: Fig.61]
Figs. 60 and 61.—Metal Mountings from Thorsberg. (_Danish Arts._)
The imitation of Roman coins and medallions of the time of Constantine
to ornaments that have been called “bracteates” was extensively carried
on by the Germanic people. These bracteates have the design on one side
only, with a loop or ring at the top to suspend them around the neck as
an amulet. These golden bracteates have been found in great numbers in
Scandinavia and Denmark, and scarcely anywhere else, which proves they
were indigenous to these countries.
It is interesting to notice how they have been transformed from their
Roman and Byzantine originals to purely sacred Celtic amulets of a new
national type of ornament. Fig. 62, from Hildebrand’s “Scandinavian
Arts,” is a barbaric copy of a Roman medallion. It is a poor attempt to
copy the Imperial head, and the inscription is badly and meaninglessly
copied. On the reverse is a figure of Victory, with signs of the cross,
surrounded by a wreath and legend.
[Illustration:
Fig. 62.—Barbarian Copy of a Roman Medallion found in Sweden.
(_Scand. Arts._)
]
It appears that after the age of the Constantines, the intercourse of
the Germanic people with the Romans was broken, owing to the invasion of
the Huns, and for a long time afterwards they were left to themselves
without foreign influence, and were enabled to develop their national
art on the foundation of Roman culture, at the same time substituting
their own emblems of their national gods in place of the classic ones in
their decorative work. We can safely gather from this that the Hunnic
invasion of the Roman Empire was the indirect means of giving to
Northern Europe a distinct national style of art.
[Illustration: Fig. 63.—Golden Bracteate from Scandinavia. (_Danish
Arts._)]
The illustrations of the golden bracteates here given (Figs. 63, 64)
partly show how this development began. On Fig. 63 is Thor’s head with
his tiara or helmet, the he-goat sacred to Thor, the triad three dots,
and the swastika. On the border is the triskele (Odin’s sign), Frey’s
cross, and the zigzag or lightning.
[Illustration: Fig. 64.—Golden Bracteate from Scandinavia. (_Danish
Arts._)]
The larger bracteate (Fig. 64) has Thor with the he-goat surrounded by
the swastika, triskele, and the cross (four suns forming the cross), the
signs for Thor, Odin, and Frey. The inner border has the three dots, or
triad; next border, Thor’s head; and the outer border is composed of
he-goats. On the loop are signs of the sun and moon, and under it
sun-snakes (developed into spirals). The above descriptions of the
bracteates are chiefly taken from the “Danish Arts.”
[Illustration: Fig. 65.—Parts of Harness in Gilt Bronze, Gotland.
(_Scand. Arts._)]
Characteristic ornament of this period is shown at Fig. 65, which are
parts of a harness in gilt bronze from a tomb in Gotland; the patterns
are composed of corrupted animal and bird forms.
[Illustration: Fig. 66.—Fibula in Gilt Bronze, Gotland. (_Scand.
Arts._)]
[Illustration: Fig. 67.—Fibula in Gilt Bronze, Gotland. (_Scand.
Arts._)]
Figs. 66 to 68 are fibula decorations of the interlacing animal forms,
which are characteristic of the more attenuated and later development of
Scandinavian art.
[Illustration: Fig. 68.—Part of Rim of Fig. 67.]
The series of designs, Figs. 69 to 73, are of great interest in showing
the development of patterns from lion forms to the twisted snake
ornament. The figures are taken from Hildebrand’s “Scandinavian Arts.”
According to that author, Fig. 69 is a Scandinavian copy or adaptation
of a Roman design, which consists of two lions _couchant_. The other
patterns (Figs. 70 to 73) are further developments of corrupted lion
forms. It is quite possible that the peculiar interlacings of
Scandinavian ornament may have been the result of imperfect copying of
lion and bird forms. They were never intended for snake forms, as many
of these have legs and feet, and serpents and snakes were unknown in the
north. Many stranger derivatives of ornament have existed in the
ornament of savage tribes.[A] When the Gotlandic artist had reduced his
lion forms to snakes he carried his work to the verge of monotony with
interminable interlacings.
Footnote A:
See Haddon’s “Evolution of Ornamental Art,” 1895.
[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
[Illustration: Fig. 70.]
Figs. 69 and 70.—Corrupted Figures of Lions. (_Scand. Arts._)
[Illustration: Fig. 71.]
[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
Figs. 71, 72, 73.—Animal Ornamental Patterns, Corrupted Figures of
Lions. (_Scand. Arts._)
[Illustration:
Fig. 74.—Silver Goblet, with Gold-plated Decoration, found in Zeeland.
(_Danish Arts._)
]
[Illustration: Fig. 75.—Under Side of a Fibula. (_Scand. Arts._)]
The decoration on the goblet (Fig. 74) is the sun-god Frey, with his
horse and geese; the masks are intended for those of Thor; his he-goat
and sun signs are also seen. This goblet was evidently used in the
sun-worship festivals.
[Illustration: Fig. 76.—Pottery of the Iron Age. (_Danish Arts._)]
[Illustration:
Fig. 77.—Piece of Woollen Cloth with Gold and Silver Threads, Viking
Period.
(_Danish Arts._)
]
A restrained and agreeable design is seen on the under side of a fibula
(Fig. 75); a well-shaped earthen pot is decorated with zigzag work, and
has the symbolical triad mark impressed on it (Fig. 76); and a remnant
of woollen cloth, woven with silver and gold threads, has the swastika
and the hammer of Thor as decoration. This was found in a grave at
Randers of the tenth century. It belongs to the Viking period of the
Iron age (Fig. 77).