on the practicability of substitutes for lead; (3) exclusion of lead
colours from use in the painting of public buildings; and (4) treatment
of lead poisoning by the State Insurance Office as an accident entitling
to compensation.
These demands were supported by the central office of the Society for
Promoting the Welfare of Workers, which had as far back as its seventh
conference in 1898 occupied itself with the question of dangerous trades
and especially, at its conference in 1905, taken up the subject of the
protection of workers against industrial poisoning.
In Germany these efforts resulted in the passage of a number of Imperial
Regulations for separate lead industries.
In other countries similar action was set on foot. In Austria, where the
subject is of special importance in view of the part played by lead in
the home industries, the Government undertook to improve the conditions
in industries attended with risk of lead poisoning. For this purpose
the Statistical Office of the Ministry of Commerce and Labour has,
since 1904, carried out extensive inquiries into lead and zinc smelting
works, paint and colour factories, the painting and varnishing trades,
letterpress printing, and the ceramic industry. The results are contained
in the volume ‘Lead Poisoning in Smelting Works and Industries Generally’
(published by Hölder, Vienna).
As in Germany and Austria, so also in Great Britain, France, Switzerland,
Belgium, and the Netherlands, regulations in various lead industries were
enforced after previous official inquiry and report.
A general code, however, affecting all lead industries has only been
published in one or two states. And yet this would, in my opinion, be
of very great practical value as it is hardly possible to regulate each
single branch of industry.
In Germany the Regulations dated May 26, 1903, dealing with lead colours
are certainly comprehensive, but relate primarily to paint factories, and
are not, therefore, a general Order in the sense indicated. In Saxony the
decree of June 27, 1901, made notification of lead poisoning compulsory,
and in the subsequent decree of April 16, 1909, prescribed general
measures against lead poisoning. In Switzerland single cantons have made
general regulations. In France, by a decree dated April 23, 1908 (in
pursuance of the general law of June 12, 1893), all industries attended
with risk of lead poisoning were brought under Regulation.
We give the provisions of this interesting decree, as it is a good
example of the kind of Regulations we have in mind.
DECREE OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC (APRIL 23, 1908)
RELATING TO CERTAIN INDUSTRIES IN WHICH LEAD IS USED
1. In the lead industries hereinafter mentioned, viz.:
smelting, cupellation of argentiferous lead, manufacture
of accumulators, glass-making, manufacture and use of lead
enamels, manufacture of pottery, decoration of porcelain
or faience, ceramic chromo-lithography, manufacture of
lead alloys, oxides, salts and colours—employers, directors
or managers are required, apart from the general measures
prescribed by the Decree of 29 November, 1904, to take special
measures for protection and health as set forth in the
following sections.
2. Lead melting pots shall be erected in an airy place
separated from the other workrooms.
Hoods or other means for the effectual removal of fumes shall
be provided:—
(_a_) Over the openings for the run of lead and slag in lead
smelting.
(_b_) Before the furnace doors in the manufacture of lead
oxides.
(_c_) Above the pots for melting lead or its alloys, in the
other industries enumerated in Section 1.
3. All work with oxides and other compounds of lead capable of
producing dust shall be done as far as possible when in a damp
condition.
When this work cannot be done in the presence of water or other
liquid, it shall be carried out by mechanical means, in covered
air-tight apparatus.
If it is impossible to conform to the requirements of either
of the first two paragraphs of this section, the work shall
be done under a strong draught so arranged that the harmful
products may be intercepted by apparatus suitably placed.
Finally, if none of these systems is possible the workmen shall
be supplied with respirators.
4. Oxides and other compounds of lead, whether dry or damp,
in suspension or solution, shall not be handled with the bare
hand. The employer shall at his own expense provide the workers
in these operations with either gloves made of impervious
material such as indiarubber, or suitable appliances, and shall
cause them to be kept in good repair and frequently cleaned.
5. Tables on which these products are handled shall be covered
with some impervious material, kept in a perfectly water-tight
condition.
The same requirement applies to the floors of the workrooms,
which shall also be kept damp.
The floor shall be slightly sloped towards a water-tight
receptacle for collecting the lead substances which are washed
down.
The work shall be so arranged that there shall be no
splashing. The tables, floors and walls shall be washed at
least once a week.
6. Without prejudice to the requirements of section 3, the
grinding and mixing of lead products, and the use of them
in dusting shall be effected in special places with active
ventilation.
If the materials cannot be damped, the workers shall be
provided with respirators.
7. Pottery shall not be dipped with bare hands in solutions
containing litharge, red lead, galena or white lead in
suspension.
8. No food or drink shall be brought into the works.
9. Employers shall, at their own expense, provide and maintain
for the use of the workers, overalls or clothing for use during
work only, in addition to gloves and respirators.
10. In a part of the building separated from the workrooms,
there shall be provided for the use of the workers exposed to
lead dust or fumes, a cloak room and lavatory kept in good
order, provided with basins or taps in sufficient number, a
plentiful supply of water, soap and a towel for each worker
replaced at least once a week.
The cloak rooms shall be provided with cupboards or drawers
with locks or padlocks, the ordinary clothing being kept apart
from the working clothes.
11. A warm bath or shower bath shall be provided each week for
the workers exposed to lead dust or fumes.
A warm bath or shower bath shall be provided every day after
work, for each worker employed, either in emptying or cleaning
the condensing chambers and flues, in repairing furnaces in
lead works, in carrying lead corrosions from the beds in white
lead factories, in packing red lead, in grinding lead enamels
and in dry dusting.
12. Employers are required to exhibit, in a conspicuous
position in the works, regulations imposing on the workers the
following obligations:—
To use the appliances, gloves, respirators, and working clothes
placed at their disposal.
Not to bring into the works either food or drink.
To pay great care, before each meal, to the cleanliness of the
mouth, nose, and hands.
To take the baths weekly or daily as provided in section 11.
13. The Minister of Labour may, by Order made with the advice
of the Consultative Committee for Arts and Manufactures, exempt
an establishment for a specified period, from all or part of
the requirements of Regs. 2ᵃ, 2ᵇ, 2ᶜ, 5² and 6¹ in any case
where it is found that observance of these requirements is
practically impossible, and that the health and safety of the
workers are assured by conditions at least equivalent to those
prescribed in the present Order.
14. Subject to additional postponements which may be granted
by the Minister in pursuance of Section 6 of the Act of 12th
June, 1893 (as amended by that of 11th July, 1903), the delay
required for the carrying out of the alterations necessitated
by the present Decree is limited to one year from the date of
its publication.
15. The Ministry of Labour is charged with the administration
of this Decree.
This decree was supplemented by further noteworthy additions requiring
medical supervision in lead industries as follows:
DECREE OF DECEMBER 28, 1909, ORGANISING MEDICAL SERVICE IN
INDUSTRIES EXPOSING THE WORKERS TO RISK OF LEAD POISONING
1. In premises in which the processes enumerated in Regulation
1 of the Decree of April 23, 1908, are carried on medical
attendance as prescribed below shall be provided.
2. A surgeon appointed by the occupier shall examine the
workers and enter the results of examination required in
Regulations 3 and 4. The examinations shall be paid for by the
occupier.
3. No person shall be employed in work mentioned in Regulation
1 of the Decree of April 23, 1908, without a certificate from
the surgeon stating that he is free from symptoms of lead
poisoning and of illness which might render him specially
susceptible.
4. No worker shall remain at the same employment unless
the certificate is renewed one month after commencement of
employment and subsequently at quarterly intervals.
In addition to the periodical examination the occupier shall
give an order on the surgeon to every workman declaring himself
to be ill from his employment or who desires to undergo medical
examination.
5. A special Register open to the Factory Inspector shall be
kept containing the following particulars of each worker:
(1) Dates and duration of absence on account of illness of any
kind;
(2) Dates of medical certificates for such illness, the notes
made by the surgeon and the name of the surgeon furnishing them;
(3) Instructions given by the appointed surgeon in pursuance of
Regulations 3 and 4 above.
Lead Smelting Works
(See also pp. 122-31)
As the fumes in lead smelting works contain a high proportion of lead,
all apparatus, especially furnaces and working doors, should be provided
with efficient exhaust ventilation and all flues, furnaces, and other
apparatus be as airtight as possible. Where lead dust is created exhaust
ventilation locally applied is necessary. Two of the most important
preventive measures are personal cleanliness and alternation of
employment. Dust arising in the furnaces and borne along by the furnace
gases together with arsenical fumes and dust must be deposited in flues
or chambers.
In view of the importance of proper instruction of smelters as regards
the danger we quote the warning note prepared by the Institute for
Industrial Hygiene, Frankfurt a.-M., which deserves wide circulation.
LEAD LEAFLET FOR SMELTERS
_How does Lead Poisoning arise?_
The danger of lead poisoning in lead, spelter and other
smelting premises can be avoided if due care is observed.
Lead poisoning occurs when lead enters the system. This takes
place by breathing dust and fume containing lead, or by eating
and drinking, smoking, snuff taking and tobacco chewing if food
or tobacco is taken into the mouth with dirty hands and dirty
face and beard.
No one is immune from lead. Lead accumulates in the body of
careless persons and he who is not sick to-day can be so
to-morrow or after weeks or months.
_How can Plumbism be avoided?_
All smelters must observe cleanliness. In this respect they
should see to the following points:
1. It is to their interest to see that the exhaust ventilation
is kept in order and that the Special Rules or Regulations are
exactly followed. Further, special clothing should be worn, the
mouth and nose should be covered, and the floors sprinkled.
2. It is especially important that in intervals and at the
close of work the mouth, face, beard, and hands should be
carefully cleaned. Food should not be eaten or the premises
left without putting on fresh clothes and thoroughly washing
or, still better, bathing. When drinking, the edge of the
drinking glass should not be fingered with dirty hands.
Especially important is it that the teeth should be cleaned and
the mouth washed out.
3. During work smoking, snuff taking, and tobacco chewing,
which invariably convey lead into the mouth, should be
given up, as it is impossible to prevent the hands getting
contaminated with lead. Lighting the pipe with glowing lead
ashes is in the highest degree dangerous from the risk of
inhaling lead fume. The body must be strengthened to withstand
the action of lead. Moderation in drinking, especially
avoidance of spirits, should be observed. Alcoholic subjects
succumb to lead poisoning much more readily than the temperate.
Food should be abundant and rich in fat, for example milk and
bacon. Thick soups are excellent before work. Work should never
be begun on an empty stomach. And lastly as much fresh air as
possible. Walking, athletics, work in the garden and field will
help to keep off many an attack. If anyone thinks that he is
suffering from lead poisoning he should at once in his own and
his family’s interest see the doctor of his sick club.
The following are the
GERMAN IMPERIAL REGULATIONS FOR LEAD SMELTING WORKS, DATED JUNE
16, 1905
_General Regulations_
1. Workrooms in which lead ores are roasted, sintered, or
smelted, pig lead produced and submitted to further treatment,
distillation of rich lead (bullion cupellation) litharge, red
lead, or other oxides of lead prepared, ground or sieved,
stored or packed, or zinc skimmings distilled, shall be roomy,
high, and so arranged that a sufficient constant exchange of
air takes place. They shall be provided with a level and solid
floor to allow of easy removal of dust by a moist method.
The walls shall be smooth so as to prevent collection of dust;
they shall be either washed down or lime washed at least once a
year.
Provided that this shall not apply in the case of calcining
sheds with wooden walls.
2. An abundant supply of good drinking water, protected against
contamination from dust, shall be provided for the workers on
the furnaces and smelting pots, and in such close proximity to
them, that they can obtain it at any time without having to go
into the open air.
Arrangements for sprinkling the floors shall be provided near
the furnaces. The floors of the rooms mentioned in paragraph 1
shall be wet cleansed at least once daily.
3. Prepared (i.e. concentrated) lead ores and leady smelting
products, unless moist, shall not be crushed except in an
apparatus so arranged as to prevent as far as possible
penetration of dust into the workrooms.
Provided that this shall not apply to calcined material from
converters.
Sacks in which lead ores and materials containing lead have
been packed shall not be freed from dust and cleaned except in
a dust-proof apparatus or by washing.
4. Materials containing lead for charging the blast-furnaces,
if they are oxides and form dust, shall be damped before they
are mixed with other materials, stocked on the feeding floor,
or charged into the blast-furnaces.
Provided that this shall not apply in the case of calcined
material from converters.
5. Dust, gases, and lead fumes, escaping from furnaces, and
converters, tapping spouts, tapping pots, drain sump, slag
pots, slag cars, or slag channels, and from glowing residues
taken from the furnaces, shall be caught as near as possible to
the point of origin and removed harmlessly.
Dust collecting chambers, flues, as well as furnaces which
have been ‘blown down,’ shall not be entered by workmen unless
sufficiently cooled and ventilated.
_Special Regulations for such parts of a factory where lead
colours are prepared_
6. In grinding, sieving and packing dry leady materials, in
charging, and emptying litharge and red lead furnaces, in
collecting the red lead and similar operations in which leady
dust is developed, exhaust arrangements shall be provided for
preventing the entrance of dust into the workrooms.
7. Apparatus producing leady dust, if their construction and
manner of use does not effectually prevent evolution of dust,
shall have all cracks protected by thick layers of felt or
woollen material, or by similar means, so as to prevent the
entrance of dust into the workrooms.
Apparatus of this character shall be provided with arrangements
for preventing compression of air in them. They shall only be
opened when the dust in them shall have completely settled, and
they are absolutely cool.
_Special arrangements in force for the distillation of zinc
skimmings_
8. Proposed new furnaces for the distillation of zinc skimmings
(for which according to pars. 16 and 25 of the Industrial Code
a special permission is required) shall be so arranged that (1)
there shall be at least a clear space of 10 feet in front of
the charging opening; (2) any passages under the distillation
rooms shall be roomy, at least 11½ feet high in the centre,
light and airy.
9. Dust, gases, and fumes arising from the zinc skimmings
distillation furnaces shall be collected as near as possible to
the point of origin, and carried outside the smelting room.
The entrance of gases from the fires into the smelting room
shall be prevented as far as possible by suitable arrangements
for drawing them off.
10. Sieving and packing of by-products obtained in the
distillation of zinc skimmings (poussière, flue dust) shall
not be done except in a special room separated from the other
workrooms, and complying with the requirements of Reg. 1.
Sieving shall only be done in an apparatus so constructed that
dust shall not escape.
_Employment of workers._
11. Women and young persons shall not be employed or permitted
in rooms mentioned in Reg. 1, in flue dust chambers, or dust
flues, or in the removal of flue dust.
12. No person shall be newly employed in rooms mentioned
in Reg. 1, in flue dust chambers, or dust flues, or in the
transport of flue dust, without a certificate of fitness from
the surgeon appointed by the higher authorities.
These certificates shall be collected and shown to the Factory
Inspector and Appointed Surgeon on request.
13. No person shall be employed in charging blast furnaces,
apart from mere labouring work on the floors, for more than
eight hours daily. The same shall apply in the case of workmen
employed in the inside of furnaces when cool, or in emptying
flue dust chambers, or dust flues which contain wet flue dust.
No person shall be employed in cleaning out, from inside, flue
dust chambers, or dust flues containing dry flue dust for more
than four hours daily; and including emptying and work of
transport of this kind altogether no longer than eight hours
daily.
Other workers in rooms specified in Reg. 1 shall not work more
than 10 hours in 24, exclusive of mealtimes.
Exception to this is allowed in the case of those workers who
are employed for the purpose of a weekly change of shift, and
for whom exception as to Sunday employment is permitted by
Imperial Decree.
_Clothing, overalls, lavatory accommodation, &c._
14. The occupier shall provide for all persons employed in
cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, repairing of
cooled furnaces, grinding, sieving and packing of litharge, red
lead, or other lead colours, complete suits of working clothes,
including caps and respirators.
15. Work with lead salts in solution shall not be done except
by workers who either grease their hands or are provided with
impermeable gloves.
16. The suit of clothes, or overalls, provided in Regs. 14 and
15, respirators and gloves, shall be provided in sufficient
amount and in proper condition. The occupier shall see that
they are always suitable for their purpose, and are not worn
except by those workers for whom they are intended; and that
they, at stated intervals (the overalls at least once a week,
the respirators and gloves prior to use), are cleaned, and
during the time that they are not in use are kept in a place
specially reserved for each article.
17. A lavatory and cloak room shall be provided for the use of
the workmen in a part of the building free from dust. Separate
from it there shall be a dining-room. These rooms must be kept
free from dust and be warmed during the winter.
In a suitable place provision shall be made for warming the
workers’ food.
Water, soap, and towels, and arrangements for keeping separate
the overalls from other clothing taken off before the
commencement of work shall be provided in sufficient amount in
the lavatory and cloak room.
The occupier shall afford opportunity for persons engaged in
cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, and the cooled
furnaces, to take a bath daily after the end of the work, and
for those handling oxides of lead, at least once a week, during
working hours inside the works. The bathroom shall be warmed
during the winter.
18. The occupier shall place the supervision of the health of
the workers in the hands of a surgeon, appointed by the higher
authorities for this purpose, whose name shall be sent to the
Inspector of Factories. The surgeon shall examine the workers
at least once a month in the factory, with a view to the
detection of symptoms of lead poisoning.
The occupier shall not employ persons suspected by the surgeon
of having contracted lead poisoning in the processes mentioned
in Reg. 1 or in cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, or
furnaces when cold, or transport of the flue dust, until they
are quite well. Those who appear peculiarly susceptible shall
be permanently suspended from working in these processes.
19. The Health Register shall be shown to the Factory Inspector
and Appointed Surgeon on demand. (Similar to Reg. 15 of Spelter
Regulations.)
20. The occupier shall require the workers to subscribe to the
following conditions:—
(1) Food must not be taken into the workrooms. Meals may only
be taken outside the workrooms.
(2) Workmen must only enter the meal room to take their meals
or leave the factory, after they have taken off their overalls
and carefully washed their face and hands.
(3) Workmen must use the overalls, respirators and gloves in
those workrooms and for the particular processes for which they
are given them.
(4) Cigar and cigarette smoking during work is forbidden.
(5) A bath in the factory must be taken every day at the close
of their work by those engaged in the emptying and cleaning of
flue dust chambers, flues, and furnaces when cold, and by those
employed on oxides of lead once a week.
Provided that this shall not apply in the case of workmen
exempted by the appointed surgeon.
Workers contravening these orders will be liable to dismissal
without further notice.
21. In every workroom, as well as in the cloak room and
meal room, there shall be posted up by the occupier, in a
conspicuous place and in clear characters, a notice of these
regulations.
The occupier is responsible for seeing that the requirement
of Reg. 20 (1) is obeyed. He shall make a manager or foreman
responsible for the precise carrying out of Reg. 20 (1) (2) and
(5). The person thus made responsible shall see to the carrying
out of the regulations and for the exercise of necessary care
as prescribed in par. 151 of the Factory Act.
22. No work in a lead smelting works shall be commenced until
notice of its erection has been sent to the Factory Inspector.
After receipt of the notice he shall personally visit to
see whether the arrangements are in accordance with these
regulations.
23. These regulations come into force on 1st January, 1906.
Where structural alterations are necessary for the carrying out
of Regs. 1, 5 (1), 6, 9, 10 and 17, the higher authorities may
allow an extension of time to a date not later than January
1st, 1908.
If it seems necessary on strong grounds of public interest, the
Council (Bundesrath) may extend the time in particular works
until 1st January, 1913, and until then allow exceptions from
the regulations as regards Reg. 13 (1) and (2).
Accumulator Factories
[Dr. Rambousek gives a very brief synopsis of the German Imperial
Regulations in force for this industry and mentions that in Great Britain
the Regulations of the Secretary of State dated 1903 are similar. We
have printed these, as the code is fairly representative of the English
Regulations for (1) smelting of metals; (2) paints and colours; (3)
tinning of hollow ware; (4) yarn dyed with chromate of lead; (5) vitreous
enamelling; and the special rules for (6) white lead and (7) earthenware:
REGULATIONS DATED NOVEMBER 21, 1903, MADE BY THE SECRETARY OF
STATE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF ELECTRIC ACCUMULATORS
Whereas the manufacture of electric accumulators has been
certified in pursuance of Section 79 of the Factory and
Workshop Act, 1901, to be dangerous;
I hereby, in pursuance of the powers conferred on me by that
Act, make the following regulations, and direct that they shall
apply to all factories and workshops or parts thereof in which
electric accumulators are manufactured.
_Definitions._—In these Regulations ‘lead process’ means
pasting, casting, lead burning, or any work involving contact
with dry compounds of lead.
Any approval given by the Chief Inspector of Factories in
pursuance of these Regulations shall be given in writing, and
may at any time be revoked by notice in writing signed by him.
_Duties of Occupier_
1. _Ventilation._—Every room in which casting, pasting or lead
burning is carried on shall contain at least 500 cubic feet of
air space for each person employed therein, and in computing
this air space, no height above 14 feet shall be taken into
account.
These rooms and that in which the plates are formed shall be
capable of through ventilation. They shall be provided with
windows made to open.
2. _Separation of processes._—Each of the following processes
shall be carried on in such manner and under such conditions as
to secure effectual separation from one another and from any
other process:
(_a_) Manipulation of dry compounds of lead;
(_b_) Pasting;
(_c_) Formation, and lead burning necessarily carried on
therewith;
(_d._) Melting down of old plates.
Provided that manipulation of dry compounds of lead carried on
as in Regulation 5 (b) need not be separated from pasting.
3. _Floors._—The floors of the rooms in which manipulation
of dry compounds of lead or pasting is carried on shall be
of cement or similar impervious material, and shall be kept
constantly moist while work is being done.
The floors of these rooms shall be washed with a hose pipe
daily.
4. _Melting pots._—Every melting pot shall be covered with a
hood and shaft so arranged as to remove the fumes and hot air
from the workrooms.
Lead ashes and old plates shall be kept in receptacles
especially provided for the purpose.
5. _Manipulation of dry compounds of lead._—Manipulation of
dry compounds of lead in the mixing of the paste or other
processes, shall not be done except (_a_) in an apparatus so
closed, or so arranged with an exhaust draught, as to prevent
the escape of dust into the work room: or (_b_) at a bench
provided with (1) efficient exhaust draught and air guide so
arranged as to draw the dust away from the worker, and (2) a
grating on which each receptacle of the compound of lead in use
at the time shall stand.
6. _Covering of benches._—The benches at which pasting is done
shall be covered with sheet lead or other impervious material,
and shall have raised edges.
7. _Prohibition of employment._—No woman, young person, or
child shall be employed in the manipulation of dry compounds of
lead or in pasting.
8. (_a_) _Appointed Surgeon._—A duly qualified medical
practitioner (in these Regulations referred to as the
‘Appointed Surgeon’) who may be the Certifying Surgeon, shall
be appointed by the occupier, such appointment unless held by
the Certifying Surgeon to be subject to the approval of the
Chief Inspector of Factories.
(_b_) _Medical examination._—Every person employed in a lead
process shall be examined once a month by the Appointed
Surgeon, who shall have power to suspend from employment in any
lead process.
(_c_) No person after such suspension shall be employed in a
lead process without written sanction entered in the Health
Register by the Appointed Surgeon. It shall be sufficient
compliance with this regulation for a written certificate to
be given by the Appointed Surgeon and attached to the Health
Register, such certificate to be replaced by a proper entry in
the Health Register at the Appointed Surgeon’s next visit.
(_d_) _Health Register._—A Health Register in a form approved
by the Chief Inspector of Factories shall be kept, and shall
contain a list of all persons employed in lead processes. The
Appointed Surgeon will enter in the Health Register the dates
and results of his examinations of the persons employed and
particulars of any directions given by him. He shall on a
prescribed form furnish to the Chief Inspector of Factories
on the 1st day of January in each year a list of the persons
suspended by him during the previous year, the cause and
duration of such suspension, and the number of examinations
made.
The Health Register shall be produced at any time when required
by H.M. Inspectors of Factories or by the Certifying Surgeon or
by the Appointed Surgeon.
9. _Overalls._—Overalls shall be provided for all persons
employed in manipulating dry compounds of lead or in pasting.
The overalls shall be washed or renewed once every week.
10. _Cloak and dining rooms._—The occupier shall provide and
maintain:
(_a_) a cloak room in which workers can deposit clothing put
off during working hours. Separate and suitable arrangements
shall be made for the storage of the overalls required in
Regulation 9.
(_b_) a dining room unless the factory is closed during meal
hours.
11. _Food, &c._—No person shall be allowed to introduce, keep,
prepare or partake of any food, drink, or tobacco, in any room
in which a lead process is carried on. Suitable provision shall
be made for the deposit of food brought by the workers.
This regulation shall not apply to any sanitary drink provided
by the occupier and approved by the Appointed Surgeon.
12. _Washing._—The occupier shall provide and maintain for the
use of the persons employed in lead processes a lavatory, with
soap, nail brushes, towels, and at least one lavatory basin for
every five such persons. Each such basin shall be provided with
a waste pipe, or the basins shall be placed on a trough fitted
with a waste pipe. There shall be a constant supply of hot and
cold water laid on to each basin.
Or, in the place of basins the occupier shall provide and
maintain troughs of enamel or similar smooth impervious
material, in good repair, of a total length of two feet
for every five persons employed, fitted with waste pipes,
and without plugs, with a sufficient supply of warm water
constantly available.
The lavatory shall be kept thoroughly cleansed and shall be
supplied with a sufficient quantity of clean towels once every
day.
13. Before each meal and before the end of the day’s work, at
least ten minutes, in addition to the regular meal times, shall
be allowed for washing to each person who has been employed in
the manipulation of dry compounds of lead or in pasting.
Provided that if the lavatory accommodation specially reserved
for such persons exceeds that required by Regulation 12, the
time allowance may be proportionately reduced, and that if
there be one basin or two feet of trough for each such person
this Regulation shall not apply.
14. _Baths._—Sufficient bath accommodation shall be provided
for all persons engaged in the manipulation of dry compounds
of lead or in pasting, with hot and cold water laid on, and a
sufficient supply of soap and towels.
This rule shall not apply if in consideration of the special
circumstances of any particular case, the Chief Inspector
of Factories approves the use of local public baths when
conveniently near, under the conditions (if any) named in such
approval.
15. _Cleaning._—The floors and benches of each workroom shall
be thoroughly cleansed daily, at a time when no other work is
being carried on in the room.
_Duties of Persons Employed_
16. _Medical examination._—All persons employed in lead
processes shall present themselves at the appointed times for
examination by the Appointed Surgeon as provided in Regulation
8.
No person after suspension shall work in a lead process, in
any factory or workshop in which electric accumulators are
manufactured, without written sanction entered in the Health
Register by the Appointed Surgeon.
17. _Overalls._—Every person employed in the manipulation of
dry compounds of lead or in pasting shall wear the overalls
provided under Regulation 9. The overalls, when not being worn,
and clothing put off during working hours, shall be deposited
in the places provided under Regulation 10.
18. _Food, &c._—No person shall introduce, keep, prepare, or
partake of any food, drink (other than any sanitary drink
provided by the occupier and approved by the Appointed
Surgeon), or tobacco in any room in which a lead process is
carried on.
19. _Washing._—No person employed in a lead process shall
leave the premises or partake of meals without previously and
carefully cleaning and washing the hands.
20. _Baths._—Every person employed in the manipulation of dry
compounds of lead or in pasting shall take a bath at least once
a week.
21. _Interference with safety appliances._—No person shall in
any way interfere, without the concurrence of the occupier
or manager, with the means and appliances provided for the
removal of the dust or fumes, and for the carrying out of these
Regulations.
These Regulations shall come into force on the 1st day of
January, 1904.
White Lead
(See also pp. 131 and 132)
In the manufacture of white lead processes which create dust are
specially dangerous, namely, emptying the corrosion chambers, drying and
grinding, transport of the material in the form of powder, and packing.
The following measures are called for: emptying the chambers should only
be done by men wearing respirators or equipped with breathing helmets
after preliminary damping of the corrosions by means of a spray. Use
of a vacuum cleaning apparatus suggests itself. Drying should be done
as far as possible in stoves charged mechanically, the temperature in
which can be watched from the outside; grinding must be done in closed
and ventilated mills; transport of the dried material should be effected
by mechanical means or vacuum apparatus, and packing should be done in
mechanical packing machines. Further, cleanliness and strict discipline
are essential. Alternation of employment is advisable. The question of
substitutes for white lead is referred to on p. 293.
Manufacture of red lead calls for precisely similar preventive measures.
Charging and emptying the oxidising furnaces should be done under
efficient exhaust ventilation. Conveyance, sifting, and grinding of the
cooled material requires to be done in the same way as has been described
for white lead.
In the production of chrome colours (lead chromates) besides the danger
from lead the injurious action of chrome has to be borne in mind.
Regulations for white lead factories have been made in Germany, Belgium,
and Great Britain. We give below the German Imperial Regulations dated
May 26, 1903.
REGULATIONS FOR MANUFACTURE OF LEAD COLOURS AND LEAD PRODUCTS
(1) The following regulations apply to all premises in which
lead colours or other chemical lead products (white lead,
chromate of lead, masicot, litharge, minium, peroxide of lead,
Cassel yellow, English yellow, Naples yellow, lead iodide, lead
acetate, &c., are manufactured), or in which mixtures of lead
are prepared as the principal or as a subsidiary business.
They shall not apply to lead smelting works, even though
processes named in paragraph (1) are carried on.
Neither shall they apply to workplaces in which manufactured
colours are intimately mixed or ground in oil or varnish in
connection with another industry.
(2) The workrooms in which the materials mentioned in paragraph
1 are prepared or packed shall be roomy, lofty, and so arranged
that sufficient and constant exchange of air can take place.
They shall be provided with a solid and smooth floor permitting
of easy removal of dust by a moist method. The floor, unless
for purposes of manufacture, shall be kept constantly wet, and
shall be wet cleansed at least once daily.
The walls, when not of a smooth washable surface or painted
with oil, shall be whitewashed at least once a year.
(3) The entrance of lead dust, or fumes, into the workrooms
shall be prevented by suitable means as far as possible. Rooms
which cannot be thus protected must be so separated from other
rooms that neither dust nor fumes can enter them.
(4) Lead melting pots shall be covered with a hood and shaft
communicating directly or by a chimney with the open air.
(8)[L] Grinding, sieving, and packing dry lead compounds,
emptying litharge and minium furnaces, and other operations in
which lead dust is generated, shall not be done except under an
exhaust draught, or other efficient means for preventing the
entrance of dust into the workrooms.
In the packing of colours containing only a little lead, in
small amounts, or in small packages for retail purposes,
exception to these regulations can be allowed by the higher
authorities.
(9) Machines generating lead dust and not efficiently protected
by their construction or method of use against the escape of
dust, shall have all cracks occluded by means of thick layers
of felt or similar material, so as to prevent the entrance of
dust into the workrooms.
Machines of this kind shall be provided with arrangements
preventing pressure of the air inside. They shall not be opened
until they are cool, and until the dust generated has settled.
(10) Women shall not be employed in factories in which the
colours specified in paragraph (1) are prepared except in work
which does not expose them to the action of lead dust or fumes.
Young persons shall not be employed nor be allowed on the
premises in factories concerned exclusively or in great part
with the preparation of lead colours or other lead compounds.
(11) No person shall be employed in rooms where the processes
specified in paragraph (1) are carried on who is not provided
with a certificate from a qualified surgeon stating that he is
physically fit and free from disease of the lungs, kidneys,
and stomach, and that he is not addicted to alcohol. This
certificate shall be kept and produced on demand to the Factory
Inspector or Appointed Surgeon.
(12) No person shall be employed in packing lead colours or
mixtures containing lead or other lead compounds in a dry
state, or with the coopering of the filled casks for more
than eight hours daily. This regulation shall not apply where
the packing machines are provided with effectual exhaust
arrangements, or so constructed and used as effectually to
prevent the escape of dust.
No person under 18 years of age shall be employed in the
process mentioned in the above paragraph, but exception can
be allowed in the packing of colours containing lead in
small amount, or in small packages for retail purposes, on
application to the higher authorities.
For the rest, no person coming into contact with lead or lead
compounds shall be employed for more than 10 hours within the
space of 24 hours.
(13) The occupier shall provide overalls and head-coverings for
all persons coming into contact with lead or lead compounds,
and suitable footwear for those emptying the oxidising chambers.
(14) The occupier shall not allow work involving exposure
to dust to be performed except by workers provided with
respirators or moist sponges covering the nose and mouth.
(15) The occupier shall not allow work involving contact with
soluble salts of lead to be done except by workers provided
with waterproof gloves or by those whose hands have previously
been smeared with vaseline.
(16) The occupier shall provide the overalls, respirators, &c.,
mentioned in paragraphs (13) (14) and (15) for each one of the
workers in sufficient number and in good condition. He shall
take care that they are used only by the workers to whom they
are severally assigned, and that in the intervals of work and
during the time when they are not in use they shall be kept in
their appointed place. Overalls shall be washed every week, and
the respirators, sponges, and gloves before each time that they
are used.
(17) Lavatories and cloak rooms, and, separate from these,
a mess room, shall be provided for the workers coming into
contact with lead or lead compounds in a part of the works free
from dust. These rooms shall be kept in a cleanly condition,
free from dust, and shall be heated during the cold seasons. In
the meal room or in some other suitable place there shall be
means for warming food. The lavatories and cloak rooms shall
be provided with water, vessels for rinsing the mouth, nail
brushes for cleaning the hands and nails, soap, and towels.
Arrangements shall also be made for keeping separate clothes
worn during work from these taken off before the commencement
of work. The occupier shall give facilities for all persons
employed in emptying the oxidizing chambers to have a warm
bath daily after the end of the work, and for those persons
coming into contact with lead or lead compounds, twice weekly.
The time for this shall be during the hours of work, and in
the cold season the bath room, which must be on the factory
premises, shall be heated.
(18) The occupier shall appoint a duly qualified medical
practitioner, whose name shall be sent to the Inspector of
Factories and to the Health Authority. He shall examine the
workers at least twice every month with a view to the detection
of symptoms of lead poisoning. The occupier shall not employ
workers suspected of symptoms of lead poisoning in occupations
exposing them to lead or lead compounds until they have
completely recovered. Those who appear peculiarly susceptible
shall be suspended permanently from work.
(19) The occupier shall keep a book, or make some official
responsible for its keeping, recording any change in the
personnel employed in lead or lead compounds and as to their
state of health. He shall be responsible for the completeness
and correctness of the entries except those made by the surgeon.
The remaining regulations as to entries in the Health Register, &c., are
similar to those already given in the Regulations for lead smelting works
on p. 300.
Use of Lead Colours
(See also pp. 132-4)
As explained on pp. 132-134 use of lead in the painting and varnishing
trades frequently causes lead poisoning. This has led to regulations in
various countries having for their object partly hygienic measures and
partly also limitation of colours containing lead, such as prohibition of
the use of lead paints in the interior of buildings or in the painting of
public buildings and of ships, &c.
The details of such regulations are seen in the German Imperial
Regulations dated June 27, 1905:
ORDER OF THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR RELATING TO THE PROCESSES
OF PAINTING, DISTEMPERING, WHITEWASHING, PLASTERING, OR
VARNISHING. JUNE 27, 1906
I.—_Regulations for carrying on the Industries of Painting,
Distempering, Whitewashing, Plastering, or Varnishing._
_Regulation 1._—In the processes of crushing, blending, mixing,
and otherwise preparing white lead, other lead colours, or
mixtures thereof with other substances in a dry state, the
workers shall not directly handle pigment containing lead,
and shall be adequately protected against the dust arising
therefrom.
_Regulation 2._—The process of grinding white lead with oil or
varnish shall not be done by hand, but entirely by mechanical
means, and in vessels so constructed that even in the process
of charging them with white lead no dust shall escape into
places where work is carried on.
This provision shall apply to other lead colours. Provided that
such lead colours may be ground by hand by male workers over 18
years of age, if not more than one kilogram of red lead and 100
grains of other lead colours are ground by any one worker on
one day.
_Regulation 3._—The processes of rubbing-down and
pumice-stoning dry coats of oil-colour or stopping not clearly
free from lead shall not be done except after damping.
All _débris_ produced by rubbing down and pumice-stoning shall
be removed before it becomes dry.
_Regulation 4._—The employer shall see that every worker who
handles lead colours or mixtures thereof is provided with,
and wears, during working hours, a painter’s overall or other
complete suit of working clothes.
_Regulation 5._—There shall be provided for all workers
engaged in processes of painting, distempering, whitewashing,
plastering, or varnishing, in which lead colours are used,
washing utensils, nail brushes, soap and towels. If such
processes are carried on in a new building or in a workshop,
provision shall be made for the workers to wash in a place
protected from frost, and to store their clothing in a clean
place.
_Regulation 6._—The employer shall inform workers, who handle
lead colours or mixtures thereof, of the danger to health
to which they are exposed, and shall hand them, at the
commencement of employment, a copy of the accompanying leaflet
(not printed with this edition), if they are not already
provided with it, and also a copy of these Regulations.
II.—_Regulations for the Processes of Painting, Distempering,
Whitewashing, Plastering, or Varnishing when carried on in
connection with another Industry._
_Regulation 7._—The provisions of paragraph 6 shall apply to
the employment of workers connected with another industry
who are constantly or principally employed in the processes
of painting, distempering, whitewashing, plastering, or
varnishing, and who use, otherwise than occasionally, lead
colours or mixtures thereof. The provisions of paragraphs 8-11
shall also apply if such employment is carried on in a factory
or shipbuilding yard.
_Regulation 8._—Special accommodation for washing and for
dressing shall be provided for the workers, which accommodation
shall be kept clean, heated in cold weather, and furnished with
conveniences for the storage of clothing.
_Regulation 9._—The employer shall issue regulations which
shall be binding on the workers, and shall contain the
following provisions for such workers as handle lead colour and
mixtures thereof:
1. Workers shall not consume spirits in any place where work is
carried on.
2. Workers shall not partake of food or drink, or leave the
place of employment until they have put off their working
clothes and carefully washed their hands.
3. Workers, when engaged in processes specified by the
employer, shall wear working clothes.
4. Smoking cigars and cigarettes is prohibited during work.
Furthermore, it shall be set forth in the regulations that
workers who, in spite of reiterated warning, contravene the
foregoing provisions may be dismissed before the expiration of
their contract without notice. If a code of regulations has
been issued for the industry (par. 134a of the G.O.) the above
indicated provisions shall be incorporated in the said code.
_Regulation 10._—The employer shall entrust the supervision of
the workers’ health to a duly qualified medical man approved of
by the public authority, and notified to the factory inspector
(par. 139b of the G.O.), and the said medical man shall examine
the workers once at least in every six months for symptoms
indicative of plumbism.
The employer shall not permit any worker who is suffering from
plumbism or who, in the opinion of the doctor, is suspected of
plumbism, to be employed in any work in which he has to handle
lead colours or mixtures thereof, until he has completely
recovered.
_Regulation 11._—The employer shall keep or shall cause to be
kept a register in which shall be recorded the state of health
of the workers, and also the constitution of and changes in
the staff; and he shall be responsible for the entries being
complete and accurate, except in so far as they are affected by
the medical man.
Then follow the regulations as to entries in the Register, as to which
see the Regulations as to lead smelting works, p. 300.
Type Founding and Compositors’ Work
(See also pp. 138 and 139)
Fumes which may carry up lead dust are generated in the casting of
letters. Dust arises also in setting the type. General hygienic measures
are especially called for such as healthy conditions in the workrooms.
Much can be done by exhaust ventilation locally applied to the type cases
and to letter (mono- and linotype) casting machines. Vacuum cleaning of
printing workshops and type cases is strongly advised.
As some lead poisoning in printing works is attributable to lead colours
or bronze powder containing lead their use should be limited as much as
possible.
The German Imperial Regulations for printing works and type foundries are
as follows:
ORDER OF THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OF JULY 31ST, 1897, REGULATING
LETTERPRESS PRINTING WORKS AND TYPE FOUNDRIES, IN PURSUANCE OF
SECTION 120_E_ OF THE INDUSTRIAL CODE
I. In rooms in which persons are employed in setting up type
or manufacture of type or stereotype plates the following
provisions apply:
1. The floor of workrooms shall not be more than a half a meter
(1·64 feet) below the ground. Exceptions may only be granted by
the higher administrative authority where hygienic conditions
are secured by a dry area, and ample means of lighting and
ventilating the rooms.
Attics may only be used as workrooms if the roof is provided
with a lathe and plaster ceiling.
2. In workrooms in which the manufacture of type or stereotype
plates is carried on, the number of persons shall not exceed
such as would allow at least fifteen cubic meters of air space
(529·5 cubic feet) to each. In the rooms in which persons are
employed only in other processes, there shall be at least
twelve cubic meters of air space (423·5 cubic feet) to each
person.
In cases of exceptional temporary pressure the higher
administrative authority may, on the application of the
employer, permit a larger number in the workrooms, for at the
most 30 days in the year, but not more than will allow ten
cubic meters of air space (353 cubic feet) for each person.
3. The rooms shall be at least 2·60 meters (8· feet) in height
where a minimum of fifteen cubic meters are allowed for each
person, in other cases at least 3 meters (9·84 feet) in height.
The rooms shall be provided with windows which are sufficient
in number and size to let in ample light for every part of the
work. The windows shall be so constructed that they will open
and admit of complete renewal of air in workrooms. Workrooms
with sloping roof shall have an average height equal to the
measurements given in the first paragraph of this section.
4. The rooms shall be laid with close fitting impervious
floor, which can be cleared of dust by moist methods. Wooden
floors shall be smoothly planed, and boards fitted to prevent
penetration of moisture. All walls and ceilings shall, if
they are not of a smooth washable surface or painted in oil,
be limewashed once at least a year. If the walls and ceilings
are of a smooth washable surface or painted in oil, they shall
be washed at least once a year, and the oil paint must, if
varnished, be renewed once in ten years, and if not varnished
once in five years.
The compositors’ shelves and stands for type boxes shall be
either closely ranged round the room on the floor, so that no
dust can collect underneath, or be fitted with legs, so that
the floor can be easily cleaned of dust underneath.
5. The workrooms shall be cleared and thoroughly aired once at
least a day, and during the working hours means shall be taken
to secure constant ventilation.
6. The melting vessel for type or stereotype metal shall be
covered with a hood connected to an exhaust ventilator or
chimney with sufficient draught to draw the fumes to the outer
air.
Type founding and melting may only be carried on in rooms
separate from other processes.
7. The rooms and fittings, particularly the walls, cornices,
and stands for type, shall be thoroughly cleansed twice a year
at least. The floors shall be washed or rubbed over with a damp
cloth, so as to remove dust once a day at least.
8. The type boxes shall be cleansed before they are put in use,
and again as often as necessary, but not less than twice at
least in the year.
The boxes may only be dusted out with a bellows in the open
air, and this work may not be done by young persons.
9. In every workroom spittoons filled with water and one at
least for every five persons shall be provided. Workers are
forbidden to spit upon the floor.
10. Sufficient washing appliances, with soap and at least one
towel a week for each worker, shall be provided as near as
possible to the work for compositors, cutters, and polishers.
One wash-hand basin shall be provided for every five workers,
fitted with an ample supply of water.
The employer shall make strict provision for the use of the
washing appliances by workers before every meal and before
leaving the works.
11. Clothes put off during working hours shall either be kept
outside the workroom or hung up in cupboards with closely
fitting doors or curtains, which are so shut or drawn as to
prevent penetration of dust.
12. Artificial means of lighting which tend to raise the
temperature of the rooms shall be so arranged or such
counteracting measures taken that the heat of the workrooms
shall not be unduly raised.
13. The employer shall draw up rules binding on the workers
which will ensure the full observance of the provisions in
sections 8, 9, 10, and 11.
II. A notice shall be affixed and a copy sent to the local
police authority shewing:
(_a_) The length, height, and breadth of the rooms.
(_b_) The air space in cubic measure.
(_c_) The number of workers permitted in each room.
A copy of Rules 1 to 13 must be affixed where it can be easily
read by all persons affected.
III. Provides for the method of permitting the exceptions
named above in sections 2 and 3, and makes it a condition of
reduction in cubic air space for each person employed as type
founder or compositor that there shall be adequate mechanical
ventilation for regulating temperature and carrying off
products of combustion from workrooms.
Ceramic Industry
(See also pp. 135-8.)
A complete substitute for lead in glazes seems as yet impossible on
technical grounds, as glaze containing lead has qualities which cannot
be obtained without its use. In small works the technique necessary
for the production of leadless glazes (special kinds of stoves) cannot
be expected, especially as those carrying on a small industry lack the
necessary knowledge of how to be able to dispense with the use of lead
glazes and substitute leadless materials without complete alteration
in their methods of manufacture. And yet discontinuance or the utmost
possible limitation of the use of lead glazes and colours is most
urgently needed in all small ceramic workshops, as they are not in a
position to put in localised exhaust ventilation, &c., which is possible
in large factories. Observance of even the simplest hygienic measures can
scarcely be obtained. Consequently very severe cases of lead poisoning
are met with in small works. An effort in the direction of discontinuance
of lead glazes was made in Bohemia, where (at the cost of the State)
technical instruction was given by an expert on the preparation of
leadless glazes especially in districts where the industry was carried
on in the homes of the workers. This procedure, extension of which is
expected, had good results.
Many have demanded, in view of the possibility of substituting leadless
for lead glazes, the total prohibition of lead. Such is the view of the
Dutch inspector De Vooys; Teleky and Chyzer share the view expressed so
far as the small industry is concerned, since the practicability of the
change has been demonstrated.
English authorities (Thorpe, Oliver) propose diminution of the lead in
the glaze in such a way that on shaking with weak acid not more than a
specified small quantity shall be dissolved (Thorpe test). In my opinion
such a measure is hardly enough for the small industry. I do not expect
much good from obligatory use of fritted glazes.
In addition to earthenware, manufacture of tiles and bricks leads not
infrequently to cases of lead poisoning from use of lead glaze.
The following measures apply to the larger ceramic works. Since risk
is considerable, not only in glost placing but also in grinding,
ware-cleaning, &c., closed ball mills in grinding and locally applied
exhaust ventilation in ware-cleaning operations, &c., must be arranged.
Personal cleanliness and proper equipment of a factory in all the
essentials insisted on on pp. 226-9 are important, but nothing can take
the place of efficient locally applied ventilation.
Vitreous enamelling of household utensils, baths, gas stoves, signs,
&c., is an analogous process as enamels containing lead may be used.
Sieving on the dry powder and brushing off superfluous glaze often cause
poisoning. Here generally the same preventive measures apply.
[In Great Britain the china and earthenware industry is placed under
Regulations dated January 2, 1913, which supersede the previous Special
Rules. These Regulations—thirty-six in number—provide, among other
usual provisions, (1) for efficient exhaust ventilation in (_a_)
processes giving rise to injurious mineral dust (fettling and pressing
of tiles, bedding, and flinting, brushing and scouring of biscuit)
and (_b_) dusty lead processes (ware cleaning, aerographing, colour
dusting, litho-transfer making, &c.); and (2) monthly periodical medical
examination of workers in scheduled lead processes.]
In the Netherlands, in consequence of lead poisoning in porcelain works,
committees were appointed to inquire into the subject in 1901, 1902, and
1903.
File Cutting
(See also p. 140)
In file cutting the file is cut on a lead bed or a bed of an alloy of
zinc and lead. The same source of poisoning occurs in other industries
such as amber working. Lead poisoning among file cutters is pronounced.
The best preventive measure is substitution of a bed of pure zinc for
lead. The German Imperial Health Office have issued a ‘Warning notice’
for file-cutters.
LEAFLET FOR FILE-CUTTERS
The use of lead beds or of alloys of lead with other metals
has repeatedly brought about lead poisoning in file-cutters.
The beds also supposed to be made of zinc usually contain a
considerable proportion of lead, and are thus dangerous to
health.
Among file-cutters lead poisoning arises from absorption of
the metal in small quantities by means of dirty hands, eating,
drinking, smoking or chewing of tobacco. The consequences of
this absorption are not at once noticeable. They appear only
after weeks, months, or even years, according to the extent to
which the lead has accumulated in the system.
_How does lead poisoning show itself?_—The first sign is
usually a bluish-grey line on the gums called the blue line,
associated with anæmia or pallor. Later symptoms are very
varied. Most frequently lead colic comes on, the affected
person suffering from violent cramplike pains starting from the
navel; the stomach is hard and contracted; very often vomiting
and constipation ensue, or, very occasionally, diarrhœa. In
some cases paralysis shows itself—generally in those muscles
which extend the fingers, usually affecting both arms. In
exceptional cases other muscles of the arms and legs are
affected. Sometimes lead poisoning manifests itself in violent
pains in the joints—generally the knee, more rarely in the
shoulder and elbow. In specially severe cases brain trouble
supervenes—violent headache, convulsions, unconsciousness or
blindness. Finally lead poisoning may set up disease of the
kidneys—Bright’s disease and gout.
Women suffering from lead poisoning frequently miscarry.
Children born alive may, in consequence of lead poisoning, die
in their first year. Children fed at the breast are poisoned
through the milk.
Apart from severe cases complicated with brain trouble,
which are often fatal, persons suffering from lead poisoning
generally recover if they withdraw from further contact.
Recovery takes place after a few weeks, but in severe cases
only after months.
The most effective preventive measures are cleanliness
and temperance. Persons who, without being drunkards, are
accustomed to take spirits in quantity are more likely to
succumb than the abstemious. Spirits should not be taken
during working hours. In regard to cleanliness, file-cutters
using lead beds should be especially careful and observe the
following rules:
1. Since soiling the hands with lead cannot be entirely
avoided, smoking and chewing tobacco during work should be
given up.
2. Workers should only take food and drink or leave the works
after thoroughly washing the hands with soap—if possible with
pumice stone; if drinking during work cannot be wholly given up
the edges of the drinking vessels ought not to be touched by
the hands.
If a file-cutter falls ill in spite of precautions with
symptoms pointing to lead poisoning he should, in his own and
his family’s interest, at once consult a doctor, telling him
that he has been working with a lead bed.
Other Industries in which Lead is used
In cutting _precious stones_ with use of lead discs lead poisoning
frequently occurs, especially where this trade, as in some parts of
Bohemia, is carried on as a home industry. The authorities have required
substitution of carborundum (silicon carbide) for lead discs. As,
therefore, an efficient substitute is possible, use of lead should be
prohibited. Similarly, use of lead in the making of musical instruments
should, if possible, be discontinued. Brass pipes in _musical instrument_
making are filled with lead to facilitate hammering and bending, and in
this way poisoning has occurred. In numerous other industries where the
use of lead cannot be avoided, and where consequently the danger must
be present, as, for instance, in _lead melting_, _soldering_, _lead
rolling_, _stamping_, _pressing_, &c., in the manufacture of _lead
piping_, _shot_, _wire_, _bottle capsules_, _foil_, _toys_, and many
other articles, general preventive measures should be carefully carried
out. _Melting of lead_ and _lead alloys_ should be carried out only under
efficient exhaust ventilation. In larger works where dust is generated
this should be drawn away at the point where it is produced. This applies
also to processes in the chemical industries where lead or lead compounds
are used, seeing that no substitute is possible.
Zinc, Brass-casting, Metal Pickling, Galvanising
(See also pp. 151 and 182)
In zinc smelting account has to be taken of fumes which may contain
lead, zinc, arsenic, sulphur dioxide, and carbonic oxide. Metallic fumes
require to be condensed—a procedure in harmony with economic interests.
This is effected in a technically arranged condensing system, consisting
of a condenser and prolong, in which the fumes are given as large a
space as possible in which to condense and cool. In order to prevent
the entry of fumes into the shed when removing distillation residues,
hoods should be arranged over the front of the furnace through which
the gases can be conducted into the main chimney stack or be drawn away
by a fan; in addition the residue should fall into trolleys which must
either be covered at once or placed under a closely fitting hood until
the fuming contents are cool. As the mixing of the materials for charging
and the sifting and packing of the zinc dust (poussière) may cause risk,
these processes require to be carried out mechanically with application
of local exhaust. Such an arrangement is shown in fig. 59 below. The
material which is fed in is carried by the elevator to the sifting
machine, falls into the collecting bin, and is then packed. The points at
which dust can come off are connected with the exhaust and carried to the
dust collector; fans carry the filtered air to the outside atmosphere.
[Illustration: FIG. 59.—Arrangement for Sieving and Packing Zinc Dust
(poussière).
_a_ Charging hopper; _b_ Distributor; _c_ Elevator; _d_ Sieve; _e_
Collector; _f_ Packing machine; _g_ Exhaust pipe; _h_ Worm; _i_ Dust
Collector; _k_ Motor]
Only paragraphs 3-8 of the German Imperial Regulations dated February 6,
1900, for Spelter Works are quoted, as the remainder are on precisely
similar lines to those for lead smelting works given in full on p. 300.
3. Crushing zinc ore shall not be done except in an apparatus
so arranged as to prevent penetration of dust into the workroom.
4. The roasting furnaces as well as the calcining furnaces
shall be provided with effective exhaust arrangements for the
escaping gases. The occupier shall be responsible for their
efficiency during the time the furnace is at work.
5. To avoid dust, ores intended for charging distillation
furnaces shall not be stacked in front of or charged into
the furnace, or mixed with other material, except in a damp
condition.
This regulation shall not apply to large so-called Silesian
Retorts when in use in the zinc smelter; yet in the case of
them also the Higher Authorities may require damping of the
charging material if specially injurious to health.
6. Dust, gases and vapours escaping from distillation furnaces
shall be caught as near as possible to the point of origin by
efficient arrangements and carried out of the smelting rooms.
The entrance of the gases from the fires into the smelting room
shall be prevented as far as possible by suitable arrangements
for drawing them off.
7. Residues shall not be drawn into the smelting room; they
shall be caught in closed channels under the furnaces and
emptied from these channels at once into waggons placed in
passages beneath the distillation rooms.
This regulation (where the Higher Authorities approve) shall
not apply to existing plants, should it be impossible to make
the arrangements mentioned in Reg. 1, or where such additions
could only be added by rebuilding at a prohibitive cost.
8. Sieving and packing of by-products obtained by the
distillation of zinc (poussière, flue dust) shall not be done
except in a special room separate from other workrooms, in
accordance with Reg. 1.
Sieving shall only be done in an apparatus so arranged as to
prevent escape of dust.
In _brass casting_, in order to prevent occurrence of brass-founders’
ague, it is necessary that the zinc oxide fumes evolved should be
effectively drawn away from the crucible by locally applied exhaust
ventilation. General ventilation merely of the room is almost useless, as
in casting the fumes rise up into the face of the pourer. Seeing that
casting is carried on in different parts of the foundry, it is advisable
to connect up the hoods over the moulds by means of metal piping with the
exhaust system, or to arrange a flexible duct which can be moved about as
occasion requires.
Dangerous acid fumes (notably nitrous fumes) are evolved in metal
pickling, especially of brass articles (such as harness furniture,
lamp fittings, church utensils, &c.), for the purpose of giving them a
shiny or dull surface by immersion in baths of nitric, hydrochloric, or
sulphuric acid. As severe and even fatal poisoning has occurred in these
operations they should be conducted in isolated compartments or channels
under exhaust ventilation. If the ventilation provided is mechanical an
acid proof earthenware fan or an injector is necessary. The following
description applies to one large works: The pickling troughs are placed
in a wooden compartment closed in except for a small opening in front.
To this compartment a stoneware pipe leading to a stoneware fan is
connected. The nitrous fumes are drawn through the pipe and led into
the lower part of an absorption tower filled with cone-shaped packing
material through which water trickles from a vessel placed at the top.
The greater part of the acid fumes are absorbed as they pass upwards
and the water collects in a receiver below, from which it is blown by
compressed air into the vessel above for utilisation again until it
becomes so charged with acid that it can be used for pickling purposes.
In _galvanising_ and _tinning_ acid fumes, injurious acroleic vapour, and
metallic fumes can arise as the metal articles (iron, copper, &c.) first
require to be cleaned in an acid bath and then dipped into molten fat
or molten zinc or tin. Here also the fumes should be drawn away in the
manner described.
Recovery and Use of Mercury
Escape of mercury vapour and development of sulphur dioxide seriously
endanger workers engaged in smelting cinnabar. The danger can be
minimised by proper construction of furnaces preventing escape as far
as possible of fumes and most careful condensation of the mercury in
impervious and sufficiently capacious chambers and flues.
Continuous furnaces are to be preferred to those working intermittently.
The system of condensing chambers and flues must offer as long a passage
as possible to the fumes, and care must be taken to keep them thoroughly
cool. Removal of the deposit rich in mercury from the flues is especially
fraught with danger. This work should only be carried on after efficient
watering by workers equipped with respirators, working suits, &c.
_Use of mercury._—Mirror making by coating the glass with mercury used
to be one of the most dangerous occupations. Now that a fully adequate
substitute for mercury has been found in the nitrate of silver and
ammonia process, use of mercury should be prohibited. As a home industry
especially mirror coating with mercury should be suppressed. Fortunately
the dangerous mode of production is rapidly being ousted.
The following requirements are contained in a decree of the Prussian
Government dated May 18, 1889:
(1) Medical certificate on admission to employment in mirror making with
use of mercury;
(2) restriction of hours to six in summer and in winter to eight daily,
with a two hours’ mid-day interval;
(3) fortnightly examination of the workers;
(4) air space per person of 40 cubic meters in the coating room and 30 in
the drying room, and, in both, introduction of 60 cubic meters of air per
head per hour;
(5) Work to cease if the temperature of the room in summer reaches 25° C.
Measures are necessary to prevent occurrence of mercury poisoning in
hatters’ furriers’ processes (preparation of rabbit fur for felt hats)
in consequence of the use of nitrate of mercury. Danger arises chiefly
in cutting the hair, in dressing and drying, in sorting, and also in
the subsequent stages of hard felt hat manufacture. Aspiration of the
dust and fluff at its point of generation, isolation of the drying
rooms and prohibition of entry into them while drying is going on, are
necessary. In dressing (commonly known as ‘carotting’), the nitric acid
vapour requires to be drawn away. In addition strict personal hygiene,
especially of the teeth, is very important. Processes involving _water
gilding_ (nowadays practised on a very small scale) should only be
carried on in stoves provided with exhaust ventilation. Electroplating,
fortunately, has almost entirely taken its place.
As cases of mercury poisoning have been reported from use of mercurial
pumps in producing the vacuum inside _electric incandescent bulbs_, air
pumps should be substituted for them whenever possible.
_Barometer_ and _thermometer_ makers may and do suffer severely if care
is not taken to draw away the fumes and ensure good ventilation of the
workrooms. Careless handling and the dropping of mercury on the benches
make it difficult to prevent some volatilisation. Personal hygiene and
especially a proper hygiene of the mouth are of the greatest importance
in this class of work.
Preparation of mercury compounds in chemical factories, especially the
dry processes (sublimation), as in production of cinnabar, corrosive
sublimate and calomel mixing, grinding, and sublimation, require to be
carried on in closed apparatus. Preparation of the substances named above
in solution involves much less risk than subliming. From our point of
view, therefore, the former is to preferred.
Arsenic, Arsenic Compounds, Arseniuretted Hydrogen
For arsenic works imperviousness of the system and as complete
condensation as possible are necessary to prevent escape of fumes.
Respirators should be worn in manipulations with white arsenic, and
such work as packing done under conditions of locally applied exhaust
ventilation.
Industrial use of arsenic compounds, in view of the risk attaching to
them, should be reduced as much as possible. This has sometimes been
achieved by technical improvement in processes of manufacture. Thus in
the colour industry, where formerly colours containing arsenic played
an important rôle, coal-tar colours have taken their place, and use
of arsenic even in these (as in the manufacture of fuchsin) has been
replaced by nitrobenzene.
As the danger from arseniuretted hydrogen gas is especially great in
processes in which acid acts on metal and either one or both of them
contain arsenic, the materials, should be as free from arsenic as
possible, in the production, for example, of hydrogen for soldering, in
extracting metals by means of acids, in galvanic elements, in accumulator
works, in the storage and transport of acids in metal vessels, and in
galvanising.
In any case the workers in these industries should be warned of the
danger and instructed in case of emergencies. For soldering exclusive use
of hydrogen produced electrolytically and procurable in steel cylinders
is advisable.
Extraction and Use of Gold and Silver
In the extraction of gold and silver by amalgamation and subsequent
volatilisation of mercury there is risk of mercurial poisoning. The
preventive measures necessary are similar to those for poisoning in the
recovery of mercury (see p. 327).
_Argyria_ in pearl bead blowers can be avoided by using pumps to blow the
silver solution into the beads instead of the mouth.
In electroplating the possibility of poisonous fumes arising from the
baths must be guarded against because hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, though
only in minute quantities, may be evolved; care must be taken that the
workrooms are well ventilated or the baths hooded. Careful personal
hygiene is essential, for the prevention of skin diseases from which
workers in electroplating often suffer.
VII
_PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN OTHER TRADES_
Ceramic Industry
In the glass industry use of lead, chrome, and arsenic compounds should
be restricted as much as possible or allowed only under suitable
precautions (exhaust ventilation, personal hygiene, &c.).
_Etching on glass_ by means of hydrofluoric causes almost inevitably
injury to the workers. Rendering the surface of glass opaque should
preferably be done by sand blast. When a bath of hydrofluoric acid for
etching on glass is used the fumes require to be drawn away by hoods over
the baths and the work-rooms well ventilated.
Further precautionary measures are called for in view of industrial
poisoning by furnace gases in various ceramic industries, as, for
example, cement works, glass works, and tile works.
The following suggestions are made in the technical introduction to the
Germany Factory Act for prevention of poisoning from carbonic oxide,
carbon dioxide, and sulphur dioxide:
(1) Even the fixing of benches which might be used for sleeping on near
the furnaces should be strictly forbidden;
(2) All furnaces which are roofed over should be provided with adequate
side and roof ventilation;
(3) All gas pipes and cocks must be maintained in an impervious condition.
Manufacture and Use of Varnishes and Drying Oils
Unpleasant fumes are given off on boiling linseed oil with oxidising
substances, which should be prevented by closely fitting covers and
condensation of the fumes in cooling apparatus. In heating and dissolving
resin for the production of varnishes the fumes evolved require to be
dealt with in a similar way.
Preventive measures must be taken also in the use of quick-drying paints
on ships and inside steam boilers as, owing to the rapid evaporation of
the poisonous solvents—benzene, benzine and turpentine—fatalities have
occurred. As a result of elaborate investigation by the inspectors of
factories in Hamburg the following instructions were issued:
Quick-drying paint for ships and for preventing rust should
only be used under the supervision of a person conversant with
the danger to health and risk from fire.
They should only be allowed for the painting of interior
surfaces after adoption of adequate precautions—free
ventilation, use of smoke helmets with air conducting
apparatus, and no naked lights, &c. Since use of quick-drying
paints cannot easily be prohibited and the fumes from the
substitutes for turpentine—benzene and other light tarry
oils—exert injurious effect on man, precautionary measures are
called for. Regulation of working hours is as important as
provision of adequate ventilation. Workers, therefore, should
be allowed proper intervals from work.
Confined spaces in the interior of ships should be adequately
ventilated before, after, and during work; all persons who use
the paints should have opportunity for washing given them at
their work places, and should be compelled to avail themselves
of these facilities; indulgence in alcohol and smoking should
be prohibited; receptacles in which quick-drying paints are
sold should be provided with an air-tight cover and with a
warning notice as to the danger of the contents.
Paints made from petroleum fractions of low boiling-point,
light coal-tar oils, turpentine oil, carbon bisulphide, and
similar substances, are to be regarded as injurious to health.
Persons under eighteen, and women, should not be allowed to
work with quick-drying paints.
Obligatory notification of cases of poisoning by hydrocarbons
and other similar poisonings would have a good effect.
Schaefer (Inspector of Factories in Hamburg) has drawn up the following
leaflet for painters, varnishers, workers in dry docks, and others
engaged in painting with quick drying paints and oils:
All quick-drying paints and oils are more or less injurious
to health and very inflammable, as they contain volatile
substances such as benzine (naphtha, petrol ether), benzene,
turpentine oil, carbon bisulphide, &c. These paints are mostly
used in painting interiors of ships, boilers, machinery,
apparatus, &c., and come on the market under various
names, such as Black Varnish Oil, Solution, Patent Colour,
Anti-corrosive, Dermatin, Acid-proof Paint, Apexior, Saxol, &c.
Even at ordinary temperatures the volatile fluids used
as mediums for dry paint powders, or as a first coating,
evaporate. Air filled with the fumes is not only harmful to
health, but liable to explosion. Working with these paints and
oils in the interior of ships, or steam boilers and the like,
has repeatedly led to explosions and fatal poisoning.
_Danger of Poisoning._—All persons are exposed to the danger of
poisoning who use quick-drying paints in the interior of rooms
or receptacles, or otherwise manipulate the paints. The warmer
the room and the less ventilation there is before and during
the painting, the greater the danger of poisoning. On the other
hand, use of these paints in the open air is generally without
effect.
Poisoning arises from inhaling the fumes of hydrocarbons.
The symptoms are oppression, headache, inclination to vomit,
cough, hiccough, giddiness, noises in the ears, drunken-like
excitement, trembling and twitching. Inhalation of larger
quantities brings on, quite suddenly and without previous
warning, unconsciousness, which may last many hours and is
often fatal. Except in severe cases the symptoms generally
soon disappear, if the affected person withdraws from further
contact with the fumes. The most effective protection therefore
against poisoning is fresh air and temperance. In so far as
painting with quick-drying materials is necessary in workrooms,
interiors of ships, water and ballast tanks, double bottoms,
bunkers, bilges, cabins, boilers and receptacles, care must
be taken to ensure thorough ventilation before, after, and
while the work is going on. Where no sufficient ventilation
is possible these paints ought not to be used. Frequent
intermission of work by a short stay in the open air is useful.
When working in spaces not easily accessible, the worker should
be roped.
Speaking, singing, or whistling during work favours inhalation
of the fumes and is, therefore, to be avoided. Indulgence in
spirits, especially during working hours, increases the danger
of poisoning. Habitual drinkers should not be allowed to work
at all with quick-drying paints and oils.
At the first signs of discomfort work should be stopped. An
immediate stay in the open air will then usually dispel the
poisonous symptoms.
If, notwithstanding this, severe symptoms develop, oxygen
inhalation should be commenced forthwith and medical aid called
in.
Production of Vegetable Foods and Luxuries
(See also p. 154)
Measures for the prevention of industrial poisoning have to be thought of
in connection with drying processes (by smoke gases, carbon dioxide, and
carbonic oxide), many processes of preserving (use of sulphur dioxide,
&c.), and fermentation (accumulation of carbonic acid).
In breweries the use of kilns allowing fire gases to enter the
drying-rooms formerly caused carbonic oxide and carbonic acid poisoning.
The general introduction of hot air kilns provided with mechanical
malt-turning apparatus should be insisted on, and is in keeping with
progress in technical methods.
The accumulation of carbonic acid in the malting cellars can be prevented
in the same way as in a distillery.
If ammonia is used for _refrigeration_, precautions are necessary so
that, in the event of leakage or bursting of pipes, the workers may
escape. Naturally the imperviousness of the freezing system must be
guaranteed.
Oppression and danger to the health of the workers is occasionally caused
by the development of gases in the coating of barrels with pitch, partly
preventable by the use of pitching machines.
In the production of _spirits_ carbonic acid poisoning can occur from
accumulation of carbonic acid in the fermentation cellars. These should
be thoroughly ventilated and in view of the heaviness of the gas,
openings for ventilation should always be located at the floor level.
In the _sulphuring of malt_ the following recommendations were made by
the Austrian inspectors:
During the sulphuring process the room ought not to be entered (for
the turning over of the malt). When the sulphur has been burnt, the
drying-room must be ventilated from the outside, by opening the windows
and letting in cold currents of air, until the sulphur dioxide has
completely dispersed, which can be tested by holding a strip of moistened
blue litmus paper at the half-opened door. If it does not turn red,
turning over of the malt may be proceeded with.
As the _sulphuring of hops_ in hop districts is done in primitive little
kilns, in which the hops are spread out on a kind of gridiron and sulphur
burnt below in iron pans, development of sulphur dioxide may affect the
workers. The following regulations are therefore suggested for work in
these kilns:
The rooms in which sulphuring takes place must be airtight,
capable of being locked, and provided with arrangements which
make it possible to remove the sulphur dioxide fumes before
the room is entered. This can usually be done by a strong
coke fire, maintained in the chimney place, which creates the
necessary draught. If fans are used, it must be remembered that
iron is affected and destroyed by acid gases; stoneware fans
are therefore advisable.
In the production of _vinegar_, air escapes laden with acetic acid
vapour, alcohol, lower oxidation products of alcohol, aldehyde, acetic
ether, &c. Their escape can be avoided if the whole process is carried on
in a closed self-acting apparatus with the advantage also that no loss
occurs.
In premises for _drying agricultural products_ (fruit, chicory, turnips)
the persons employed in the drying-room are exposed to the danger of
carbonic oxide poisoning from direct firing.
The following recommendations for work in drying-rooms with direct firing
are taken from an Austrian decree of 1901:
The lower drying chambers, in which the real drying process
is effected, should be so arranged that the objects dried in
them can be removed by means of long-handled implements through
a passage shut off from the drying-room. The separation of
this passage can be effected by loose tin plates which can be
removed as required for the work of turning or removal of the
dried products, so that the worker need not come into contact
with the gases.
Open fires should be so arranged that if required they can
be shut off, by simple arrangements, from the drying-rooms
in which the workers are temporarily occupied in carrying
in, and turning, the objects to be dried, transferring the
partly dried products to hotter hurdles, and emptying them
when finished, in such a way that the entrance of combustion
gases into the drying chambers can be completely prevented. In
order, however, to prevent a back draught, arrangements must be
made for simultaneous removal of the gases by pipes connected
with a chimney or smoke flue. The places from which the fires
are charged should, in addition, be furnished with suitably
arranged openings for ventilation leading into the outer air,
in order to neutralise, in case of need, any back draught from
the furnaces into the rooms.
The windows of the drying chambers should be so arranged as to
open both from within and without.
The floor of the roof space, or attic, which forms at the same
time the ceiling of the upper drying-room, should be kept
perfectly airtight, as also the openings into it through which
the steam pipes pass. For this purpose the floor should be a
double one and the openings or boxes into which material is
thrown should have a double cover above and below. Further,
situated in the highest point of the ceiling of the roof space,
there should be a suitable number of openings topped by louvred
turrets. In the roof space no work should be done except
manipulations necessary for the charging of the hurdles with
the goods to be dried. Use of the roof floor as a sleeping or
living room is not permissible.
Before the workers enter the drying chambers for the purpose of
turning the materials, the stove should be shut off, the gases
drawn from the furnace into the chimney or flue, and at the
same time the doors and windows of the drying rooms opened.
Entering of drying chambers for working purposes should only be
done after a sufficient time has elapsed for removal of the air
by ventilation.
Charging of the furnaces should be so arranged that they burn
as low as possible before the removal of the dried materials
and before subsequent work in the drying chambers. Seeing that
chicory and turnip drying is done intermittently by night, a
special sleeping or waiting room with free ventilation should
be provided. The regulations concerning the ventilation of the
workrooms are to be made known to the workers.
Cigar Industry
In order to prevent injury to health to tobacco workers the dust and
fumes, especially at cutting and sifting machines, require to be drawn
away by locally applied exhaust ventilation. The workrooms, moreover,
must conform to hygienic requirements, especially as to cleanliness.
Washing accommodation and baths are desirable, but are only likely to be
provided in large works.
Wood Working
(See also p. 154)
Risk from poisonous woods can be avoided by exhaust ventilation applied
to the wood-working machinery.
To lessen the danger to health in the use of methylated spirits in the
polishing of wood adequate ventilation of the workrooms is necessary;
drawing off the fumes by local ventilation is often impossible.
Production of Wood-pulp (Cellulose) and Paper.
In the _sulphite cellulose_ process, sulphur dioxide may escape from
the sulphur stoves or from the boilers; escape of sulphur dioxide is
also possible through defective gas pipes and condensers. Gas pipes and
condensers require to be quite impervious and condensation or absorption
as complete as possible. The fumes escaping from the boilers should be
led through pipes into closed boilers for condensation purposes; the
gases not condensed here are to be led into absorption towers.
In the manufacture of _paper_ with use of chloride of lime for bleaching
chlorine can be given off in considerable quantity, requiring removal of
the gases from the apparatus.
The use of poisonous colours containing lead or arsenic, and addition of
lead-containing substances to the paper pulp, is now very rare.
Textile Industries.
(See also p. 156)
In the textile industry only a few manipulations are associated with
serious risk of poisoning. Those engaged in carbonising are exposed
to acid fumes; closed and ventilated apparatus, therefore, as far as
possible, require to be used and the acid gases escaping from them should
be absorbed. These requirements are fulfilled by carbonising stoves which
are ventilated and connected with coke condensers. It is especially urged
that only arsenic free acid be employed, as otherwise danger of poisoning
by arseniuretted hydrogen may be incurred.
In the making of _artificial silk_, according to the Chardonnet-Cadoret
process, the precautionary measures recommended in nitrating together
with careful exhaustion of the ether and camphor fumes apply.
The combustion gases (containing carbonic oxide) developed in the
process of singeing are harmful and require to be led away at their
source.
Poisonous metallic salts, especially lead and lead-containing zinc, are
used as weighting materials, in dressing or finishing, and sometimes
cause symptoms among the workers. Apart from the danger to those occupied
in spinning and weaving, the workers who handle these products (in the
clothing trade) also run a risk from lead.
Precautionary measures are necessary in the _varnishing of woven
materials_, as the substances employed may contain volatile poisonous
solvents. If these poisonous solvents cannot be replaced by others less
poisonous, carefully applied exhaust ventilation must be provided.
The same holds good when carbon bisulphide, benzene, and benzine are
used as solvents in the production of woven materials impregnated with
indiarubber.
Employment of lead salts and other poisonous metallic salts in the
glossing of woven materials, or in order to render them non-inflammable,
is to be deprecated.
Cases of lead poisoning have occurred in the working-up of asbestos, as
lead wire is sometimes used in the process of weaving.
To protect workers in _chlorine_ and _sulphur bleaching_ from poisoning
by chlorine or sulphur dioxide the gases arising from the bleaching
liquids should be drawn away. Use of closed bleaching apparatus, as is
the case in large works, reduces the danger to a minimum. Bleaching-rooms
should be connected with a powerful stoneware fan, so that they may be
thoroughly aired before they are entered.
Dye Works
Industrial poisoning by dyes is, in general, rare, as the natural dyes
(wood and tar dyes) are almost without exception non-poisonous. Further,
the dyes are generally only used in diluted solution. Formerly the
arsenic in many tar dyes caused poisoning, but now it is usually the
mordants which have harmful effect. To this class belong chromic acid
salts and mordants containing arsenic, antimony (tartar-emetic), and
also chloride of tin. In the scraping off of layers of paint containing
arsenic, arsenic dust may arise. In Turkey red dyeworks, especially
sodium arsenite is used for fixing the tar dyes.
Orpiment dyes which may give off poisonous arseniuretted hydrogen gas
are becoming less and less used; from the point of view of industrial
hygiene, the utmost possible avoidance of the use of arsenic-containing
preparations in dye works is to be recommended. Where this is not
possible, strict personal hygiene must be enforced (as, for instance,
application of vaseline to the skin).
FOOTNOTES
[A] Leymann has dealt with the conditions of health in a large aniline
factory in a later work which is referred to in detail in the section on
the aniline industry.