SPANISH ART, LITERATURE, AND SPORT
I
_PAINTING AND ARCHITECTURE_
Early Spanish paintings are feeble imitations of Italian and Flemish
art. They lack the simplicity of the one and the realism of the other.
In color they are somber and monotonous--two qualities which
characterize the whole Spanish school. The value of this school has been
curiously overrated. Comparatively speaking of brief existence, it has
produced but two great painters--Velasquez and Murillo. Their
contemporaries, Zurbaran, Del Mazo, Ribera, Alonso Cano, Herrera and
Roelas, were men of ability, no doubt, but they were not masters.
Excellent examples of Velasquez and of Murillo are to be found to-day in
the Museum of the Prado at Madrid, and in the Art Gallery of Seville.
The cathedrals and churches generally contain works of the principal
painters, both of the early and later times; but placed, as a rule, in
“Retablos” or altar-pieces, they are poorly exposed and difficult to
view.
* * * * *
DON DIEGO VELASQUEZ DE SILVA, or simply VELASQUEZ, the greatest painter
that Spain has produced, was born at Seville, in 1599, of parents of
Portuguese origin, and died at Madrid in 1660. He married in his youth
the daughter of FRANCISCO PACHECO, a painter of inferior merit, but a
learned writer on art, from whose advice and instruction he derived much
advantage. Velasquez showed from his childhood a genius for painting. He
began by copying carefully from nature, still life, and living models,
forming himself upon the study of pictures by Ribera and by Italian
masters of the Naturalistic school, which had been brought from Italy to
Spain. The best examples of his first manner are “The Adoration of the
Kings” and his famous “Borrachos,” or drunkards, in the Madrid Gallery.
In them the influence of Caravaggio and Ribera is very evident. In the
twenty-third year of his age he went to Madrid, and, attracting the
notice of influential persons, was soon taken into the service of Philip
IV.--an enthusiastic lover of art, and himself a painter. He remained
there for the rest of his life, and his pictures were almost exclusively
painted for his royal patron and for the grandees of the Spanish court.
A friendship with Rubens, who was in Madrid as embassador from the King
of England, in 1628, and two visits to Italy, in 1629 and 1648, led him
to modify his early manner. From the study at Venice of the masterpieces
of Titian and Tintoret, he acquired a greater harmony and transparency
of color, and a freer and firmer touch, without departing from that
truthful representation of nature which he always sought to attain. On
his second visit to Italy he chiefly studied in Rome. He again changed
his style: his coloring became more what the Italians term “sfumato,” or
hazy; and he returned, to some extent, to his early general soberness of
tone, rarely introducing bright colors into his last pictures.
Velasquez’s second and third manners, as well as his first, are fully
represented in the Madrid Gallery, which contains no less than sixty of
his pictures, or almost the whole of his genuine works. The “Borrachos”
have already been mentioned as an example of his first manner. The fine
portrait of the Infante Don Carlos, second son of Philip III., is
another. In his second manner are the “Surrender of Breda,” perhaps the
finest representation and treatment of a contemporary historical event
in the world; the magnificent portrait of the Count of Benavente, and
the four Dwarfs. In his third, the “Meninas,” and the “Hilanderas.” By
studying these pictures the student will soon be able to distinguish
between the three manners of the painter, and to decide for himself as
to the genuineness of the many pictures which pass for Velasquez’s in
the public and private galleries of Europe.
It was principally as a portrait-painter that Velasquez excelled.
Although he wanted the imagination of Titian, and gave less dignity and
refinement than that great master to his portraits, yet in a marvelous
power of rendering nature, and in truthfulness of expression, he was not
his inferior. In the imaginative faculties he was singularly deficient,
as his “Forge of Vulcan,” the “Coronation of the Virgin,” and other
works of that class in the Madrid Gallery, are sufficient to prove.
However, the “Crucifixion,” in the same collection, is a grand and
solemn conception, which has excited the enthusiastic admiration of some
critics. Velasquez was essentially a “naturalistic” painter. In the
representation of animals, especially dogs, and of details such as
armor, drapery, and objects of still life, he is almost without a rival.
His freedom of touch and power of producing truthful effects by the
simplest means are truly wonderful. His aerial perspective his light and
shade, his gradations of tone and color, are all equally excellent, and
have excited the admiration of Wilkie, and of the best judges of art.
The high offices which Velasquez held at court gave him but little time
to paint. The number of his pictures is, therefore, comparatively small.
They were principally executed for the royal palaces; those which have
escaped the fires that destroyed so many great works have been removed
to the Madrid Museum. The portraits which are attributed to him in many
public and private collections out of Spain are, for the most part, by
his pupils, or imitators and copyists. One of the most skillful of the
latter was a certain Lucas, who, not many years ago, succeeded in
deceiving many collectors.
Among his best scholars were: JUAN BAUTISTA DEL MAZO (d. 1667), his
son-in-law. How nearly he approached his master may be seen by his
admirable portrait of D. Tiburcio de Redin, and the view of Saragossa,
in which the figures have even been attributed to Velasquez, in the
Madrid Gallery. PAREJA, his half-caste slave, and afterward freedman (d.
1670), who imitated his master in his portraits, but not in his
religious and other subjects, in which he followed the Dutch and Italian
painters of the time; as in his “Calling of St. Mark,” in the same
gallery. CARRENO, a member of a noble family (b. 1614; d. 1685), who
succeeded Velasquez as court painter, and who is chiefly known by his
portraits of the idiot king (Charles II.), his mother, Mariana of
Austria, Don John of Austria (not the hero of Lepanto), and other royal
and courtly persons of the period. Spanish writers on art rank him with
Vandyke, to whom, however, he was greatly inferior. His coloring is
generally insipid, and wanting in vigor.
BARTOLOME ESTEBAN MURILLO was born at Seville in 1616. He studied under
Juan del Castillo, a very indifferent painter, but formed his style,
like Velasquez, on the works of Ribera and the Italian naturalistic
painters. Like that great master, too, he modified his “manner” three
times, as he gained in experience and knowledge. From his boyhood he
painted pictures which were sold in the market-place of his native city,
and bought by dealers; chiefly, it is said, for exportation to the
Spanish colonies in America. After obtaining a considerable reputation
at Seville, he went to Madrid to improve himself by the study of the
works of the great Italian masters in the royal collection. Their
influence led him to modify his first style, called by the Spaniards
_frio_ (cold), in which he had imitated the brown tints, dark shadows,
and conventional treatment of drapery of Ribera; but he did not abandon
it altogether. It may still be traced in his second, or _calido_ (warm)
manner, as in the celebrated “Holy Family,” called “Del Pajarito,” in
the Madrid Gallery. The advice of Velasquez, who treated him with great
kindness, and the works of Titian and Rubens, led him to adopt a warm,
harmonious and transparent coloring, and a more truthful rendering of
nature; at the same time his drawing became more free, if not more
correct. His third manner is termed by the Spaniards _vaporoso_ (misty),
from a gradual and almost imperceptible fusion of tints, producing a
kind of hazy effect. In it are painted, for the most part, his
well-known “Miraculous Conceptions,” the Virgin standing on the crescent
moon attended by angels. The three manners of Murillo are neither so
well defined nor so easily recognized as those of Velasquez. He never
completely abandoned one of them for the other, and in his last pictures
he frequently returned to the calido style. As a painter of portraits
and landscapes, he was inferior to Velasquez. It was only in religious
subjects, and especially in his Holy Families, that he surpassed him.
His Virgins are taken from the common type of Andalusian beauty,
slightly idealized; but he gives to them an expression of youthful
innocence and religious sentiment which makes him the most popular of
Spanish painters. The Spaniards are naturally proud of him. They believe
that he unites the best qualities of the greatest masters, and surpasses
them all. All other critics place him second to Velasquez, who
unquestionably possessed a more original genius. Comparisons between
these two great painters are, however, more than usually pointless and
misleading, the two men being essentially different in feeling, taste,
and manner.
Returning to Seville, after his first and only visit to Madrid, Murillo
established himself there for the rest of his life, painting, with the
help of scholars, many pictures for churches and convents in Spain and
her colonies. In the Peninsula, his best works are now only found at
Madrid and in his native city. The French invaders and the
picture-dealers carried the greater number away. Among those most worthy
of note at Madrid are the “St. Elizabeth of Hungary tending the Sick,”
and the “Patrician’s Dream,” now in the Academy of San Fernando, and the
two “Immaculate Conceptions” in the Gallery: at Seville, “St. Thomas of
Villanueva distributing Alms to the Poor,” in the public Museum; the
“St. Anthony of Padua” in the Cathedral; and the pictures in the
Caridad. Of his well-known sunburned beggar-boys and girls there are
none, that we know of, in Spain; many of those in European collections
are probably by his favorite pupil, VILLAVICENCIO, in whose arms he died
at Seville in 1682. There is a picture by this painter, who was of a
noble family, and rather an amateur than an artist, in the Madrid
Gallery, representing a group of boys at play. It has no great merit,
but shows how he attempted to imitate his master in this class of
subject. He was born in 1635, and died in 1700. The imitations and
copies of Murillo by TOBAR (d. 1758) are so successful that they
frequently pass for originals. The same may be said of some by MENESES,
who died early in the 18th century.
Among the contemporaries of Murillo was IRIARTE (b. 1620; d. 1685), one
of the few landscape-painters that Spain has produced. His landscapes
were much esteemed by Murillo, but they are not entitled to rank with
the works of any of the great masters in this branch of the art. The
Madrid Gallery contains five examples of them.
The following painters may be mentioned among the best and most
characteristic of the second class in the Spanish school: FRANCISCO DE
ZURBARAN, born in Estremadura in 1598, died at Madrid 1662, was
essentially a religious painter, and his somber coloring and the
subjects of his pictures are characteristic of Spanish bigotry and of
the Inquisition. In Spain he is chiefly known by his altar-pieces for
churches and convents; out of Spain by his monks and friars. A few
figures of female saints prove that he was not insensible to grace of
form and beauty of color. But he is usually mannered, and without
dignity. A disagreeable reddish hue pervades his larger pictures. He
formed himself, like his contemporaries, on the study of the Italian
painters of the Naturalistic school. Philip IV. is said to have named
him “Painter of the King, and King of Painters.” He enjoyed the first
title, but did not merit the second. His best work in Spain is, perhaps,
the “Apotheosis of St. Thomas Aquinas,” in the Seville Museum. It is a
grand, but somewhat stiff and unpleasing composition. Zurbaran is badly
represented in the Madrid Gallery. The “Christ Sleeping on the Cross” is
the most popular in it. One or two of his works are to be found in the
Academy of San Fernando.
ALONSO CANO (born at Granada, 1601; died there, 1667) enjoys the highest
reputation in Spain after Zurbaran. He was painter, sculptor, and
architect, and, moreover, carved and painted wooden figures of the
Virgin and Saints, an art in which he attained great success and renown.
Many examples of his skill may be seen at Granada. One of the most
celebrated is the statuette of St. Francis in the sacristy of the
Cathedral of Toledo. Cano was a violent, but not unkindly man,
constantly engaged in quarrels and lawsuits. He ended by becoming a
canon of the Cathedral of Granada, after narrowly escaping from the
clutches of the Inquisition. His drawing is carefully studied, but is
frequently exaggerated, and wants ease and flow; his coloring
conventional and somewhat weak; but there is a delicacy of expression
and refinement in his works which have earned him the praise of some
critics. The Madrid Gallery contains a few of his pictures: among them a
“Dead Christ”; but he is best seen at Granada.
FRANCISCO HERRERA EL VIEJO, or the elder (b. 1576; d. 1656). His
principal works are at Seville and out of Spain. The Madrid Gallery
contains nothing by him. Spanish writers on art attribute to him the
introduction into Spain of a new style of painting, characteristic of
the national genius. It was vigorous, but coarse, and has little to
recommend it even to those who admire the Italian eclectic school. Like
Cano, he was a man of hot temper, quarreled with his pupils, among whom
was Velasquez, and was thrown into prison on a charge of coining false
money. He was released by Philip IV. on account of his merits as a
painter. His best work in Spain is the “Last Judgment,” in the church of
St. Bernardo at Seville, which is praised for its composition and the
correct anatomy of the human form. Herrera painted in fresco, for which
he was well fitted from his bold and rapid execution; but his works in
that material have mostly perished.
FRANCISCO HERRERA EL MOZO, or the younger (b. 1622; d. 1685), son of the
former, studied at Rome, where he was chiefly known for his pictures of
dead animals and still life. The Italians nicknamed him “Lo Spagnuolo
dei pesci,” from his clever representations of fish. He was a painter of
small merit; weak and affected in his drawing, color, and composition.
The Madrid Gallery contains but one of his pictures--the “Triumph of St.
Hermenegildo.” Like his father, he painted frescoes, some of which are
still preserved in the churches of Madrid. He was also an architect, and
made the plans for the “Virgen del Pilar” at Saragossa.
JUAN DE LAS ROELAS, commonly known in Spain as “El Clerigo Roelas,” was
born at Seville about 1558, and died in 1625. He studied at Venice;
hence the richness and brilliancy of color in his best works, as in the
fine picture of the “Martyrdom of St. Andrew,” in the Museum of Seville.
In the churches of that city are some altar-pieces by him worthy of
notice. He is scarcely known out of Spain, or, indeed, out of Seville,
although he may be ranked among the best of the Spanish painters of the
second rank. The picture in the Madrid Gallery attributed to him, if
genuine, is a very inferior work.
JUAN DE VALDÉS LEAL--born at Cordova in 1630, died at Seville 1691--was
a painter of considerable ability, but of a hasty and jealous temper,
which he especially displayed toward Murillo, the superiority of whose
work he would not acknowledge. His pictures are rare, and are best seen
at Seville. The Caridad in that city contains two, representing the
“Triumph of Death,” which are powerful, but coarse. He was also an
engraver of skill.
FRANCISCO RIZZI, the son of a Bolognese painter who had settled in
Spain, was born at Madrid in 1608, and died there in 1685. He was a
rapid and not unskillful painter, and was employed to decorate in
fresco, in the Italian fashion, the churches and royal palaces of the
capital. His well-known picture in the Madrid Gallery representing the
“Auto da Fé” held in the Plaza Mayor before Charles II. and his queen,
Marie Luisa of Orleans, in 1680, although awkward and formal in
composition, is cleverly painted.
CLAUDIO COELLO, died 1693, was chiefly employed by the Spanish court in
portrait-painting and in decorating the royal palaces for triumphs and
festivities. His best known and most important picture, in the sacristy
of the Escorial, is the “Santa Forma,” or “Removal of the Miraculous
Wafer of Gorcum,” in which he has introduced portraits of Charles II.
and of the officers of his court. It is crowded and unskillful in
composition, but has merits which show that he had preserved the best
traditions of the Spanish school of painters, of whom he was almost the
last.
The history of Spanish painting closes with the seventeenth century.
During the eighteenth there appeared a few feeble painters who imitated,
but were even immeasurably behind the Luca Giordanos, Tiepolos, and
other Italians whom the Bourbon kings invited to Madrid to decorate the
new royal palace, and to make designs for the royal manufactory of
tapestries. The first who attempted to revive Spanish art was FRANCISCO
GOYA (born in 1746), a vigorous but eccentric painter and etcher in aqua
fortis, not wanting in genius. He studied at Rome, and returning to
Spain executed frescoes, with little success, in churches at Madrid and
elsewhere. He became “pintor de camara,” or court painter, to the weak
Charles IV. and vicious Ferdinand VII. In numerous portraits of these
kings and of members of the Spanish Bourbon family he made them, perhaps
with deliberate malice--for in politics he was an ardent liberal--even
more hideous than they were. His large picture of Charles IV. and his
family in the Madrid Gallery is the best, but by no means an attractive
example of his skill, and is in parts, especially in the details of
costume, not altogether unworthy of Velasquez, whom he sought to
imitate. But his genius was chiefly shown in his etchings, in which, in
a grotesque, and not always decent way, he lashed the vices and
corruption of his country, and vented his hatred against its French
invaders. The Spaniards are very proud of Goya. The author of the “Guide
to the Madrid Gallery” discovers in his works a union of the best
qualities of Rembrandt, Titian, Paul Veronese, Watteau, and Lancret! He
was, no doubt, a powerful and original painter, and his touch is often
masterly; but he was incorrect in his drawing, and his color is
frequently exaggerated and unnatural. His designs for the tapestries in
the royal palaces are generally weak and ill-drawn; but they are
interesting as representations of national manners and costume. Goya
died in voluntary exile at Bordeaux in 1828, having left Spain disgusted
with the political reaction which set in on the restoration of the
Bourbons, and with the persecution of the best and most enlightened of
his countrymen. His works have of late years been much sought after,
especially in France. His etchings, consisting chiefly of political
caricatures (caprichos), scenes in the bull-ring, the horrors of war,
etc., are rare. A new edition has recently been published of the
“Caprichos” from the worn-out plates.
Goya may be considered the founder of the modern Spanish school of
painting, which has produced Fortuny, Madrazo, Plamaroli, and a number
of other clever painters who have achieved a European reputation. It is
not, however, in Spain, but in the private collections of London, Paris,
and New York, that their principal works are to be found. Spaniards have
little love or knowledge of art, and the high prices it is now the
fashion to pay for Spanish pictures are beyond their means.
* * * * *
The history of architecture in Spain is similar to that of France and
other countries of northern Europe, with, however, the essential
difference that Moorish art in the Middle Ages attained in Spain as
great an importance as in the East, and when combined with Christian
art, a new style was formed, known by the name of Morisco or Mudejar,
which is not met with out of the Spanish Peninsula, and is of great
interest.
Spanish architecture may be divided, after the prehistoric period, and
invasions of the Phœnicians and Carthaginians, in the following manner:
1. Roman period, until the invasions of the Goths.
2. Latin Byzantine style, fifth to end of tenth century.
3. Moorish architecture, eighth to fifteenth century.
4. Romanesque style, eleventh, twelfth, and part of thirteenth century.
5. Pointed architecture, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and part of
sixteenth century.
6. Mudejar style, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and part of
sixteenth century.
7. Renaissance or Plateresque style, Græco-Roman, and Churrigueresque.
Several of the inscriptions which have come down to us of the Roman
period (see “Corpus Inscrip.,” Vol. II., Emil Hübner) mention different
buildings of public utility and adornment which were in course of
construction in Spain. The number which still remains is very great, and
may be found in almost every province; many have, however, been sadly
mutilated. The finest are undoubtedly the aqueduct at Segovia
(constructed of huge stones, and still used for carrying water to the
town), the Bridge of Alcantara (Estremadura), with its triumphal arch in
the center and temple at one end, and the walls of Lugo and Astorga. The
general structure of these monuments and their ornamentation are the
same as those of ancient Rome: it is well known that the Romans imposed
their art on the countries which came under their dominion.
Two remarkable specimens exist of the Visigothic period: the church of
San Roman de Hornija (near Toro), 646, and San Juan de Banos (near Venta
de Banos), 661. Although these churches have suffered much from later
additions, they still retain a great part of their construction and part
of the primitive building. A great number of fragments remain in Spain
of this period. They must be examined in order to judge this
architecture. Some are capitals of columns in the Cathedral of Cordova
and some churches at Toledo, and different friezes and fragments which
have been applied to different uses at Toledo and Merida. The votive
crowns found at Guarrazar, now at Cluny (Paris) and armory of Madrid,
give an excellent idea of the ornamentation of the Visigoths. Several
examples of architecture remain posterior to the Visigoths, and anterior
to the Romanesque style of the eleventh century. The most important are
the churches of Sta. Maria Naranco and St. Miguel de Lino, near Oviedo,
Sta. Christina de Lena (Asturias), a very remarkable specimen of
Byzantine construction, and the churches of San Pedro and San Pablo,
Barcelona.
The invasion of the Arabs in 711 caused their architecture to extend
itself in the Peninsula. Its adaptation to churches and other buildings
of the Christians created a new style, known as Mudejar. The finest
specimen of Oriental architecture in Spain is the mosque at Cordova
(ninth century). Byzantine models were copied there in the same manner
as at Jerusalem, Damascus, and Cairo. The small mosque at Toledo (Cristo
de la Luz) is of the same period, and part of the church of Santiago de
Peñalva (Vierzo), the only example which is known of a Christian church
built in the Moorish style.
During the eleventh and twelfth centuries this architecture underwent
radical modifications in Spain, in the same manner as in the East, and
a new style arose which is very different to the earlier one. No writers
on this subject have explained this transformation in the East in a
satisfactory manner: it is not easy to study this transition in Spain,
for it coincides with the time in which the Spanish Moors were not rich
or powerful enough to build large constructions, as they did in the
thirteenth century, after the kings of Granada had settled there. At
this period of their art the forms of capitals, which partook of a
Byzantine and classical form, changed. Tiles are used to decorate the
walls, which are covered with an ornamentation in relief in stucco, in
which are introduced inscriptions in Cufic and African characters; the
ceilings are decorated with inlaid woodwork and stalactical pendentives
in stucco. This style ends with the conquest of Granada, 1492. The
Alhambra is the most important example of this architecture, and
following it the Alcazar of Seville.
Owing to the gradual conquests by the Christians of towns belonging to
the Muhammadans, several of them continued to be inhabited by Moors, who
kept their customs and religion. They were called Moriscos or Mudejares.
The chief industries of the country were in their hands, and several
churches and other buildings of importance were built by them. They
accommodated their architecture to European or Christian necessities,
and created a new style (Mudejar), a mixture of Christian and Moorish
art, which is only to be found in the Spanish Peninsula. The finest
specimens are of the fourteenth century. The religious constructions of
this period are remarkable for their brickwork in towers and apses, and
fine wooden ceilings, artesonados. Examples exist at Toledo, Seville,
and Granada. The interesting synagogues built by Moriscos are at Toledo
and Segovia. As specimens of civil architecture, the finest are Casa de
Pilatos (Seville), Palace of Mendoza (Guadalajara), Archbishop’s Palace
(Alcalá), Casa de Mesa (Toledo). This style continued in vogue during
the greater part of the sixteenth century, although late Gothic was
everywhere predominant. A most striking example in which the three
styles--Moorish, Flamboyant, and Renaissance--are combined, is to be
found in a chapel of the cathedral of Sigüenza.
The Romanesque style of architecture was imported in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries from France, even more directly than in other
countries, owing to the immense influence exercised by a large number of
prelates and priests, who came from Cluny and Cister, and the French
princes and families who settled in Spain. The general features of this
architecture are similar to those of France: the differences exist
chiefly in the general plan of the churches rather than in their
construction and ornamentation. The choirs in Spanish cathedrals are
placed in the central nave, a traditional remembrance of the early
basilica. In some localities, Segovia, Avila, and Valladolid, some of
these churches have external cloisters, an Oriental or Italian
modification, which never occurs in France or the north of Europe.
Romanesque examples are very numerous in Spain. Some, such as the
doorway of the Cathedral of Santiago (Galicia), and the Old Cathedral
(Salamanca), are not surpassed by any similar buildings in Europe.
Specimens are only found in the northern provinces, as the south was not
conquered from the Moors until the thirteenth century. Interesting
examples exist in Asturias, Galicia, Castile, Aragon, and Cataluña. The
cloisters of Gerona and Tarragona are unrivaled. Of the many striking
examples of Transition from Romanesque to Early Pointed, the finest are
the old cathedral of Lerida, the cathedrals of Tarragona and Santiago,
and the collegiate church of Tudela.
The specimens of Pointed style in Spain present no other variety than
the choirs in the centers of the cathedrals. Although this style was
imported from France early in the thirteenth century, in the same manner
as in Germany, Romanesque churches continued to be built, and Pointed
architecture was only finally adopted at the end of the century. The
finest cathedrals in Spain of this architecture are those of Toledo,
Leon, and Burgos. A great number of civil and religious buildings of
this style are to be met with in Spain, in which the art-student will
find constant elements of study: it underwent the same modifications in
Spain as in other countries, until it reached, in the fifteenth century,
its latest period, the Flamboyant style. This style lasts longer in
Spain than in other countries, and acquires great importance. The
cathedrals of Salamanca (la nueva) and Segovia, both built in late
Gothic, were begun in the sixteenth century, when in other parts of
Europe and even in Spain itself Italian Renaissance models were largely
imported. Spanish cathedrals are undoubtedly, with the exception of
Italy, the most interesting in Europe; for although they cannot compete
in architectural details with those of France, they are vastly superior
in regard to the objects they contain of ecclesiastical furniture of
every kind--iron railings, carved stalls, monstrances, church-plate,
vestments, pictures, and sepulchers. Toledo and Seville cathedrals are
museums in their way.
Italian models were copied in Spain from the end of the fifteenth
century. The portals of Santa Cruz at Valladolid and Toledo are of this
period. Gothic architecture continued, however, for several years to
alternate with this style. The combination of these styles produced an
important series of models known in Spain by the name of Plateresco.
The revival of the fine arts coincided in Spain with the greatest power
and richness of the country. The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella
united Castile, Aragon, and the kingdom of Naples. The conquest of
Granada completed the political unity of the country: the discoveries of
Columbus, Cortes, and Pizarro brought riches from a new world, and the
union with the House of Austria, the Flemish States, an immense power,
which it enjoyed during the reign of the Emperor Charles V. Renaissance
architecture is better represented in Spain than in any other country
except Italy. In almost all towns of importance admirable examples of
this style will be found. The finest are at Salamanca: the University,
Santo Domingo, Casa de las Conchas, and Salinas, San Marcos (Leon), Casa
de Ayuntamiento (Seville), Valladolid, Saragossa, Burgos, etc.
The cathedral and palace of Charles V. (Granada) may be quoted as an
example of pure Græco-Roman style. Part of the Alcazar at Toledo belongs
to this same period. The tendency to copy classical models increased
daily. The Monastery of the Escorial may be considered the most
important specimen of this school. In the seventeenth century the
Borromenisco style was imported from Italy. The Pantheon at the Escorial
is a good example. This architectural decay increased in Spain with
great rapidity, and in no country did it reach to such an extravagant
point. It lasted during the seventeenth and part of the eighteenth
centuries. In Spain this style is called Churrigueresque, after the
architect Churriguera. Examples will be found everywhere. The
Transparente (Cathedral of Toledo), retablos of San Esteban (Salamanca),
Cartuja (Granada), and façade of Hospicio (Madrid), may be considered
the most remarkable.
The creation of the Academy of San Fernando, the French architects who
accompanied Philip V., and the efforts of Charles III. to favor
classical studies, produced the same pretentious and classical reaction
as in the rest of Europe. The Palace and Convent of Salesas (Madrid) are
specimens of the first movement. The Museo and Observatory of Madrid
belong to the end of the last and beginning of the present century.
II
_SPANISH LITERATURE_
The history of Spanish literature commences at the end of the eleventh
or beginning of the twelfth century, when the dialect emerged from the
corrupted Latin, and became an independent language capable of producing
literary works.
The origin of the language may be traced to the writers of the sixth,
seventh, to the eleventh century. They wrote in the more or less
barbarous Latin of the period. The most important authors of this time
were San Isidoro and his pupils, St. Eugenio, St. Ildefonso, St.
Eulogio, Alvaro, Sansom, Pero Alonso, and Oliva. The writers of the
Roman period, Porcio Latro, Seneca, Lucan, Martial, Pomponius Mela,
Collumela, Silius Italicus, and Quintillian, though born in Spain, must
be numbered among classical authors. The Spanish language is derived in
a direct manner from the Latin, though it has been enriched by a great
number of words belonging to the different nations which have occupied
the whole or part of the Peninsula. Iberian, Punic, Greek, Visigothic,
Hebrew, and Arabic words are met with in large numbers. The abundance of
these last has induced some critics to infer that the origin of the
language is Semitic, but its grammatical structure is undoubtedly Latin.
The abundance of Oriental words does not influence its organization, or
produce any further result than to add nouns to the language.
Spanish literature is generally divided into three groups--twelfth
century to end of fifteenth; sixteenth to seventeenth; eighteenth to the
present day.
It is highly probable that Spanish poetry began by commemorating the
heroic deeds of Pelayo and other heroes who fought against the Moors;
but we can trace nothing to that period. The earliest compositions which
have reached us are, a “Charter of Oviedo,” 1145 (the “Charter of
Aviles,” 1155, has been proved to be a forgery), and two poems on the
Cid, the favorite hero of popular Spanish poetry, 1040-1099. The best of
these poems is the one beginning: El mio Cid (vide Ticknor). Though
incomplete, it constitutes a real epic poem, and if examined in detail
appears to have been written at the beginning of the twelfth century.
Three contemporary works have reached us: “La Vida de Santa Maria
Egipciaca,” “El Libro de los tres reyes d’Orient,” and “Los tres reyes
magos.” The first two were evidently written under a French influence;
“Los tres reyes magos” was written for recital in a church.
The same intellectual development appears in Spain in the thirteenth
century as in Italy and France. The universities of Palencia and
Salamanca contributed toward it. The tendency of the writers of this
period is to imitate classic authors. A priest, Gonzalo de Berceo, is
the first poet of any importance in the thirteenth century, 1230: he
wrote a large number of verses on religious subjects. His poem to the
Virgin contains some poetical passages. Two poems appeared shortly
afterward, “El Libro de Apollonio” and “El Libro de Alexandre,” by J.
Lorenzo Segura, adapted from the history of Alexandre Le Grand, by
Chatillon. The poem “Fernan Gonzalez” is of the same period: it is free
from foreign influence. Prose is improved at the beginning of the
century by the translation from Latin of the “Fuero Juzgo,” and other
historical and didactical works.
Don Alonso el Sabio, 1221-1284, absorbs the scientific and literary life
of Spain during his time: the most eminent of his countrymen, Spaniards,
Jews and Moors, gathered round him. So many works have appeared under
his name that it is incredible they should all have been written by him.
Probably only the poems, “Las Querellas,” written in the Castilian
dialect, are his. An extensive Universal History, the first written in
Europe in a vernacular language; the “Leyes de Partidas,” a series of
legal works; “El Saber de Astronomia,” a cyclopedia of this science as
it stood at that time; the “Cantigas,” a poem containing upward of four
hundred compositions to the Virgin, written in the Galician dialect and
in the Provençal style, and several other works, have passed hitherto as
proceeding from his pen.
Don Sancho el Bravo, a son of Don Alonso, wrote the “Lucidario” and
“Libro de los Castigos,” a moral treatise dedicated to his son. The
“Libro del Tesoro” and “La Gran Conquista de Ultramar” were translated
at his instigation from the Latin. The Infante, Don Juan Manuel, 1282, a
nephew of Don Alonso, wrote several works on different subjects. The
finest is the interesting collection of fables, “El Conde Lucanor.” They
are earlier than the Decameron or Canterbury Tales.
Spanish poetry revived in the fourteenth century. The archpriest of
Hita, 1330-1343, wrote thousands of verses on different subjects. Rabbi
Don Santob, 1850, a Spanish Jew, dedicated to his friend, King Peter
the Cruel, his principal poetical works. The best is on the “Danza de la
Muerte,” a favorite subject of that time. Pero Lopez de Ayala,
1372-1407, who wrote the “Rimado de Palacio,” and Rodrigo Yanez, the
author of the “Poema de Alonso XI.,” end the series of poets of the
fourteenth century. Romances of chivalry became popular in Spain in the
fifteenth century: their popularity lasted until the sixteenth, when
Cervantes published his “Don Quixote.” “Amadis de Gaula” was the first
work of importance of this kind; “Palmerin de Oliva,” etc., follow it.
The Coronicas belong to this period. They are semi-historical
narratives, in which the leading events of each reign are described.
Provençal style was introduced into Spain early in the fifteenth
century. It became very popular owing to the patronage of Don Juan II.,
1407-1454. The most important courtiers imitated the king’s example, and
poems have reached us by Don Alvaro de Luna, Don Alonso de Cartagena and
others. The Marquis of Villena and Macias belong to this period. Fernan
Perez de Guzman wrote at this time his “Livros de los claros varones de
España,” and Juan de Mena, an excellent poet, his “Laberynto” and
“Dialogo de los siete Pecados mortales.” The last poet of the reign of
Don Juan II. is the Marquis of Santillana. Several wrote late in the
century: the most excellent among them being Jorge Manrique, whose
“Coplas” on the death of his father are admirable. Novels begin at this
time, generally copied from Italian models. The finest is “La
Celestina,” written in acts like a drama, one of the best works in
Spanish literature.
Romances or ballads are the most original form of Spanish poetry. They
constitute the popular epic poem, and are the most spontaneous
productions of the Spanish language.
The revival of literature coincides in Spain with the period of its
greatest power and prosperity. The early part of the sixteenth century
is called “el Siglo de oro.” An Italian influence is predominant.
Castillejo keeps to the earlier style in his charming compositions:
“Dialogo entre el autor y su pluma,” and “Sermones de Amores.” Boscan
and Garcilaso were the first to introduce the Italian measure into
Spanish verse. Some poets wrote in both these styles. Gregorio Sylvestre
is among the best of them; an excellent poet, but very little known.
Garcilaso was the earliest lyrical poet, 1503-1536. His verses are pure
in style, in the manner of Virgil and Horace. His life is interesting:
he fought by the side of Charles V., and was killed at the assault of
the fortress of Frejus (Nice). One of his contemporaries, Hurtado de
Mendoza, a soldier and statesman, popularized classical studies. His
best works are the “Rebellion de los Moriscos” and the well-known
“Lazarillo de Tormes.” The classical style is now universally adopted in
Spain. Fray Luis de Leon was undoubtedly the best poet of this period.
His ode on the “Ascension” and his “Poema a la Virgen” may certainly be
reckoned among the best compositions in the language. Several poets of
an inferior order belong to the sixteenth century. Cesina, Acuna,
Figueroa, Medrano, La Torre, Mesa and Alcazar are among the best. Their
works are clever in parts, but are generally unequal. This
characteristic becomes a leading feature in Spanish poetry. At the end
of the seventeenth century lyrics began to decay, but no author carried
affectation and exaggeration to such a height as Gongora, 1561-1627: a
gifted poet, full of charm in his simple compositions (vide
translations by Archdeacon Churton), though most obscure in his
“Soledades” and “Polifemo.” This style was called in Spain culteranismo,
and not even the best dramatic authors of the seventeenth century were
free from its defects. The imitators of Gongora continued until the
eighteenth century, although here and there a poet like Rioja tried to
check the movement.
Epic poetry in Spain is inferior to the dramatic and lyrical styles. The
specimens which exist are old and devoid of inspiration. “El
Monserrate,” by Virues; “La Cristiada,” by Hojeda; “La Vida de San
Jose,” by Valdivieso, and “El Bernardo,” by Balbuena, may be quoted as
examples. “La Araucana,” by Ercilla, contains some poetical passages,
but in general is hardly more than a historical narrative. “La
Gatomaquia,” by Lope de Vega, though a burlesque, is considered by many
critics the best epic poem in the Spanish language.
Dramatic literature unites, perhaps, the highest conditions of
originality and power. Its earliest productions are the liturgical
representations of the Middle Ages, “Misterios” or “Autos.” Although
works of this kind are mentioned as early as the thirteenth century, the
first which have a distinct dramatic character are the “Coplas de Mingo
Revulgo” and “El Dialogo entre el Amor y un viejo.” These compositions
were written under the reign of Henry IV. At the latter part of the
fifteenth century a series of dramatic works already existed. Juan de la
Encina began the history of the Spanish drama. Lucas Fernandez was a
contemporary writer, and shortly afterward Gil Vicente. Torres Naharro,
1517, published his “Propaladia,” which contains eight comedies. Lope de
Rueda founded the modern school, and he is imitated and improved by his
followers. The drama does not attain its highest importance until Lope
de Vega (1562-1635), the most prolific of Spanish poets. He tells us he
had written fifteen hundred plays, without counting “Autos” and
“Entremeses.” Cervantes says that forty companies of actors existed at
this time in Madrid alone, consisting of no less than one thousand
actors. In 1636, three hundred companies of actors appeared in different
parts of Spain. Lope de Vega is rather unequal as a dramatic author;
but “El mejor Alcalde el rey,” “La Estrella de Sevilla,” “La dama boba,”
and “La moza de cantaro,” entitle him to rank among the best European
dramatists. Three authors share Lope’s glory, Tirso, Calderon and
Alarcon.
No Spanish dramatist has surpassed Tirso in his facility of treating the
most varied subjects in admirable versification. His comedy of “Don Gil
de las calzas verdes” is as good as his dramas of “El Rey Don Pedro en
Madrid,” “El condenado por desconfiado,” or “El convidado de piedra.”
The popular type of Don Juan is taken from this drama. Alarcon is
undoubtedly the most philosophical Spanish dramatist. His comedy, “Las
paredes oyen,” is admirable, and “La verdad sospechosa,” so much admired
by Corneille, as he tells us himself, when he took the plot for his
“Menteur.” Calderon is the most popular dramatic author. He idealizes
more than his predecessors, and his genius embraces the most varied
subjects. His comedies are charming; as examples, “La dama duende” and
“Casa con dos puertas” are among the best. “El medico de su honra” is
full of dramatic power, and nothing can be more poetical than “La Vida
es sueno” (vide MacCarthy’s translations). The best imitators of the
great dramatists are Rojas and Moreto: “Garcia del Castanar,” by the
former, and “Desden con el Desden” of the latter, are equal to the
dramas of the great masters.
The earliest Spanish novels are “Lazarillo de Tonnes,” by Hurtado de
Mendoza, and the “Diana Enamorada,” by Monte Mayor. They are followed by
“El Picaro Guzman de Alfarache” and “El Escudero Marcos de Obregon,” by
Aleman and Espinel. A great number of novels were written in the
following century, but were all eclipsed by Cervantes’ “Don Quixote,”
which is too well known to need any comment.
Several authors in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cultivated
different literary styles. Quevedo is the most remarkable of them. He
was the quaintest and most original of humorists. He wrote a number of
works of real merit, none of which has been so popular as his “Satiras”
in prose and verse.
Political and moralist writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries are very numerous. Of these Guevara, Sta. Teresa, Fray Luis de
Granada, Gracian, Saavedra Fajardo, Mariana, Morales, Zurita, and Solis
are the most remarkable.
The end of the seventeenth century was the worst period of Spanish
literature. Philip V., the first king of the House of Bourbon, 1700, did
his utmost to improve the intellectual culture of the country. The
Biblioteca Real was founded in 1711, and the Academias de la Lengua,
Historia, and Bellas Artes in 1714; several literary reviews also
appeared. The best poets of this period are Antonio de Toledo and
Gerardo Lobo. The only productions, however, of any literary merit are
the critical works of Flores, Masdeu, Mayans and others. During the
reign of Charles III., 1759-1788, Melendez wrote some tolerable verses.
He is followed by Fr. Diego Gonzalez, Cienfuegos, Nicolas de Moratin
and others. The most original writers of the end of the eighteenth
century are, however, undoubtedly Leandro Moratin and Ramon. The two
comedies, “El Si de las ninas” and “El Cafe,” by the former, are
charming, and the “Sainetes,” by De la Cruz, in the manner of Plautus,
continue to be very popular in Spain.
Spanish literature of the present century possesses no definite
character, although several writers can bear comparison with the best
Spanish authors of other periods. Every school and style has been
copied: Byron, Schiller, Goethe, Victor Hugo, and Dumas. The earliest
author of any importance is Quintana, a correct and inspired poet. His
odes on “La Imprenta,” “Panteon del Escorial,” and “Batalla de
Trafalgar” are very good. Martinez de la Rosa, Lista, and Nicasio
Gallegos form a group of able versifiers. Espronceda is a constant
imitator of Byron, although his legend of “El Estudiante de Salamanca”
is original, and a very fine composition. Zorrilla is the best
representative of the romantic school of 1830-40: his works are
sometimes unequal, and his legends are his best lyrical compositions.
His finest dramas are “Don Juan Tenorio” and “El Zapatero y el Rey.” The
“Romances” and drama of “Don Alvaro de Luna,” by the Duke of Rivas, have
been very popular; but no author is so deservingly so as Breton de los
Herreres, an excellent writer, who has left behind nearly one hundred
comedies, some of which, “Marcela,” “Muerete y veras,” “El pelo de la
dehesa,” etc., are perfect in their way.
III
_SPORT_
The Bull-fight, or rather Bull Feast (Fiesta de Toros), is a modern
sport. Bulls were killed in ancient amphitheaters, but the present modus
operandi is modern, and, however based on Roman institutions, is
indubitably a thing devised by the Moors of Spain, for those in Africa
have neither the sport, the ring, nor the recollection. The principle
was the exhibition of horsemanship, courage and dexterity with the
lance; for in the early bull-fight the animal was attacked by gentlemen
armed only with the Rejon, a short projectile spear about four feet
long. This was taken from the original Iberian spear, the Sparus of Sil.
Ital. (viii. 523), the Lancea of Livy (xxxiv. 15), and is seen in the
hands of the horsemen of the old Romano-Iberian coinage. To be a good
rider and lancer was essential to the Spanish Caballero. This original
form of bull-fight (now only given on grand occasions) is called a
Fiesta Real. Such a one Philip IV. exhibited on the Plaza Mayor of
Madrid before Charles I. of England; Ferdinand VII. in 1833, at the
ratification of the Juramento, the swearing allegiance to Isabella II.;
and Alfonso XII., on his marriages, January 23, 1878, and November 29,
1879.
These Fiestas Reales form the coronation ceremonial of Spain, and the
Caballeros en Plaza represent our champions. Bulls were killed, but no
beef eaten; as a banquet was never a thing of Iberia.
The final conquest of the Moors, and the subsequent cessation of the
border chivalrous habits of Spaniards, and especially the accession of
Philip V., proved fatal to this ancient usage of Spain. The spectacle,
which had withstood the influence of Isabella the Catholic, and had
beaten the Pope’s Bulls, bowed before the despotism of fashion, and by
becoming the game of professionals instead of that of gentlemen it was
stripped of its chivalrous character, and degenerated into the vulgar
butchery of low mercenary bull-fighters, just as did the rings and
tournaments of chivalry into those of ruffian pugilists.
The Spanish bulls have been immemorially famous. Hercules, that renowned
cattle-fancier, was lured into Spain by the lowing of the herds of
Geryon, the ancestor (se dice) of the Duque de Osuna. The best bulls in
Andalusia are bred by Cabrera at Utrera, in the identical pastures where
Geryon’s herds were pastured and “lifted” by the demigod, whence,
according to Strabo (iii. 169), they were obliged, after fifty days’
feeding, to be driven off from fear of bursting from fat. Some of the
finest Castilian bulls, such as appear at Madrid, are bred on the
Jarama, near Aranjuez.
Bull-fights are extremely expensive, costing from one thousand five
hundred dollars to two thousand dollars apiece; accordingly, except in
the chief capitals and Andalusia, they are only got up now and then, on
great church festivals and upon royal and public rejoicings. As
Andalusia is the headquarters of the ring, and Seville the capital, the
alma mater of the tauromachists of the Peninsula, the necessity of
sending to a distance for artists and animals increases the expense. The
prices of admittance, compared to the wages of labor in Spain, are high.
The profits of the bull-fight are usually destined for the support of
hospitals, and, certainly, the fever and the frays subsequent to the
show provide patients as well as funds. The Plaza is usually under the
superintendence of a society of noblemen and gentlemen, called
Maestranzas, instituted in 1562, by Philip II., in the hope of improving
the breed of Spanish horses and men-at-arms.
The first thing is to secure a good place beforehand, by sending for a
Boletin de Sombra, a “ticket in the shade.” The prices of the seats vary
according to position; the best places are on the northern side, in the
shade. The transit of the sun over the Plaza, the zodiacal progress into
Taurus, is certainly not the worst calculated astronomical observation
in Spain: the line of shadow defined on the arena is marked by a
gradation of prices. The sun of torrid, tawny Spain, on which it once
never set, is not to be trifled with, and the summer season is selected,
because pastures are plentiful, which keep the bulls in good condition,
and the days are longer. The fights take place in the afternoon, when
the sun is less vertical. The different seats and prices are detailed in
the bills of the play, with the names of the combatants, and the colors
and breeds of the bulls.
The day before the fight the bulls destined for the spectacle are
brought to a site outside the town. No amateur should fail to ride out
to the pastures from whence the cattle (ganado) are selected. The
encierro, the driving them from this place to the arena, is a service of
danger, but is extremely picturesque and national. No artist or
aficionado should omit attending it The bulls are enticed by tame oxen,
cabestros, into a road which is barricaded on each side, and then are
driven full speed by the mounted conocedores into the Plaza. It is so
exciting a spectacle that the poor who cannot afford to go to the
bull-fight risk their lives and cloaks in order to get the front places,
and the best chance of a stray poke en passant.
The next afternoon (Sunday is usually the day) all the world crowds to
the Plaza de toros; nothing, when the tide is full, can exceed the
gayety and sparkle of a Spanish public going, eager and dressed in their
best, to the fight. All the streets or open spaces near the outside of
the arena are a spectacle. The bull-fight is to Madrid what a review is
to Paris, and the Derby to London. Sporting men now put on all their
majo-finery; the distinguished ladies wear on these occasions white lace
mantillas; a fan, abanico, is quite necessary, as it was among the
Romans. The aficionados and “the gods” prefer the pit, tendido, the
lower range, in order, by being nearer, that they may not lose the nice
traits of tauromaquia. The Plaza has a language to itself, a dialect
peculiar to the ring. The coup d’œil on entrance is unique; the
classical scene bursts on the foreigner in all the glory of the south,
and he is carried back to the Coliseum under Commodus. The president
sits in the center box. The proceedings open with the procession of the
performers, the mounted spearmen, picadores; then follow the chulos, the
attendants on foot, who wear their silk cloaks, capas de durancillo, in
a peculiar manner, with the arms projecting in front; and, lastly, the
slayers, the espadas, and the splendid mule-team, el tiro, which is
destined to carry off the slain. The profession of bull-fighter is very
low-caste in Spain, although the champions are much courted by some
young nobles, like the British blackguard boxers, and are the pride and
darlings of all the lower classes. Those killed on the spot were
formerly denied the burial rites, as dying without confession, but a
priest is now in attendance with Su Magestad (the consecrated Host),
ready to give always spiritual assistance to a dying combatant.
When all the bull-fighting company have advanced and passed the
president, a trumpet sounds; the president throws the key of the cell of
the bull to the alguacil or policeman, which he ought to catch in his
feathered hat. The different performers now take their places as
fielders do at a cricket match. The bull-fight is a tragedy in three
acts, lasts about twenty minutes, and each consists of precisely the
same routine. From six to eight bulls are usually killed during each
“funcion”; occasionally another is conceded to popular clamor, which
here will take no denial.
When the door of the cell is opened, the public curiosity to see the
first rush out is intense; and as none knows whether the bull will
behave well or ill, all are anxious to judge of his character from the
way he behaves upon first entering the ring. The animal, turned from his
dark cell into glare and crowd, feels the novelty of his position; but
is happily ignorant of his fate, for die he must, however skillful or
brave his fight. This death does not diminish the sustained interest of
the spectators as the varied chances in the progress of the acts offer
infinite incidents and unexpected combinations. In the first of the
three acts the picadores are the chief performers; three of them are now
drawn up, one behind the other, to the right, at the tablas, the barrier
between the arena and spectators; each sits bolt upright on his
Rosinante, with his lance in rest, and as valiant as Don Quixote. They
wear the broad-brimmed Thessalian hat; their legs are cased with iron
and leather, which gives a heavy look; and the right one, which is
presented to the bull, is the best protected. This greave is termed la
mona--the more scientific name is gregoriana, from the inventor, Don
Gregorio Gallo--just as we say a spencer, from the noble earl. The
spear, garrocha, is defensive rather than offensive; the blade ought not
to exceed one inch; the sheathing is, however, pushed back when the
picador anticipates an awkward customer. When the bull charges, the
picador, holding the lance under his right arm, pushes to the right, and
turns his horse to the left; the bull, if turned, passes on to the next
picador. This is called recibir, to receive the point. If a bull is
turned at the first charge, he seldom comes up well again. A bold bull
is sometimes cold and shy at first, but grows warmer by being punished.
Those who are very active, those who paw the ground, are not much
esteemed; they are hooted by the populace, and execrated as goats,
little calves, cows, which is no compliment to a bull; and, however
unskilled in bucolics, all Spaniards are capital judges of bulls in the
ring. Such animals as show the white feather are loathed, as depriving
the public of their just rights, and are treated with insult, and,
moreover, soundly beaten as they pass near the tablas, by forests of
sticks, la cachiporra. The stick of the elegant majo, when going to the
bull-fight, is sui generis, and is called la chivata; taper, and between
four and five feet long, it terminates in a lump or knob, while the top
is forked, into which the thumb is inserted. This chivata is peeled,
like the rods of Laban, in alternate rings, black and white or red. The
lower classes content themselves with a common shillalah; one with a
knob at the end is preferred, as administering a more impressive whack.
While a slow bull is beaten and abused, a murderous bull, duro chocante
carnicero y pegajoso, who kills horses, upsets men, and clears the
plaza, becomes deservedly a universal favorite; the conquering hero is
hailed with “Viva toro! viva toro! bravo toro!” Long life is wished to
the poor beast by those who know he must be killed in ten minutes.
The horses destined for the plaza are of no value; this renders
Spaniards, who have an eye chiefly to what a thing is worth, indifferent
to their sufferings. If you remark how cruel it is to “let that poor
horse struggle in death’s agonies,” they will say, “Ah que! na vale na”
(“Oh! he is worth nothing”). When his tail quivers in the last
death-struggle, the spasm is remarked as a jest, mira que cola! The
torture of the horse is the blot of the bull-fight: no lover of the
noble beast can witness his sufferings without disgust; the fact of
these animals being worth nothing in a money point of view increases the
danger to the rider; it renders them slow, difficult to manage, and very
unlike those of the ancient combats, when the finest steeds were chosen,
quick as lightning, turning at touch, and escaping the deadly rush: the
eyes of these poor animals, who would not otherwise face the bull, are
bound with a handkerchief like criminals about to be executed; thus they
await blindfold the fatal rip which is to end their life of misery. If
only wounded, the gash is sewed up and stopped with tow, as a leak! and
life is prolonged for new agonies. When the poor brute is dead at last,
his carcass is stripped as in a battle. The high-class Spaniard admits
and regrets the cruelty to the horses, but justifies it as a necessity.
The bull, says he, is a tame, almost a domestic animal, and would never
fight at all unless first roused by the sight of blood. The wretched
horse is employed for this purpose as a corpus vile; and the bull,
having gored him once or twice, becomes “game.”
The picadores are subject to hair-breadth escapes and severe falls: few
have a sound rib left. The bull often tosses horse and rider in one run;
and when the victims fall on the ground, exhausts his rage on his
prostrate enemies, till lured away by the glittering cloaks of the
chulos, who come to the assistance of the fallen picador. These horsemen
often show marvelous skill in managing to place their horses as a
rampart between them and the bull. When these deadly struggles take
place, when life hangs on a thread, the amphitheater is peopled with
heads. Every expression of anxiety, eagerness, fear, horror, and delight
is stamped on speaking countenances. These feelings are wrought up to a
pitch when the horse, maddened with wounds and terror, plunging in the
death-struggle, the crimson streams of blood streaking his
sweat-whitened body, flies from the infuriated bull, still pursuing,
still goring: then is displayed the nerve, presence of mind, and
horsemanship of the undismayed picador. It is, in truth, a piteous sight
to see the poor dying horses treading out their entrails, yet saving
their riders unhurt. The miserable steed, when dead, is dragged out,
leaving a bloody furrow on the sand. The picador, if wounded, is carried
out and forgotten--los muertos y idos, no tienen amigos (the dead and
absent have no friends)--a new combatant fills the gap, the battle
rages, he is not missed, fresh incidents arise, and no time is left for
regret or reflection. The bull bears on his neck a ribbon, la devisa;
this is the trophy which is most acceptable to the querida of a buen
torero. The bull is the hero of the scene, yet, like Milton’s Satan, he
is foredoomed and without reprieve. Nothing can save him from the
certain fate which awaits all, whether brave or cowardly. The poor
creatures sometimes endeavor in vain to escape, and leap over the
barrier (barrera) into the tendido, among the spectators, upsetting
sentinels, water-sellers, etc., and creating a most amusing hubbub. The
bull which shows this craven turn--un tunante cobarde picaro--is not
deemed worthy of a noble death, by the sword. He is baited, pulled down,
and stabbed in the spine. A bull that flinches from death is scouted by
all Spaniards, who neither beg for their own life nor spare that of a
foe.
At the signal of the president, and sound of a trumpet, the second act
commences with the chulos. This word chulo signifies, in the Arabic, a
lad, a clown, as at our circus. They are picked young men, who commence
in these parts their tauromachian career. The duty of this light
division is to draw off the bull from the picador when endangered, which
they do with their colored cloaks; their address and agility are
surprising, they skim over the sand like glittering humming-birds,
scarcely touching the earth. They are dressed, á lo majo, in short
breeches, and without gaiters, just like Figaro in the opera of the
“Barbiere de Sevilla.” Their hair is tied into a knot behind, mono, and
inclosed in the once universal silk net, the redecilla--the identical
reticulum--of which so many instances are seen on ancient Etruscan
vases. No bull-fighter ever arrives at the top of his profession without
first excelling as a chulo (apprentice); then he begins to be taught how
to entice the bull, llamar al toro, and to learn his mode of attack,
and how to parry it. The most dangerous moment is when these chulos
venture out into the middle of the plaza, and are followed by the bull
to the barrier, in which there is a small ledge, on which they place
their foot and vault over, and a narrow slit in the boarding, through
which they slip. Their escapes are marvelous; they seem really
sometimes, so close is the run, to be helped over the fence by the
bull’s horns. Occasionally some curious suertes are exhibited by chulos
and expert toreros, which do not strictly belong to the regular drama;
such as the suerte de la capa, where the bull is braved with no other
defense but a cloak; another, the salto tras cuerno, when the performer,
as the bull lowers his head to toss him, places his foot between his
horns and is lifted over him. The chulos, in the second act, are the
sole performers; another exclusive part is to place small barbed darts,
banderillas, which are ornamented with cut paper of different colors, on
each side of the neck of the bull. The banderilleros go right up to him,
holding the arrows at the shaft’s end, and pointing the barbs at the
bull; just when the animal stoops to toss them, they dart them into his
neck and slip aside. The service appears to be more dangerous than it
is, but it requires a quick eye, a light hand and foot. The barbs should
be placed exactly on each side--a pretty pair, a good match--buenos
pares. Sometimes these arrows are provided with crackers, which, by
means of a detonating powder, explode the moment they are affixed in the
neck, banderillas de fuego. The agony of the tortured animal frequently
makes him bound like a kid, to the frantic delight of the people. A very
clever banderillero will sometimes seat himself in a chair, wait for
the bull’s approach, plant the arrows in his neck, and slip away,
leaving the chair to be tossed into the air. This feat is uncommon, and
gains immense applause.
The last trumpet now sounds; the arena is cleared for the third act; the
espada, the executioner, the man of death, stands before his victim
alone, and thus concentrates in himself an interest previously frittered
among the number of combatants. On entering, he addresses the president,
and throws his montera, his cap, to the ground, and swears he will do
his duty. In his right hand he holds a long straight Toledan blade, la
spada; in his left he waves the muleta, the red flag, the engano, the
lure, which ought not (so Romero laid down) to be so large as the
standard of a religious brotherhood (cofradia), nor so small as a lady’s
pocket-handkerchief (panuelito de senorita): it should be about a yard
square. The color is red, because that best irritates the bull and
conceals blood. There is always a spare matador, in case of accidents,
which may happen in the best regulated bull-fights; he is called media
espada, or sobresaliente. The espada (el diestro, the cunning in fence
in olden books) advances to the bull, in order to entice him toward
him--citarlo á la suerte, á la jurisdiccion del engano--to subpœna him,
to get his head into chancery, as our ring would say; he next rapidly
studies his character, plays with him a little, allows him to run once
or twice on the muleta, and then prepares for the coup de grace. There
are several sorts of bulls--levantados, the bold and rushing; parados,
the slow and sly; aplomados, the heavy and leaden. The bold are the
easiest to kill; they rush, shutting their eyes, right on to the lure or
flag. The worst of all are the sly bulls; when they are marrajos,
cunning and not running straight, when they are revueltos, when they
stop in their charge and run at the man instead of the flag, they are
most dangerous. The espada who is long killing his bull, or shows the
white feather, is insulted by the jeers of the impatient populace; he
nevertheless remains cool and collected, in proportion as the spectators
and bull are mad. There are many suertes or ways of killing the bull;
the principal is la suerte de frente--the espada receives the charge on
his sword, lo mato de un recibido. The volapie, or half-volley, is
beautiful, but dangerous; the matador takes him by advancing,
corriendoselo. A firm hand, eye, and nerve form the essence of the art;
the sword enters just between the left shoulder and the blade. In
nothing is the real fancy so fastidious as in the exact nicety of the
placing this death-wound; when the thrust is true--buen estoque--death
is instantaneous, and the bull, vomiting forth blood, drops at the feet
of his conqueror, who, drawing the sword, waves it in triumph over the
fallen foe. It is indeed the triumph of knowledge over brute force; all
that was fire, fury, passion, and life, falls in an instant, still
forever.
The team of mules now enter, glittering with flags, and tinkling with
bells, whose gay decorations contrast with the stern cruelty and blood;
the dead bull is carried off at a rapid gallop, which always delights
the populace. The espada wipes the hot blood from his sword, and bows
with admirable sangfroid to the spectators, who throw their hats into
the arena, a compliment which he returns by throwing them back again.
When a bull will not run at all at the picador, or at the muleta, he is
called a toro abanto, and the media luna, the half-moon, is called for;
this is the cruel ancient Oriental mode of houghing the cattle (Joshua
xi. 6). The instrument is the Iberian bident--a sharp steel crescent
placed in a long pole. The cowardly blow is given from behind; and when
the poor beast is crippled, an assistant, the cachetero, pierces the
spinal marrow with his cachete--puntilla, or pointed dagger--with a
traitorous stab from behind. This is the usual method of slaughtering
cattle in Spain. To perform all these operations (el desjarretar) is
considered beneath the dignity of the matadores or espadas; some of
them, however, will kill the bull by plunging the point of their sword
in the vertebræ, el descabellar--the danger gives dignity to the
difficult feat. The identical process obtains in each of the fights that
follow. After a short collapse, a fresh object raises a new desire, and
the fierce sport is renewed through eight repetitions; and not till
darkness covers the heavens do the mob retire to sacrifice the rest of
the night to Bacchus and Venus, with a passing homage to the knife.
APPENDIX
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
NO. I
Carthaginian Domination in Spain 238 to 200 B.C.
Roman Domination 200 B.C. to 414 A.D.
Visigothic Domination 414 A.D. to 711 A.D.
_Visigothic Kings_
A.D.
Ataulfo 414, D. 417
Sigerico 417
Walia 420
Teodoredo 451
Turismundo 454
Teodorico 466
Eurico 483
This king, after conquering the Suevi and other races, is
considered he founder of the monarchy.
Alarico D. 505
Gesaleico 510
Amalarico 531
Teudis 548
Teudiselo 549
Agila 554
Atanagildo 567
Liuva I. 572
Leovigildo 586
After destroying the barbarians that still remained in the country,
he was the first king who ruled over the whole of the Peninsula.
Recaredo I. 601
Summoned the 3d Council of Toledo, renounced Arianism, and became
the first Catholic king of Spain.
Liuva II. 603
Witerico 610
Gundemaro 612
Sisebuto 621
Recaredo II. 621
Suintila 631
Sisenando 635
Tulga 640
Chindasvinto 650
Recesvinto 672
Wamba 680
Ervigio 687
Egica 701
Witiza 709
Don Rodrigo 711
The Moors entered Spain and defeated Don Rodrigo at the battle of
Guadalete, who disappeared there. The Moors occupied in the two
following years almost the whole of the Peninsula, and governed
under the dependence of the Caliphs of Damascus.
_Moorish Rulers in Spain_
Emirs dependent on the
Caliphs of Damascus 711-715
Independent Caliphate established
by the Ommeyah
family, the capital being
Cordova 755-1009
Kings of Taifas, governors
of the provinces which declared
themselves independent
during the last
Caliphate, Hischen II. 1009-1090
The Almoravides from Africa
established themselves
in the Moorish territory
of the Peninsula 1090-1157
The Almohades conquered
the Almoravides 1157-1212
Kings of Granada. The
Moorish domination is
reduced to the kingdom
of Granada 1226-1492
The rule of the Moors in Spain ends in 1492, at the conquest of
Granada.
_Kings of Asturias, Leon, and Castile_
Pelayo (the re-conquest begins) 718, D. 737
Favila 739
Alonso I., el Catolico 757
Favila I. (fixes his Court at Oviedo) 768
Aurelio 774
Silo 783
Mauregato 788
Bermudo I., el Diacono 795
Alonso II., el Casto 843
Ramiro I. 850
Ordoño I. 865
Alonso III., el Magno 910
Divided the kingdom of Galicia, Leon, and Asturias, among his sons,
the three following kings.
Garcia 913
Ordoño II. 923
Fruela II. 924
Ordoño fixed his Court at Leon, and here end the named kings or
Asturias.
Alonso IV., el Monge 930
Ramiro II. 950
Ordoño III. 955
Sancho I., el Craso 967
Ramiro III. 982
Bermudo II. 999
Alonso V., el Noble 1028
Bermudo III. 1037
The territory of Castile, which formed a separate state, governed
by _Condes_, passed to Dona Sancha and Don Fernando I., who
entitled themselves Kings of Castile and Leon.
Fernando I. and Dona Sancha 1065
Sancho II., el Fuerte 1073
Alfonso VI. 1108
(Conquered Toledo in 1085.)
Dona Urraca 1126
Alfonso VII., el Emperador 1157
At his death the kingdoms of Castile and Leon are divided among the
six following kings:
Sancho III. (Castilla) 1158
Fernando II. (Leon) 1188
Alfonso VIII. (Castilla) 1214
Alfonso IX. (Leon) 1230
Enrique I. (Castilla) 1217
Dona Berenguela, who abdicated the crown of Castile in favor of her
son, Fernando III., who inherited also the crown of Leon from his
father, Alfonso IX.
Fernando III., King of Castile
and Leon 1252
He conquered Cordova, Jaen, and Seville.
Alonso X., el Sabio 1284
Sancho IV., el Bravo 1295
Fernando IV., el Emplazado 1312
Alonso XI. 1350
Pedro I., el Cruel 1369
Enrique II., el Bastardo 1379
Juan I. 1390
Enrique III., el Doliente 1407
Juan II. 1454
Enrique IV., el Impotente 1474
Dona Isabel, la Catolica 1504
Fernando V. de Aragon 1516
Dona Juana, la loca 1555
Felipe I., el Hermoso, first king
of the house of Austria 1505
Carlos V., Emperador 1558
Felipe II. 1598
Felipe III. 1621
Felipe IV. 1665
Carlos II. 1700
Felipe V. (first king of the house
of Bourbon) abdicated in 1724
Luis I. 1724
Felipe V. 1746
Fernando VI. 1759
Carlos III. 1788
Carlos IV., abdicated 1808
Fernando VII. 1833
Isabel II., dethroned 1868
Gobierno Provisional 1871
Amadeo de Saboya abdicated 1873
Spanish Republic 1874
Alfonso XII died 1886
_Kings of Navarre._
The inhabitants of Navarre began the re-conquest from the middle of
the 8th century. Their rulers were called condes, or kings, until
Sancho Abarca widened the territory; from that time they are always
called kings of Navarre.
Sancho Abarca 980-994
Garcia III. 1000
Sancho III., el Mayor 1038
Garcia IV. 1057
Sancho IV. 1076
Sancho Ramirez V. 1092
This king, and the two that followed, were likewise kings of
Aragon.
Pedro I. 1106
Alfonso, el Batallador 1134
Garcia Ramirez IV. 1150
Sancho VI., el Sabio 1194
Sancho VII., el Fuerte 1234
Here begin the kings of the House of Champagne.
Teobaldo I. 1253
Teobaldo II. 1270
Enrique I. 1273
Juana I. 1304
On her marriage with Philip le Bel, Navarre passed to the house of
France.
Luis Hutin 1316
Felipe le Long 1320
Carlos I. de Navarra, IV.
de Francia 1329
Juana II. 1343
Carlos II. d’Evreux 1387
Carlos III. 1425
Dona Blanca y Juan I. 1479
Francisco Febo 1483
Catalina 1512
Fernando V. of Navarre took possession in 1512 of Navarre, and it
was then incorporated with Castile.
_Kings of Aragon._
Aragon belonged to the kingdom of Navarre until Sancho III. gave it
to his son Ramiro.
Ramiro I. 1035, D. 1063
Sancho I. 1094
Pedro I. 1104
Alfonso I., el Batallador 1134
Ramiro II., el Monge 1137
Aragon and Cataluña are united.
Petronila 1162
Alfonso II. 1196
Pedro II. 1213
Jaime I., el Conquistador 1276
Pedro III. 1285
Sicily is united to Aragon.
Alfonso III. 1291
Jaime II. 1327
Alfonso IV. 1336
Pedro IV. 1387
Juan I. 1395
Martin 1410
Fernando, el de Antequera 1416
Alfonso V. 1458
Juan II. 1470
Fernando el Catolico.
Aragon passes to the crown of Castile.
_Counts of Barcelona._
In the 8th and 9th centuries Cataluña belonged to Charlemagne and
his successors. Wilfredo was the first independent Conde.
Wilfredo el Belloso 864-898
Borrell I. 912
Suniario 917
Borrell II. and his brother Miron 992
Ramon Borrell 1018
Ramon Berenguer I. 1025
Ramon Berenguer II. 1077
Berenguer and Ramon Berenguer III. 1113
Ramon Berenguer IV. 1131
Ramon Berenguer V. married Dona Petronila de Aragon, and this
kingdom was incorporated with the Condado de Cataluña.
NO. II
_Contemporary Sovereigns_
The periods have been selected during which leading events in Spanish
history have occurred.
A.D. Spain. England. France. Rome.
800 Alonso II. el Casto Egbert Charlemagne Leo III.
877 Alonso III. el Magno Alfred Louis II. John VII.
996 Ramiro III. Ethelred II. Hugh Capet Gregory V.
1075 Sancho II. William the Philip I. Gregory VII.
Conqueror
1155 Alfonso VII. Henry II. Louis VII. { Adrian IV.
{ Breakspeare
1245 San Fernando Henry III. St. Louis Innocent IV.
1345 Alfonso XI. Edward III. Philip VI. Benedict VI.
1360 Pedro el Cruel Edward III. John II. Innocent VI.
1485 Isabel la Catolica Henry VII. Charles VIII. Innocent VIII.
1515 Fernando de Aragon Henry VIII. Francis I. Leo X.
1550 Carlos V. Edward VI. Henry II. Paul III.
1560 Felipe II. Elizabeth Charles IX. Pius IV.
1644 Felipe IV. Charles I. Louis XIV. Innocent X.
1705 Felipe V. Anne Louis XIV. Clement XI.
1760 Carlos III. George III. Louis XV. Clement XIII.
1808 Fernando VII. George III. Napoleon I. Pius VII.
1840 Isabel II. } { Louis Philippe { Gregory XVI.
} { Napoleon III. { and Pius IX.
1877 Alfonso XII. } Victoria French Republic Leo XIII.
1886 Cristina, }
queen-regent }
1886 Alfonso XIII. }
FOOTNOTES:
[1] “Historia general de España,” by Juan de Mariana. 9 vols.,
Valencia, 1783-96.
[2] _Al Manzor al Allah_: “The Victor of God; or, Victorious by the
Grace of God.”
[3] _Mas Moros mas ganancia_, “The more the Moors, the greater the
booty,” was one of his sayings, and it has passed into a well-known
national proverb.
[4] Having kicked to pieces the splendid furniture and beaten the Papal
chamberlain, he proceeded to threaten to caparison his horse with the
rich hangings of the chapel, if the Pope refused him instant Absolution!
Si no me absolveis, el Papa,
Seriaos mal contado
Que do vuestras ricas ropas
Cubriré yo mi caballo!
--Wolf and Hofmann, “Cid Ballads.”
[5] Muley is an Arabic word meaning “my lord.”
[6] Certainly in 1480, possibly not five-and-twenty years later. From
curious criminal proceedings instituted against the Corregidor of
Medina del Campo, we learn that that high judicial authority had not
hesitated to declare that the soul of Isabella had gone direct to hell
for her cruel oppression of her subjects, and that King Ferdinand
was a thief and a robber, and that all the people round Medina and
Valladolid, where the queen was best known, had formed the same
judgment of her. “Arch. Gen. Simancas,” Estado, Legajo i., folio 192;
“Calendar of State Papers” (Spain), Supplement to i. and ii. (1868), p.
27.
[7] From January, 1493, till October, 1497.
[8] Legaspi and Guido Lavezares, under oath, made promises of rewards
to the Lacandola family and a remission of tribute in perpetuity,
but they were not fulfilled. In the following century--year 1660--it
appears that the descendants of the rajah Lacandola still upheld the
Spanish authority, and having become sorely impoverished thereby, the
heir of the family petitioned the governor (Sabiniano Manrique de
Lara) to make good the honor of his first predecessors. Eventually
the Lacandolas were exempted from the payment of tribute and poll tax
forever, as recompense for the filching of their domains.
In 1884, when the fiscal reforms were introduced which abolished the
tribute and established in lieu thereof a document of personal identity
(cedula personal), for which a tax is levied, the last vestige of
privilege disappeared.
Descendants of Lacandola are still to be met with in several villages
near Manila. They do not seem to have materially profited by their
transcendent ancestry--one of them was serving as a waiter in a French
restaurant in the capital in 1885.
[9] Guido de Lavezares deposed a sultan in Borneo, in order to aid
another to the throne, and even asked permission of King Philip II. to
conquer China, which of course was not conceded to him. _Vide_ also the
history of the destruction of the Aztec (Mexican) and Incas (Peruvian)
dynasties by the Spaniards.
[10] According to Juan de la Concepcion, in his “Hist. Gen. de
Philipinas,” Vol I., page 431, Li-ma-hong made his escape by cutting a
canal for his ships to pass through, but this appears highly improbable
under the circumstances.
[11] Other authors assert that only Soliman rebelled.
[12] Bondage in the Philippines was apparently not so necessary for
the interests of the Church as it was in Cuba, where a commission of
friars, appointed soon after the discovery of the island to deliberate
on the policy of partially permitting slavery there, reported “that
the Indians would not labor without compulsion, and that, unless they
labored, they could not be brought into communication with the whites,
nor be converted to Christianity.” Vide W. H. Prescott’s “Hist. of the
Conquest of Mexico.”
[13] “Hist. Gen. de Philipinas,” by Juan de la Concepcion Vol. III.,
Chap. IX., page 365, pub. Manila, 1788.
[14] So tenacious was the opposition brought by the Austin friars both
in Manila and the provinces that the British appear to have regarded
them as their special foes.