CHAPTER XXVII.

ACCIDENTS AND ANTIDOTES.

Children should be taught the following modes of saving life, health

and limbs in cases of sudden emergency, before a medical adviser can

be summoned.

In case of a common cut, bind the lips of the wound together with a

rag, and put on nothing else. If it is large, lay narrow strips of

sticking-plaster obliquely across the wound. In some cases it is needful

to draw a needle and thread through the lips of the wound, and tie the

two sides together.

If an artery be cut, it must be tied as quickly as possible, or the

person will soon bleed to death. The blood from an artery is a brighter

red than that from the veins, and spirts out in jets at each beat of

the heart. Take hold of the end of the artery and tie it or hold it

tight till a surgeon comes. In this case, and in all cases of bad

wounds that bleed much, tie a tight bandage near and above the wound,

inserting a stick into the bandage and twisting as tight as can be

borne, to stop the immediate effusion of blood.

Bathe bad bruises in hot water. Arnica water hastens a cure, but is

injurious and weakening to the parts when used too long and too freely.

A sprain is relieved from the first pains by hot fomentations, or the

application of very hot bandages, but entire rest is the chief permanent

remedy. The more the limb is used, especially at first, the longer the

time required for the small broken fibres to knit together. The sprained

leg should be kept in a horizontal position. When a leg is broken, tie

it to the other leg, to keep it still till a surgeon comes. Tie a

broken arm to a piece of thin wood, to keep it still till set.

In the case of bad burns that take off the skin, creosote water is the

best remedy. If this is not at hand, wood-soot (not coal) pounded,

sifted, and mixed with lard is nearly as good, as such soot contains

creosote. When a dressing is put on, do not remove it till a skin is

formed under it. If nothing else is at hand for a bad burn, sprinkle

flour over the place where the skin is off and then let it remain,

protected by a bandage. The chief aim is to keep the part without skin

from the air.

In case of drowning, the aim should be to clear the throat, mouth and

nostrils, and then produce the natural action of the lungs in breathing

as soon as possible, at the same time removing wet clothes and applying

warmth and friction to the skin, especially the hands and feet, to

start the circulation. The best mode of cleansing the throat and month

of choking water is to lay the person on the face, and raise the head

a little, clearing the mouth and nostrils with the finger, and then

apply hartshorn or camphor to the nose. This is safer and surer than

a common mode of lifting the body by the feet, or rolling on a barrel

to empty out the water.

To start the action of the lungs, first lay the person on the face and

press the back along the spine to expel all air from the lungs. Then

turn the body nearly, but not quite over on to the back, thus opening

the chest so that the air will rush in if the mouth is kept open. Then

turn the body to the face again and expel the air, and then again

nearly over on to the back; and so continue for a long time. Friction,

dry and warm clothing, and warm applications should be used in

connection with this process. This is a much better mode than using

bellows, which sometimes will close the opening to the windpipe. The

above is the mode recommended by Dr. Marshall Hall, and is approved

by the best medical authorities.

Certain articles are often kept in the house for cooking or medical

purposes, and sometimes by mistake are taken in quantities that are

poisonous.

_Soda, saleratus, potash,_ or any other alkali can be rendered

harmless in the stomach by vinegar, tomato-juice, or any other acid.

If sulphuric or oxalic acid are taken, pounded chalk in water is the

best antidote. If those are not at hand, strong soapsuds have been

found effective. Large quantities of tepid water should be drank after

these antidotes are taken, so as to produce vomiting.

_Lime_ or _baryta_ and its compounds demand a solution of glauber salts

or of sulphuric acid.

_Iodine_ or _Iodide of Potassium_ demands large draughts of wheat flour

or starch in water, and then vinegar and water. The stomach should then

be emptied by vomiting with as much tepid water as the stomach can hold.

_Prussic acid_, a violent poison, is sometimes taken by children in

eating the pits of stone fruits or bitter almonds which contain it.

The antidote is to empty the stomach by an emetic, and give water of

ammonia or chloric water. Affusions of cold water all over the body,

followed by warm hand friction, is often a remedy alone, but the above

should be added if at command. _Antimony_ and its compounds demand

drinks of oak bark, or gall nuts, or very strong green tea.

_Arsenic_ demands oil or melted fat, with magnesia or lime water in

large quantities, till vomiting occurs.

_Corrosive Sublimate_, (often used to kill vermin,) and any other form

of mercury, requires milk or whites of eggs in large quantities. The

whites of twelve eggs in two quarts of water, given in the largest

possible draughts every three minutes till free vomiting occurs, is

a good remedy. Flour and water will answer, though not so surely as

the above. Warm water will help, if nothing else is in reach. The same

remedy answers when any form of copper, or tin, or zinc poison is

taken, and also for creosote.

_Lead_ and its compounds require a dilution of Epsom or Glauber salts,

or some strong, acid drink, as lemon or tomatoes.

_Nitrate of Silver_ demands salt water drank till vomiting occurs.

_Phosphorus_ (sometimes taken by children from matches) needs magnesia

and copious drinks of gum Arabic, or gum water of any sort.

_Alcohol_, in dangerous quantities, demands vomiting with warm water.

When one is violently sick from excessive use of _tobacco_, vomiting is

a relief, if it arise spontaneously. After that, or in case it does not

occur, the juice of a lemon and perfect rest, in a horizontal position

on the back, will relieve the nausea and faintness, generally soothing

the foolish and over-wrought patient into a sleep.

_Opium_ demands a quick emetic. The best is a heaping table-spoonful of

powdered mustard, in a tumblerful of warm water; or powdered alum in

half-ounce doses and strong coffee alternately in warm water. Give acid

drinks after vomiting. If vomiting is not elicited thus, a stomach pump

is demanded. Dash cold water on the head, apply friction, and use all

means to keep the person awake and in motion.

_Strychnia_ demands also quick emetics.

The stomach should be emptied always after taking any of these

antidotes, by a warm water emetic.

In case of bleeding at the lungs, or stomach, or throat, give a

tea-spoonful of dry salt, and repeat it often. For bleeding at the

nose, put ice, or pour cold water on the back of the neck, keeping the

head elevated.

If a person be struck with lightning, throw pailfuls of cold water on

the head and body, and apply mustard poultices on the stomach, with

friction of the whole body and inflation of the lungs, as in the case

of drowning. The same mode is to be used when persons are stupefied

by fumes of coal, or bad air.

In thunderstorms, shut the doors and windows. The safest part of a

room is its centre; and where there is a feather-bed in the apartment,

that will be found the most secure resting-place.

A lightning-rod if it be well pointed, and run deep into the earth,

is a certain protection to a circle, around it, whose diameter equals

the height of the rod above the highest chimney. But it protects _no

farther_ than this extent.

In case of fire, wrap about you a blanket, a shawl, a piece of carpet,

or any other woolen cloth, to serve as protection. Never read in bed,

lest you fall asleep, and the bed be set on fire. If your clothes get

on fire, never run, but lie down, and roll about till you can reach

a bed or carpet to wrap yourself in, and thus put out the fire. Keep

young children in woolen dresses, to save them from the risk of fire.

XXVIII.

SEWING, CUTTING, AND MENDING.

Every young girl should be taught to do the following kinds of stitch

with propriety: Over-stitch, hemming, running, felling, stitching,

back-stitch and run, buttonhole-stitch, chain-stitch, whipping, darning,

gathering, and cross-stitch.

In doing over-stitch, the edges should always be first fitted, either

with pins or basting, to prevent puckering. In turning wide hems, a

paper measure should be used, to make them even. Tucks, also, should

be regulated by a paper measure. A fell should be turned, before the

edges are put together, and the seam should be over-sewed before

felling. All biased or goring seams should be felled, for stitching,

draw a thread, and take up two or three threads at a stitch.

In cutting buttonholes, it is best to have a pair of scissors, made

for the purpose, which cut very neatly. For broadcloth, a chisel and

board are better. The best stitch is made by putting in the needle,

and then turning the thread round it near the eye. This is better than

to draw the needle through, and then take up a loop. A stay thread

should first be put across each side of the buttonhole, and also a bar

at each end before working it. In working the buttonhole, keep the

stay thread as far from the edge as possible. A small bar should be

worked at each end.

Whipping is done better by sewing _over_, and not under. The roll

should be as fine as possible, the stitches short, the thread strong,

and in sewing, every gather should be taken up.

The rule for _gathering_ in shirts is, to draw a thread, and then take

up two threads and skip four. In _darning_, after the perpendicular

threads are run, the crossing threads should interlace exactly, taking

one thread and leaving one, like woven threads. It is better to run a

fine thread around a hole and draw it together, and then darn across it.

The neatest sewers always fit and baste their work before sewing; and

they say they always save time in the end by so doing, as they never

have to pick out work on account of mistakes.

It is wise to sew closely and tightly all new garments which will never

be altered in shape; but some are more nice than wise, in sewing frocks

and old garments in the same style. However, this is the least common

extreme. It is much more frequently the case that articles which ought

to be strongly and neatly made are sewed so that a nice sewer would

rather pick out the threads and sew over again than to be annoyed with

the sight of grinning stitches, and vexed with constant rips.

If the thread kinks in sewing, break it off and begin at the other

end. In using spool-cotton, thread the needle with the end which comes

off first, and not the end where you break it off. This often prevents

kinks.

_Work-baskets_.--It is very important to neatness, comfort, and

success in sewing, that a lady's work-basket should be properly fitted

up. The following articles are needful to the mistress of a family:

a large basket to hold work; having in it fastened a smaller basket

or box, containing a needle-book in which are needles of every size,

both blunts and sharps, with a larger number of those sizes most used;

also small and large darning-needles, for woolen, cotton, and silk;

two tape needles, large and small; nice scissors for fine work,

button-hole scissors; an emery bag; two balls of white and yellow wax;

and two thimbles, in case one should be mislaid. When a person is

troubled with damp fingers, a lump of soft chalk in a paper is useful

to rub on the ends of the fingers.

Besides this box, keep in the basket common scissors; small shears;

a bag containing tapes of all colors and sizes, done up in rolls; bags,

one containing spools of white and another of colored cotton thread,

and another for silks wound on spools or papers; a box or bag for nice

buttons, and another for more common ones; a hag containing silk braid,

welting cords, and galloon binding. Small rolls of pieces of white and

brown linen and cotton are also often needed. A brick pin-cushion is

a great convenience in sewing, and better than screw cushions. It is

made by covering half a brick with cloth, putting a cushion on the

top, and covering it tastefully. It is very useful to hold pins and

needles while sewing, and to fasten long seams when basting and sewing.

_To make a Frock_.--The best way for a novice is to get a dress fitted

(not sewed) at the best mantua-maker's. Then take out a sleeve, rip it

to pieces, and cut out a paper pattern. Then take out half of the waist,

(it must have a seam in front,) and cut out a pattern of the back and

fore-body, both lining and outer part. In cutting the patterns, iron the

pieces smooth, let the paper be stiff, and with a pin; prick holes in

the paper, to show the gore in front and the depths of the seams. With a

pen and ink, draw lines from each pin-hole to preserve this mark. Then

baste the parts together again, in doing which the unbasted half will

serve as a pattern. When this is done, a lady of common ingenuity can

cut and fit a dress by these patterns. If the waist of a dress be too

tight, the seam under the arm must be let out; and in cutting a dress an

allowance should be made for letting it out if needful, at this seam.

The linings for the waists of dresses should be stiffened with cotton

or linen. In cutting bias-pieces for trimming, they will not set well

unless they are exact. In cutting them use a long rule, and a lead

pencil or piece of chalk. Welting-cords should be covered with

bias-pieces; and it saves time, in many cases, to baste on the

welting-cord at the same time that you cover it. The best way, to put

on hooks and eyes is to sew thorn on double broad tape, and sew this

on the frock lining. They can be moved easily, and do not show where

they are sewed on.

In putting on linings of skirts at the bottom, be careful to have it

a very little fuller than the dress, or it will shrink and look badly.

All thin silks look much better with lining, and last much longer, as

do aprons also. In putting a lining to a dress, baste it on each

separate breadth, and sew it at the seams, and it looks much better

than to have it fastened only at the bottom. Hake notches in selvedge,

to prevent it from drawing up the breadth. Dresses which are to be

washed should not be lined.

Figured silks do not generally wear well if the figure be large and

satin-like. Black and plain-colored silks can be tested by procuring

samples, and making creases in them; fold the creases in a bunch, and

rub them against a rough surface of moreen or carpeting. Those which

are poor will soon wear off at the creases.

Plaids look becoming for tall women, as they shorten the appearance

of the figure. Stripes look becoming on a large person, as they reduce

the apparent size. Pale, persons should not wear blue or green, and

brunettes should not wear light delicate colors, except shades of buff,

fawn, or straw color. Pearl white is not good for any complexion. Dead

white and black look becoming on almost all persons. It is best to try

colors by candle-light for evening dresses, as some colors which look

very handsome in the daylight are very homely when seen by candle-light.

Never be in haste to be first in a fashion, and never go to the

extremes.

_Linen and Cotton_.--In buying linen, seek for that which has a

round close thread and is perfectly white; for if it be not white at

first, it will never afterward become so. Much that is called linen

at the shops is half cotton, and does not wear so well as cotton alone.

Cheap linens are usually of this kind. It is difficult to discover

which are all linen; but the best way is to find a lot presumed to be

good, take a sample, wash it, and ravel it. If this be good, the rest

of the same lot will probably be so. If you can not do this, draw a

thread each way, and if both appear equally strong it is probably all

linen. Linen and cotton must be put in clean water, and boiled, to get

out the starch, and then ironed.

A "long piece" of linen, a yard wide, will, with care and calculation,

make eight shirts. In cutting it, take a shirt of the right size as

a guide in fitting and basting. Bosom-pieces and false collars must

be cut and fitted by patterns which suit the person for whom, the

articles are designed. Gentlemen's night-shirts are made like other

shirts, except that they are longer, and do not have bosoms and cuffs

for starching.

In cutting chemises, if the cotton or linen is a yard wide, cut off

small half-gores at the top of the breadths and set them on the bottom.

Use a long rule and a pencil in cutting gores. In cutting cotton winch

is quite wide, a seam can be saved by cutting out two at once, in this

manner: cut off three breadths, and with a long rule and a pencil,

mark and cut off the gores; thus from one breadth cut off two gores

the whole length, each gore one fourth of the breadth at the bottom,

and tapering off to a point at the top. The other two breadths are to

have a gore cut off from each, which is one fourth wide at the top and

two fourths at bottom. Arrange these pieces right and they will make

two chemises, one having four seams and the other three. This is a

much easier way of cutting than sewing the three breadths together in

bag fashion, as is often done. The biased or goring seams must always

be felled. The sleeves and neck can be cut according to the taste of

the wearer, by another, chemise for a pattern. There should be a lining

around the armholes and stays at all corners. Six yards of yard width

will make two chemises.

Long night-gowns are best cut a little goring. It requires five yards

for a long night-gown, and two and a half for a short one. Linen night

caps wear longer than cotton ones, and do not like them turn yellow.

They should be ruffled with linen, as cotton borders will not last so

long as the cap. A double-quilted wrapper is a great comfort, in case

of sickness. It may be made of two old dresses. It should not be cut

full, but rather like a gentleman's study-gown, having no gathers or

plaits, but large enough to slip off and on with ease. A double-gown

of calico is also very useful. Most articles of dress, for grown persons

or children, require patterns.

Old silk dresses quilted for skirts are very serviceable, White flannel

is soiled so easily and shrinks so much in washing that it is a good

plan to color it. Cotton flannel is also good for common skirts. In

making up flannel, back-stitch and run the seams and then cross-stitch

them open. Nice flannel for infants can be ornamented with very little

expense of time, by turning up the hem on the right side and making

a little vine at the edge with saddler's silk The stitch of the vine

is a modification of button-hole stitch.

_Mending_. Silk dresses will last much longer, by ripping out the

sleeves when thin, and changing the arms and also the breadths of the

skirt. Tumbled black silk, which is old and rusty, should be dipped

in water, then be drained for a few minutes, without squeezing or

pressing, and then ironed. Coffee or cold tea is better than water.

Sheets when worn thin in the middle should be ripped, and the other

edges sewed together. Window-curtains last much longer if lined, as

the sun fades and rots them.

Broadcloth should be cut with reference to the way the nap runs. When

pantaloons are thin, it is best to newly seat them, cutting the piece

inserted in a curve, as corners are difficult to fit. Hose can be cut

down when the feet are worn. Take an old stocking and cut it up for

a pattern. Make the heel short. In sewing, turn each edge and run it

down, and then sew over the edges. This is better than to stitch and

then cross-stitch. "Run" thin places in stockings, and it will save

darning a hole. If shoes are worn through on the sides, in the

upper-leather, slip pieces of broadcloth under, and sew them around

the holes.

_Bedding_. The best beds are thick hair mattresses, which for persons in

health are good for winter as well as summer use. Mattresses may also be

made of husks, dried and drawn into shreds; also of alternate layers of

cotton and moss. The most profitable sheeting is the Russian, which will

last three times as long as any other. It is never perfectly white.

Unbleached cotton is good for winter. It is poor economy to make narrow

and short sheets, as children and domestics will always slip them off,

and soil the bed-tick and bolster. They should be three yards long, and

two and a half wide, so that they can be tucked in all around. All bed-

linen should be marked and numbered, so that a bed can always be made

properly, and all missing articles be known.

XXIX.

FIRES AND LIGHTS.

A shallow fireplace saves wood and gives out more heat than a deeper

one. A false back of brick may be put up in a deep fireplace. Hooks

for holding up the shovel and tongs, a hearth-brush and bellows, and

brass knobs to hang them on, should be furnished to every fireplace.

An iron bar across the andirons aids in keeping the fire safe and in

good order. Steel furniture is neater, handsomer, and more easily kept

in order than that made of brass.

Use green wood for logs, and mix green and dry wood for the fire; and

then the wood-pile will last much longer. Walnut, maple, hickory, and

oak wood are best; chestnut or hemlock is bad, because it snaps. Do

not buy a load in which there are many crooked sticks. Learn how to

measure and calculate the solid contents of a load, so as not to be

cheated. A cord of wood should be equivalent to a pile eight feet long,

four feet wide and four feet high; that is, it contains (8 X 4 X 4 =

128) one hundred and twenty-eight cubic or solid feet. A city "load"

is usually one third of a cord. Have all your wood split and piled

under cover for winter. Have the green wood logs in one pile, dry wood

in another, oven wood in another, kindlings and chips in another, and

a supply of charcoal to use for broiling and ironing in another place.

Have a brick bin for ashes, and never allow them to be put in wood.

When quitting fires at night, never leave a burning stick across the

andirons, nor on its end, without quenching it. See that no fire adheres

to the broom or brush, remove all articles from the fire, and have two

pails filled with water in the kitchen where they will not freeze.

STOVES AND GRATES.

Rooms heated by stoves should always have some opening for the admission

of fresh air, or they will be injurious to health. The dryness of the

air, which they occasion, should be remedied by placing a vessel filled

with water on the stove, otherwise, the lungs or eyes will be injured.

A large number of plants in a room prevents this dryness of the air.

Where stove-pipes pass through fire-boards, the hole in the wood should

be much larger than the pipe, so that there may be no danger of the

wood taking fire. The unsightly opening thus occasioned should be

covered with tin. When pipes are carried through floors or partitions,

they should always pass either through earthen crocks, or what are

known as tin stove-pipe thimbles, which may be found in any stove store

or tinsmith's. Lengthening a pipe will increase its draught.

For those who use _anthracite_ coal, that which is broken or screened is

best for grates, and the nut-coal for small stoves. Three tons are

sufficient in the Middle States, and four tons in the Northern, to keep

one fire through the winter. That which is bright, hard, and clean is

best; and that which is soft, porous, and covered with damp dust is

poor. It will be well to provide two barrels of charcoal for kindling to

every ton of anthracite coal. Grates for _bituminous coal_ should have a

flue nearly as deep as the grate; and the bars should be round and not

close together. The better draught there is, the less coal-dust is made.

Every grate should be furnished with a poker, shovel, tongs, blower,

coal-scuttle, and holder for the blower. The latter may be made of

woolen, covered with old silk; and hung near the fire.

Coal-stoves should be carefully put up, as cracks in the pipe,

especially in sleeping rooms, are dangerous.

LIGHTS

Professor Phin, of the _Manufacturer and Builder_, has kindly given us

some late information on this important topic, which will be found

valuable.

In choosing the source of our light, the great points to be considered

are, first, the influence on the eyes, and secondly, economy. It is

poor economy to use a bad light. Modern houses in cities, and even in

large villages, are furnished with gas; where gas is not used,

sperm-oil, kerosene or coal-oil, and candles are employed. Gas is the

cheapest, (or ought to be;) and if properly used, is as good as any.

Good sperm-oil burned in an Argand lamp--that is, a lamp with a

circular wick, like the astral lamp and others--is perhaps the best;

but it is expensive and attended with many inconveniences. Good kerosene

oil gives a light which leaves little to be desired. Candles are used

only on rare occasions, though many families prefer to manufacture

into candles the waste grease that accumulates in the household. The

economy of any source of light will depend so much upon local

circumstances that no absolute directions can be given.

The effect produced by light on the eyes depends upon the following

points: First, _Steadiness_. Nothing is more injurious to the

eyes than a flickering, unsteady flame. Hence, all flames used for

light-giving purposes ought to be surrounded with glass chimneys or

small shades. No naked flame can ever be steady. Second, _Color_.

This depends greatly upon the temperature of the flame. A hot flame

gives a bright, white light; a flame which has not a high temperature

gives a dull, yellow light, which is very injurious to the eyes. In

the naked gas-jet a large portion of the flame burns at a low

temperature, and the same is the case with the flame of the kerosene

lamp when the height of the chimney is not properly proportioned to

the amount of oil consumed; a high wick needs a high chimney. In the

case of a well-trimmed Argand oil-lamp, or an Argand burner for gas,

the flame is in general most intensely hot, and the light is of a clear

white character.

The third point which demands attention is the _amount of heat_

transmitted from the flame to the eyes. It often happens that people,

in order to economize light, bring the lamp quite close to the face.

This is a very bad habit. The heat is more injurious than the light.

Better burn a larger flame, and keep it at a greater distance. It is

also well that various sized lamps should be provided to serve the

varying necessities of the household in regard to quantity of light.

One of the very best forms of lamp is that known as the "student's

reading-lamp," which is, in the burner, an Argand. Provide small lamps

with handles for carrying about, and broad-bottomed lamps for the

kitchen, as these are not easily upset. Hand and kitchen lamps are

best made of metal, unless they are to be used by very careful persons.

Sperm-oil, lard, tallow, etc., have been superseded to such an extent

by kerosene that it is scarcely worth while to give any special

directions in regard to them. In the choice of kerosene, attention

should be paid to two points: its _safety_ and its _light-giving

qualities_. Kerosene is not a simple fluid, like water; but is a

mixture of several liquids, all of which boil at different temperatures.

Good kerosene oil should be purified from all that portion which boils

or evaporates at a low temperature; for it is the production of this

vapor, and its mixture with atmospheric air, that gives rise to those

terrible explosions which sometimes occur when a light is brought near

a can of poor oil. To test the oil in this respect, pour a little into

an iron spoon, and heat it over a lamp until it is moderately warm to

the touch. If the oil produces vapor which can be set on fire by means

of a flame held a short distance above the surface of the liquid, it

is bad. Good oil poured into a teacup or on the floor does not easily

take fire when a light is brought in contact with it. Poor oil will

instantly ignite under the same circumstances, and hence, the breaking

of a lamp filled with poor oil is always attended by great peril of

a conflagration. Not only the safety but also the light-giving qualities

of kerosene are greatly enhanced by the removal of these volatile and

dangerous oils. Hence, while good kerosene should be clear in color

and free from all matters which can gum up the wick and thus interfere

with free circulation and combustion, it should also be perfectly safe.

It ought to be kept in a cool, dark place, and carefully excluded from

the air.

The care of lamps requires so much attention and discretion, that many

ladies choose to do this work themselves, rather than trust it with

domestics. To do it properly, provide the following things: an old

waiter to hold all the articles used; a lamp-filler, with a spout,

small at the end, and turned up to prevent oil from dripping; proper

wicks, and a basket or box to hold them; a lamp-trimmer made for the

purpose, or a pair of _sharp_ scissors; a small soap-cup and soap;

some washing soda in a broad-mouthed bottle; and several soft cloths

to wash the articles and towels to wipe them. If every thing, after

being used, is cleansed from oil and then kept neatly, it will not be

so unpleasant a task as it usually is, to take care of lamps.

The inside of lamps and oil-cans should be cleansed with soda dissolved

in water. Be careful to drain them well, and not to let any gilding

or bronze be injured by the soda coming in contact with it. Put one

table-spoonful of soda to one quart of water. Take the lamp to pieces

and clean it as often as necessary. Wipe the chimney at least once a

day, and wash it whenever mere wiping fails to cleanse it. Some persons,

owing to the dirty state of their chimneys, lose half the light which

is produced. Keep dry fingers in trimming lamps. Renew the wicks before

they get too short. They should never be allowed to burn shorter than

an inch and a half.

In regard to _shades_, which are always well to use, on lamps or

gas, those made of glass or porcelain are now so cheap that we can

recommend them as the best without any reservation. Plain shades,

making the light soft and even, do not injure the eyes. Lamps should

be lighted with a strip of folded or rolled paper, of which a quantity

should be kept on the mantelpiece. Weak eyes should always be especially

shaded from the lights. Small screens, made for the purpose, should

be kept at hand. A person with weak eyes can use them safely much

longer when they are protected from the glare of the light. Fill the

entry-lamp every day, and cleanse and fill night-lanterns twice a week,

if used often. A good night-lamp is made with a small one-wicked lamp

and a roll of tin to set over it. Have some holes made in the bottom

of this cover, and it can then be used to heat articles. Very cheap

floating tapers can he bought to burn in a teacup of oil through the

night.

TO MAKE CANDLES.

The nicest candles are those run in moulds. For this purpose, melt

together one quarter of a pound of white wax, one quarter of an ounce

of camphor, two ounces of alum, and ten ounces of suet or mutton-tallow.

Soak the wicks in lime-water and saltpetre, and when dry, fix them in

the moulds and pour in the melted tallow. Let them remain one night

to cool; then warm them a little to loosen them, draw them out, and

when they are hard, put them in a box in a dry and cool place.

To make dipped candles, cut the wicks of the right length, double them

over rods, and twist them. They should first be dipped in lime-water

or vinegar, and dried. Melt the tallow in a large kettle, filling it

to the top with hot water, when the tallow is melted. Put in wax and

powdered alum, to harden them. Keep the tallow hot over a portable

furnace, and fill the kettle with hot water as fast as the tallow is

used up. Lay two long strips of narrow board on which to hang the rods;

and set flat pans under, on the floor, to catch the grease. Take several

rods at once, and wet the wicks in the tallow; straighten and smooth

them when cool. Then dip them as fast as they cool, until they become

of the proper size. Plunge them obliquely and not perpendicularly; and

when the bottoms are too large, hold them in the hot grease till a

part melts off. Let them remain one night to cool; then cut off the

bottoms, and keep them in a dry, cool place. Cheap lights are made,

by dipping rushes in tallow; the rushes being first stripped of nearly

the whole of the hard outer covering and the pith alone being retained

with just enough of the tough bark to keep it stiff.

XXX.

THE CARE OF ROOMS.

It would be impossible in a work dealing, as this does, with general

principles of house-keeping, to elaborate in full the multitudinous

details which arise for attention and intelligent care. These will be

more largely treated of in the book soon to be published for the present

writer, (the senior authoress of this volume.) Yet, in the different

departments of family labor, there are certain leading matters

concerning which a few hints may be found useful in aiding the reader

to carry into operation the instructions and ideas of the earlier

chapters of this book, and in promoting the general comfort and

convenience of families.

And first, asking the reader to bear in mind that these suggestions

are chiefly applicable to country homes, not within easy reach of all

the conveniences which go under the name of "modern improvements," we

will say a few words on the care of _Parlors_.

In hanging pictures, put them so that the lower part shall be opposite

the eye. Cleanse the glass of pictures with whiting, as water endangers

the pictures. Gilt frames can be much better preserved by putting on

a coat of copal varnish, which with proper brushes, can be bought of

carriage or cabinet-makers. When dry, it can be washed with fair water.

Wash the brush in spirits of turpentine.

Curtains, ottomans, and sofas covered with worsted, can be cleansed

with wheat bran, rubbed on with flannel. Shades of linen or cotton,

on rollers and pulleys, are always useful to shut out the sun from

curtains and carpets. Paper curtains, pasted on old cotton, are good

for chambers. Put them on rollers, having cords nailed to them, so

that when the curtain falls, the cord will be wound up. Then, by pulling

the cord, the curtain will be rolled up.

Varnished furniture should be rubbed only with silk, except

occasionally, when a little sweet-oil should be rubbed over, and wiped

off carefully. For unvarnished furniture, use bees-wax, a little

softened with sweet-oil; rub it in with a hard brush, and polish with

woolen and silk rags. Some persons rub in linseed-oil; others mix

bees-wax with a little spirits of turpentine and rosin, making it so

that it can be put on with a sponge, and wiped off with a soft rag.

Others keep in a bottle the following mixture: two ounces of spirits

of turpentine, four table-spoonfuls of sweet-oil, and one quart of

milk. This is applied with a sponge, and wiped off with a linen rag.

Hearths and jambs, of brick, look best painted over with black lead,

mixed with soft-soap. Wash the bricks which are nearest the fire with

redding and milk, using a painter's brush. A sheet of zinc, covering

the whole hearth, is cheap, saves work, and looks very well. A tinman

can fit it properly.

Stone hearths should be rubbed with a paste of powdered stone, (to be

procured of the stone-cutters,) and then brushed with a stiff brush.

Kitchen hearths, of stone, are improved by rubbing in lamp-oil.

Stains can be removed from marble, by oxalic acid and water, or oil

of vitriol and water, left on a few minutes, and then rubbed dry. Gray

marble is improved by linseed-oil. Grease can be taken from marble,

by ox-gall and potter's clay wet with soapsuds, (a gill of each.) It

is better to add, also, a gill of spirits of turpentine. It improves

the looks of marble, to cover it with this mixture, leaving it two

days, and then rubbing it off.

Unless a parlor is in constant use, it is best to sweep it only once

a week, and at other times use a whisk-broom and dust-pan. When a

parlor with handsome furniture is to be swept, cover the sofas, centre

table, piano, books, and mantelpiece with old cottons kept for the

purpose. Remove the rugs and shake them, and clean the jambs, hearth,

and fire-furniture. Then sweep the room, moving every article. Dust

the furniture with a dust-brush and a piece of old silk. A painter's

brush should be kept, to remove dust from ledges and crevices. The

dust-cloths should be often shaken and washed, or else they will soil

the walls and furniture when they are used. Dust ornaments and fine

books with feather brushes, used for no other purpose.

_Chambers and Bedrooms_ are of course a portion of the house to

be sedulously and scrupulously attended to, if either health or comfort

are aimed at in the family. And first, every mistress of a family

should see, not only that all sleeping-rooms in her house _can be_

well ventilated at night, but that they actually are so. Where there

is no provision made for the introduction of pure air, in the

construction of the house, and in the bedroom itself no open fire-place

to allow the easy exit of foul air, a door should be left open into

an entry or room where fresh air is admitted; or else a small opening

should be made in a window, taking care not to allow a draught of air

to cross the bed. The debility of childhood, the lassitude of domestics,

and the ill-health of families, are often caused by neglecting to

provide a supply of pure air.

It is not deemed necessary to add much to the earlier chapters treating

of bedroom conveniences; but one subject is of marked importance, as

being characteristic of good or poor housekeeping--that is, the _making

of beds_.

Few servants will make a bed properly, without much attention from the

mistress of the family; and every young woman who expects to have a

household of her own to manage should be able to do it well herself,

and to instruct others in doing it. The following directions should

be given to those who do this work:

Open the windows, and lay off the bed-covering on two chairs, at the

foot of the bed. If it be a feather-bed, after it is well aired, shake

the feathers from each corner to the middle; then take up the middle,

shake it well, and turn the bed over. Then push the feathers in place,

making the head higher than the foot, and the sides even, and as high

as the middle part. A mattress, whether used on top of a feather-bed

or by itself, should in like manner be well aired and turned. Then put

on the bolster and the under sheet, so that the wrong side of the sheet

shall go next the bed, and the _marking_ always come at the head,

tucking in all around. Then put on the pillows, evenly, so that the

open ends shall come to the sides of the bed, and spread on the upper

sheet so that the wrong side shall be next the blankets, and the marked

end always at the head. This arrangement of sheets is to prevent the

part where the feet lie from being reversed, so as to come to the face;

and also to prevent the parts soiled by the body from coming to the

bedtick and blankets. Put on the other covering, except the outer one,

tucking in all around, and then turn over the upper sheet at the head,

so as to show a part of the pillows. When the pillow-cases are clean

and smooth, they look best outside of the cover, but not otherwise.

Then draw the hand along the side of the pillows, to make an even

indentation, and then smooth and shape the whole outside. A nice

housekeeper always notices the manner in which a bed is made; and in

some parts of the country, it is rare to see this work properly

performed.

The writer would here urge every mistress of a family, who keeps more

than one domestic servant, to provide them with single beds, that they

might not be obliged to sleep with all the changing domestics, who

come and go so often. Where the room is too small for two beds, a

narrow truckle-bed kept under another during the day will answer.

Domestics should be furnished with washing conveniences in their

chambers, and be encouraged to keep their persons and rooms neat and

in order.

_The care of the Kitchen, Cellar, and Store-room is necessarily the

foundation of all proper housekeeping._

If parents wish their daughters to grow up with good domestic habits,

they should have, as one means of securing this result, a neat and

cheerful kitchen. A kitchen should always, if possible, be entirely

above-ground, and well lighted. It should have a large sink, with a

drain running under-ground, so that all the premises may be kept sweet

and clean. If flowers and shrubs be cultivated around the doors and

windows, and the yard near them be kept well turfed, it will add very

much to their agreeable appearance. The walls should often be cleaned

and white-washed, to promote a neat look and pure air. The floor of

a kitchen should be painted, or, what is better, covered with an

oilcloth. To procure a kitchen oilcloth as cheaply as possible, buy

cheap tow cloth, and fit it to the size and shape of the kitchen. Then

have it stretched, and nailed to the south side of the barn, and, with

a brush, cover it with a coat of thin rye paste. When this is dry, put

on a coat of yellow paint, and let it dry for a fortnight. It is safest

to first try the paint, and see if it dries well, as some paint never

will dry. Then put on a second coat, and at the end of another

fortnight, a third coat. Then let it hang two months, and it will last,

uninjured, for many years. The longer the paint is left to dry, the

better. If varnished, it will last much longer.

A sink should be scalded out every day, and occasionally with hot lye.

On nails, over the sink, should be hung three good dish-cloths, hemmed,

and furnished with loops; one for dishes not greasy, one for greasy

dishes, and one for washing greasy pots and kettles. These should be

put in the wash every week. The lady who insists upon this will not

be annoyed by having her dishes washed with dark, musty and greasy

rags, as is too frequently the case.

Under the sink should be kept a slop-pail; and, on a shelf by it, a

soap-dish and two water-pails. A large boiler of warm soft water should

always be kept over the fire, well covered, and a hearth-broom and

bellows be hung near the fire. A clock is a very important article in

the kitchen, in order to secure regularity at meals.

WASHING DISHES.

No item of domestic labor is so frequently done in a negligent manner,

by domestics, as this. A full supply of conveniences will do much

toward the remedy of this evil. A swab, made of strips of linen tied

to a stick, is useful to wash nice dishes, especially small, deep

articles. Two or three towels, and three dish-cloths should be used.

Two large tin tubs, painted on the outside, should be provided; one

for washing, and one for rinsing; also, a large old waiter, on which

to drain the dishes. A soap-dish, with hard soap, and a fork, with

which to use it, a slop-pail, and two pails for water, should also be

furnished. The following rules for washing dishes will aid in promoting

the desired care and neatness:

1. Scrape the dishes, putting away any food which may remain on them,

and which it may be proper to save for future use. Put grease into the

grease-pot, and whatever else may be on the plates into the slop-pail.

Save tea-leaves for sweeping. Set all the dishes, when scraped, in

regular piles, the smallest at the top.

2. Put the nicest articles in the wash-dish, and wash them in hot suds

with the swab or nicest dish-cloth. Wipe all metal articles as soon

as they are washed. Put all the rest into the rinsing-dish, which

should be filled with hot water. When they are taken out, lay them to

drain on the waiter. Then rinse the dish-cloth, and hang it up, wipe

the articles washed, and put them in their places.

3. Pour in more hot water, wash the greasy dishes with the dish-cloth

made for them, rinse them, and set them to drain. Wipe them, and set

them away. Wash the knives and forks, _being careful that the handles

are never put in water_; wipe them, and then lay them in a

knife-dish, to be scoured.

4. Take a fresh supply of clean suds, in which wash the milk-pans,

buckets, and tins. Then rinse and hang up this dish-cloth, and take

the other, with which, wash the roaster, gridiron, pots, and kettles.

Then wash and rinse the dish-cloth, and hang it up. Empty the

slop-bucket, and scald it. Dry metal teapots and tins before the fire.

Then put the fire-place in order, and sweep and dust the kitchen.

Some persons keep a deep and narrow vessel, in which to wash knives

with a swab, so that a careless servant _can not_ lay them in the

water while washing them. This article can be carried into the

eating-room, to receive the knives and forks when they are taken from

the table.

KITCHEN FURNITURE.

_Crockery_.--Brown earthen pans are said to be best for milk and

for cooking. Tin pans are lighter, and more convenient, but are too

cold for many purposes. Tall earthen jars, with covers, are good to

hold butter, salt, lard, etc. Acids should never be put into the red

earthen ware, as there is a poisonous ingredient in the glazing which

the acid takes off. Stone ware is better and stronger, and safer every

way than any other kind.

_Iron Ware_.--Many kitchens are very imperfectly supplied with

the requisite conveniences for cooking. When a person has sufficient

means, the following articles are all desirable: A nest of iron pots,

of different sizes, (they should be slowly heated when new,) a long

iron fork, to take out articles from boiling water; an iron hook, with

a handle, to lift pots from the crane; a large and small gridiron,

with grooved bars, and a trench to catch the grease; a Dutch oven,

called also a bake-pan; two skillets, of different sizes, and a spider,

or flat skillet, for frying; a griddle, a waffle-iron, tin and iron

bake and bread pans; two ladles, of different sizes; a skimmer; iron

skewers; a toasting-iron; two teakettles, one small and one large

one; two brass kettles, of different sizes, for soap-boiling, etc.

Iron kettles, lined with porcelain, are better for preserves. The

German are the best. Too hot a fire will crack them, but with care in

this respect, they will last for many years.

Portable charcoal furnaces, of iron or clay, are very useful in summer,

in washing, ironing, and stewing, or making preserves. If used in the

house, a strong draught must be made, to prevent the deleterious effects

of the charcoal. A box and mill, for spice, pepper, and coffee, are

needful to those who use these articles. Strong knives and forks, a

sharp carving-knife, an iron cleaver and board, a fine saw, steelyards,

chopping-tray and knife, an apple-parer, steel for sharpening knives,

sugar-nippers, a dozen iron spoons, also a large iron one with a long

handle, six or eight flat-irons, one of them very small, two

iron-stands, a ruffle-iron, a crimping-iron, are also desirable.

_Tin Ware_.--Bread-pans; large and small patty-pans; cake-pans,

with a centre tube to insure their baking well; pie-dishes, (of

block-tin;) a covered butter-kettle; covered kettles to hold berries;

two sauce-pans; a large oil-can; (with a cock;) a lamp-filler; a

lantern; broad bottomed candlesticks for the kitchen; a candle-box;

a funnel; a reflector for baking warm cakes; an oven or tin-kitchen;

an apple-corer; an apple-roaster; an egg-boiler; two sugar-scoops, and

flour and meal-scoop; a set of mugs; three dippers; a pint, quart, and

gallon measure; a set of scales and weights; three or four pails,

painted on the outside; a slop-bucket with a tight cover, painted on

the outside; a milk-strainer; a gravy-strainer; a colander; a

dredging-box; a pepper-box; a large and small grater; a cheese-box;

also a large box for cake, and a still larger one for bread, with tight

covers. Bread, cake, and cheese, shut up in this way, will not grow

dry as in the open air.

_Wooden Ware_.--A nest of tubs; a set of pails and bowls; a large

and small sieve; a beetle for mashing potatoes; a spade or stick for

stirring butter and sugar; a bread-board, for moulding bread and making

pie-crust; a coffee-stick; a clothes-stick; a mush-stick; a meat-beetle,

to pound tough meat; an egg-beater; a ladle, for working butter; a

bread-trough, (for a large family;) flour-buckets, with lids, to hold

sifted flour and Indian meal; salt-boxes; sugar-boxes; starch and

indigo-boxes; spice-boxes; a bosom-board; a skirt-board; a large

ironing-board; two or three clothes-frames; and six dozen clothes-pins.

_Basket Ware_.--Baskets of all sizes, for eggs, fruit, marketing,

clothes, etc.; also chip-baskets. When often used, they should be

washed in hot suds.

_Other Articles_.--Every kitchen needs a box containing balls of

brown thread and twine, a large and small darning needle, rolls of

waste paper and old linen and cotton, and a supply of common holders.

There should also be another box, containing a hammer, carpet-tacks,

and nails of all sizes, a carpet-claw, screws and a screw-driver,

pincers, gimlets of several sizes, a bed-screw, a small saw, two

chisels, (one to use for button-holes in broadcloth,) two awls and two

files.

In a drawer or cupboard should be placed cotton table-cloths for kitchen

use; nice crash towels for tumblers, marked T T; coarser towels for

dishes marked T; six large roller-towels; a dozen hand-towels, marked

H T; and a dozen hemmed dish-cloths with loops. Also two thick linen

pudding or dumpling-cloths, a jelly-bag made of white flannel, to

strain jelly, a starch-strainer, and a bag for boiling clothes.

In a closet should be kept, arranged in order, the following articles:

the dust-pan, dust-brush, and dusting-cloths, old flannel and cotton

for scouring and rubbing, large sponges for washing windows and

looking-glasses, a long brush for cobwebs, and another for washing the

outside of windows, whisk-brooms, common brooms, a coat-broom or brush,

a whitewash-brush, a stove-brush, shoe-brushes and blacking, articles

for cleaning tin and silver, leather for cleaning metals, bottles

containing stain-mixtures and other articles used in cleansing.

CARE OF THE CELLAR.

A cellar should often be whitewashed, to keep it sweet. It should have

a drain to keep it perfectly dry, as standing water in a cellar is a

sure cause of disease in a family. It is very dangerous to leave decayed

vegetables in a cellar. Many a fever has been caused by the poisonous

miasm thus generated. The following articles are desirable in a cellar:

a safe, or movable closet, with sides of wire or perforated tin, in

which cold meats, cream, and other articles should be kept; (if ants

be troublesome, set the legs in tin cups of water;) a refrigerator,

or a large wooden-box, on feet, with a lining of tin or zinc, and a

space between the tin and wood filled with powdered charcoal, having

at the bottom a place for ice, a drain to carry off the water, and

also movable shelves and partitions. In this, articles are kept cool.

It should be cleaned once a week. Filtering jars to purify water should

also be kept in the cellar. Fish and cabbages in a cellar are apt to

scent a house, and give a bad taste to other articles.

STOREROOM.

Every house needs a storeroom, in which to keep tea, coffee, sugar,

rice, candles, etc. It should be furnished with jars, having labels,

a large spoon, a fork, sugar and flour-scoops, a towel, and a

dish-cloth.

MODES OF DESTROYING INSECTS AND VERMIN.

_Bed-bugs_ should be kept away, by filling every chink in the bedstead

with putty, and if it be old, painting it over. Of all the mixtures for

killing them, _corrosive sublimate and alcohol_ is the surest. This is a

strong poison.

_Cockroaches_ may be destroyed by pouring boiling water into their

haunts, or setting a mixture of arsenic mixed with Indian meal and

molasses where they are found. Chloride of lime and sweetened water

will also poison them.

_Fleas_.--If a dog be infected with these insects, put him in a

tub of warm soapsuds, and they will rise to the surface. Take them

off, and burn them. Strong perfumes about the person diminish their

attacks. When caught between the fingers, plunge them in water, or

they will escape.

_Crickets_.--Scalding, and sprinkling Scotch snuff about the haunts of

these insects, are remedies for the annoyance caused by them.

_Flies_ can be killed in great quantities, by placing about the house

vessels filled with sweetened water and _cobalt_. Six cents' worth of

cobalt is enough for a pint of water. It is very poisonous.

_Mosquitoes_.--Close nets around a bed are the only sure protection

at night against these insects. Spirits of hartshorn is the best

antidote for their bite. Salt and water is good.

_Red or Black Ants_ may be driven away by scalding their haunts,

and putting Scotch snuff wherever they go for food. Set the legs of

closets and safes in pans of water, and they can not get at them.

_Moths_.--Airing clothes does not destroy moths, but laying them

in a hot sun does. If articles be tightly sewed up in linen when laid

away, and fine tobacco put about them, it is a sure protection. This

should be done in April.

_Rats and Mice_.--A good cat is the best remedy for these annoyances.

Equal quantities of hemlock (or _cicuta_) and old cheese will poison

them; but this renders the house liable to the inconvenience of a bad

smell. This evil, however, may be lessened, by placing a dish containing

oil of vitriol poured on saltpetre where the smell is most annoying.

Chloride of lime and water is also good.

In using any of the above-mentioned poisons, great care should be taken

to guard against their getting into any article of food or any utensil

or vessel used for cooking or keeping food, or where children can get

at them.

XXXI.

THE CARE OF YARDS AND GARDENS.

First, let us say a few words on the _Preparation of Soil_. If

the garden soil be clayey and adhesive, put on a covering of sand,

three inches thick, and the same depth of well-rotted manure. Spade

it in as deep as possible, and mix it well. If the soil be sandy and

loose, spade in clay and ashes. Ashes are good for all kinds of soil,

as they loosen those which are close, hold moisture in those which are

sandy, and destroy insects. The best kind of soil is that which will

hold water the longest without becoming hard when dry.

_To prepare Soil for Pot-plants_, take one fourth part of common

soil, one fourth part of well-decayed manure, and one half of vegetable

mould, from the woods or from a chip-yard. Break up the manure fine,

and sift it through a lime-screen, (or coarse wire sieve.) These

materials must be thoroughly mixed. When the common soil which is used

is adhesive, and indeed in most other cases, it is necessary to add

sand, the proportion of which must depend on the nature of the soil.

_To Prepare a Hot-Bed_, dig a pit six feet long, five feet wide,

and thirty inches deep. Make a frame of the same size, with the back

two feet high, the front fifteen inches, and the sides sloped from the

back to the front. Make two sashes, each three feet by five, with the

panes of glass lapping like shingles instead of having cross-bars. Set

the frame over the pit, which should then be filled with fresh

horse-dung, which has not lain long nor been sodden by water. Tread

it down hard; then put into the frame light and very rich soil, six

or eight inches deep, and cover it with the sashes for two or three

days. Then stir the soil, and sow the seeds in shallow drills, placing

sticks by them, to mark the different kinds. Keep the frame covered

with the glass whenever it is cold enough to chill the plants; but at

all other times admit fresh air, which is indispensable to their health.

When the sun is quite warm, raise the glasses enough to admit air, and

cover them with matting or blankets, or else the sun may kill the young

plants. Water the bed at evening with water which has stood all day,

or, if it be fresh drawn, add a little warm water. If there be too

much heat in the bed, so as to scorch or wither the plants, lift the

sashes, water freely, shade by day; make deep holes with stakes, and

fill them up when the heat is reduced. In very cold nights, cover the

sashes and frame with straw-mats.

_For Planting Flower Seeds_.--Break up the soil, till it is very

soft, and free from lumps. Rub that nearest the surface between the

hands, to make it fine. Make a circular drill a foot in diameter. Seeds

are to be planted either deeper or nearer the surface, according to

their size. For seeds as large as sweet peas, the drill should be half

an inch deep. The smallest seeds must be planted very near the surface,

and a very little fine earth be sifted over them. After covering them

with soil, beat them down with a trowel, so as to make the earth as

compact as it is after a heavy shower. Set up a stick in the middle

of the circle, with the name of the plant heavily written upon it with

a dark lead pencil. This remains more permanent if white-lead be first

rubbed over the surface. Never plant when the soil is very wet. In

very dry times, water the seeds at night. Never use very cold water.

When the seeds are small, many should be planted together, that they

may assist each other in breaking the soil. When the plants are an

inch high, thin them out, leaving only one or two, if the plant be a

large one, like the balsam; five or six, when it is of a medium size;

and eighteen or twenty of the smaller size. Transplanting, unless the

plant be lifted with a ball of earth, retards the growth about a

fortnight. It is best to plant at two different times, lest the first

planting should fail, owing to wet or cold weather.

_To plant Garden-Seeds_, make the beds from one to three yards

wide; lay across them a board a foot wide, and with a stick, make a

furrow on each side of it, one inch deep. Scatter the seeds in this

furrow, and cover them. Then lay the board over them, and step on it,

to press down the earth. When the plants are an inch high, thin them

out, leaving spaces proportioned to their sizes. Seeds of similar

species, such as melons and squashes, should not be planted very near

to each other, as this causes them to degenerate. The same kinds of

vegetables should not be planted in the same place for two years in

succession. The longer the rows are, the easier is the after culture.

_Transplanting_ should be done at evening, or which is better,

just before a shower. Take a round stick sharpened at the point, and

make openings to receive the plants. Set them a very little deeper

than they were before, and press the soil firmly round them. Then water

them, and cover them for three or four days, taking care that sufficient

air be admitted. If the plant can be removed without disturbing the

soil around the root, it will not be at all retarded by transplanting.

Never remove leaves and branches, unless a part of the roots be lost.

_To Re-pot House-Plants, renew the soil every year, soon after the

time of blossoming. Prepare soil as previously directed. Loosen the

earth from the pot by passing a knife around the skies. Turn the plant

upside down, and remove the pot. Then remove all the matted fibres at

the bottom, and all the earth, except that which adheres to the roots.

From woody plants, like roses, shake off all the earth. Take the new

pot, and put a piece of broken earthen-ware over the hole at the bottom,

and then, holding the plant in the proper position, shake in the earth

around it. Then pour in water to settle the earth, and heap on fresh

soil, till the pot is even full. Small pots are considered better than

large ones, as the roots are not so likely to rot, from excess of

moisture.

_In the Laying out of Yards and Gardens_, there is room for much

judgment and taste. In planting trees in a yard, they should be arranged

in groups, and never planted in straight lines, nor sprinkled about

as solitary trees. The object of this arrangement is to imitate Nature,

and secure some spots of dense shade and some of clear turf. In yards

which are covered with turf, beds can be cut out of it, and raised for

flowers. A trench should be made around, to prevent the grass from

running on them. These beds can be made in the shape of crescents,

ovals, or other fanciful forms.

In laying out beds in gardens and yards, a very pretty bordering can

be made, by planting them with common flax-seed, in a line about three

inches from the edge. This can be trimmed with shears, when it grows

too high.

_For Transplanting Trees_, the autumn is the best time. Take as much of

the root as possible, especially the little fibres, which should never

become dry. If kept long before they are set out, put wet moss around

them and water them. Dig holes larger than the extent of the roots; let

one person hold the tree in its former position, and another place the

roots carefully as they were before, cutting off any broken or wounded

root. _Be careful not to let the tree be more than an inch deeper them

it was before_. Let the soil be soft and well manured; shake the tree as

the soil is shaken in, that it may mix well among the small fibres. Do

not tread the earth down, while filling the hole; but, when it is full,

raise a slight mound of say four inches deep around the stem to hold

water, and fill it. Never cut off leaves nor branches, unless some of

the roots are lost. Tie the trees to a stake, and they will be more

likely to live. Water them often.

_The Care of House-Plants_ is a matter of daily attention, and well

repays all labor expended upon it. The soil of house-plants should be

renewed every year as previously directed. In winter, they should be

kept as dry as they can be without wilting. Many house-plants are

injured by giving them too much water, when they have little light

and fresh air. This makes them grow spindling. The more fresh air,

warmth and light they have, the more water is needed. They ought not

to be kept very warm in winter, nor exposed to great changes of

atmosphere. Forty degrees is a proper temperature for plants in winter,

when they have little sun and air. When plants have become spindling,

cut off their heads entirely, and cover the pot in the earth, where

it has the morning sun only. A new and flourishing head will spring

out. Few houseplants can bear the sun at noon. When insects infest

plants, set them in a closet or under a barrel, and burn tobacco under

them. The smoke kills any insect enveloped in it. When plants are

frozen, cold water and a gradual restoration of warmth are the best

remedies. Never use very cold water for plants at any season.

XXXII.

THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS.

This is an occupation requiring much attention and constant care.

Bulbous roots are propagated by offsets; some growing on the top,

others around the sides. Many plants are propagated by cutting off

twigs, and setting them in earth, so that two or three eyes are covered.

To do this, select a side shoot, ten inches long, two inches of it

being of the preceding year's growth, and the rest the growth of the

season when it is set. Do this when the sap is running, and put a piece

of crockery at the bottom of the shoot, when it is buried. One eye,

at least, must be under the soil. Water it and shade it in hot weather.

Plants are also propagated by layers. To do this, take a shoot which

comes up near the root, bend it down so as to bring several eyes under

the soil, leaving the top above-ground. If the shoot be cut half

through, in a slanting direction, at one of these eyes, before burying

it, the result is more certain. Roses, honeysuckles, and many other

shrubs are readily propagated thus. They will generally take root by

being simply buried; but cutting them as here directed is the best

method. Layers are more certain than cuttings.

_Budding and Grafting_, for all woody plants, are favorite methods

of propagation. In all such plants, there is an outer and inner bark,

the latter containing the sap vessels, in which the nourishment of the

tree ascends. The success of grafting or inoculating consists in so

placing the bud or graft that the sap vessels of the inner bark shall

exactly join those of the plant into which they are grafted; so that

the sap may pass from one into the other.

The following are directions for _budding_, which may be performed

at any time from July to September:

[Illustration: Fig. 64]

Select a smooth place on the stock into which you are to insert the

bud. Make a horizontal cut across the rind through to the firm wood;

and from the middle of this, make a slit downward perpendicularly, an

inch or more long, through to the wood. Raise the bark of the stock

on each side of the perpendicular cut, for the admission of the bud,

as is shown in the annexed engraving, (Fig. 64.) Then take a shoot of

this year's growth, and slice from it a bud, taking an inch below and

an inch above it, and some portion of the wood under it. Then, carefully

slip off the woody part under the bud. Examine whether the eye or germ

of the bud be perfect. If a little hole appear in that part, the bud

has lost its root, and another must be selected. Insert the bud, so

that _a_, of the bud, shall pass to a, of the stock; then _b_,

of the bud, must be cut off, to match the cut b, in the stock, and

fitted exactly to it, as it is this alone which insures success. Bind

the parts with fresh bass or woolen yarn, beginning a little below the

bottom, of the perpendicular slit, and winding it closely around every

part, except just over the eye of the bud, until you arrive above the

horizontal cut. Do not bind it too tightly, but just sufficient to

exclude air, sun, and wet. This is to be removed after the bud is

firmly fixed, and begins to grow.

Seed-fruit can be budded into any other seed-fruit, and stone-fruit

into any other stone-fruit; but stone and seed-fruits can not be thus

mingled.

Rose-bushes can have a variety of kinds budded into the same stock.

Hardy roots are the best stocks. The branch above the bud must be cut

off the next March or April after the bud is put in. Apples and pears

are more easily propagated by ingrafting than by budding.

_Ingrafting_ is a similar process to budding, with this advantage,

that it can be performed on large trees, whereas budding can be applied

only on small ones. The two common kinds of ingrafting are whip-grafting

and split-grafting. The first kind is for young trees, and the other

for large ones.

[Illustration: Fig. 65.]

The time for ingrafting is from May to October. The cuttings must be

taken from horizontal shoots, between Christmas and March, and kept

in a damp cellar. In performing the operation, cut off in a sloping

direction (as seen in Fig. 65) the tree or limb to be grafted. Then

cut off in a corresponding slant the slip to be grafted on. Then put

them together, so that the inner bark of each shall match exactly on

one side, and tie them firmly together with yellow yarn. It is not

essential that both be of equal size; if the bark of each meet together

exactly on _one_ side, it answers the purpose. But the two must

not differ much in size. The slope should be an inch and a half, or

more, in length. After they are tied together, the place should be

covered with a salve or composition of bees-wax and rosin. A mixture

of clay and cow-dung will answer the same purpose. This last must be

tied on with a cloth. Grafting is more convenient than budding, as

grafts can be sent from a great distance; whereas buds must be taken,

in July or August, from a shoot of the present year's growth, and can

not be sent to any great distance.

[Illustration: Fig. 66]

This engraving (Fig. 66) exhibits the mode called stock-grafting;

_a_ being the limb of a large tree, which is sawed off and split,

and is to be held open by a small wedge till the grafts are put in.

A graft inserted in the limb is shown at _b_, and at _c_ is one not

inserted, but designed to be put in at _d_, as two grafts can be put

into a large stock. In inserting the graft, be careful to make the edge

of the inner bark of the graft meet exactly the edge of the inner bark

of the stock; for on this success depends. After the grafts are put in,

the wedge must be withdrawn, and the whole of the stock be covered with

the thick salve or composition before mentioned, reaching from where the

grafts are inserted to the bottom of the slit. Be careful not to knock

or move the grafts after they are put in.

_Pruning_ is an operation of constant exercise, for keeping plants

and trees in good condition. The following rules are from a

distinguished horticulturist: Prune off all dead wood, and all the

little twigs on the main limbs. Retrench branches, so as to give light

and ventilation to the interior of the tree. Cut out the straight and

perpendicular shoots, which give little or no fruit; while those which

are most nearly horizontal, and somewhat curving, give fruit abundantly

and of good quality, and should be sustained. Superfluous and ill-placed

buds may be rubbed off at any time; and no buds pushing out after

midsummer should be spared. In choosing between shoots to be retained,

preserve the lowest placed, and on lateral shoots, those which are

nearest the origin. When branches cross each other so as to rub, remove

one or the other. Remove all suckers from the roots of trees or shrubs.

Prune after the sap is in full circulation, (except in the case of

grapes,) as the wounds then heal best. Some think it best to prune

before the sap begins to run. Pruning-shears, and a pruning-pole, with

a chisel at the end, can be procured of those who deal in agricultural

utensils.

_Thinning_ is also an important but very delicate operation. As

it is the office of the leaves to absorb nourishment from the

atmosphere, they should never be removed, except to mature the wood

or fruit. In doing this, remove such leaves as shade the fruit, as

soon as it is ready to ripen. To do it earlier impairs the growth. Do

it gradually at two different times. Thinning the fruit is important,

as tending to increase its size and flavor, and also to promote the

longevity of the tree. If the fruit be thickly set, take off one half

at the time of setting. Revise in June, and then in July, taking off

all that may be spared. One _very large_ apple to every square

foot is a rule that may be a sort of guide in other cases. According

to this, two hundred large apples would be allowed to a tree whose

extent is fifteen feet by twelve. If any person think this thinning

excessive, let him try two similar trees, and thin one as directed and

leave the other unthinned. It will be found that the thinned tree will

produce an equal weight, and fruit of much finer flavor.

XXXIII.

THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

By a little attention to this matter, a lady with the help of her

children can obtain a rich abundance of all kinds of fruit. The writer

has resided in families where little boys of eight, ten, and twelve

years old amused themselves, under the direction of their mother, in

planting walnuts, chestnuts, and hazelnuts, for future time; as well

as in planting and inoculating young fruit-trees of all descriptions.

A mother who will take pains to inspire a love for such pursuits in

her children, and who will aid and superintend them, will save them

from many temptations, and at a trifling expense secure to them and

herself a rich reward in the choicest fruits. The information given

in this work on this subject may be relied on as sanctioned by the

most experienced nursery-men.

The soil for a nursery should be rich, well dug, dressed with

well-decayed manure, free from weeds, and protected from cold winds.

Fruit-seeds should be planted in the autumn, an inch and a half or two

inches deep, in ridges four or five feet apart, pressing the earth

firmly over the seeds. While growing, they should be thinned out,

leaving the best ones a foot and a half apart. The soil should be kept

loose, soft, and free from weeds. They should be inoculated or ingrafted

when of the size of a pipe stem; and in a year after this may be

transplanted to their permanent stand. Peach-trees sometimes bear in

two years from budding, and in four years from planting if well kept.

In a year after transplanting, take pains to train the head aright.

Straight upright branches produce _gourmands_, or twigs bearing

only leaves. The side branches which are angular or curved yield the

most fruit. For this reason, the limbs should be trained in curves,

and perpendicular twigs should be cut off if there be need of pruning.

The last of June is the time for this. Grass should never be allowed

to grow within four feet of a large tree, and the soil should be kept

loose to admit air to the roots. Trees in orchards should be twenty-five

feet apart. The soil _under_ the top soil has much to do with the

health of the trees. If it be what is called _hard-pan_, the trees

will deteriorate. Trees need to be manured and to have the soil kept

open and free from weeds.

_Filberts_ can be raised in any part of this country.

_Figs_ can be raised in the Middle, Western, and Southern States.

For this purpose, in the autumn loosen the roots on one side, and bend

the tree down to the earth on the other; then cover it with a mound

of straw, earth, and boards, and early in the spring raise it up and

cover the roots.

_Currants_ grow well in any but a wet soil. They are propagated

by cuttings. The old wood should be thinned in the fall and manure be

put on. They can be trained into small trees.

_Gooseberries_ are propagated by layers and cuttings. They are

best when kept from suckers and trained like trees. One third of the

old wood should be removed every autumn.

_Raspberries_ do best when shaded during a part of the day. They

are propagated by layers, slips, and suckers. There is one kind which

bears monthly; but the varieties of this and all other fruits are now

so numerous that we can easily find those which are adapted to the

special circumstances of the case.

_Strawberries_ require a light soil and vegetable manure. They should be

transplanted in April or September, and be set eight inches apart, in

rows nine inches asunder, and in beds which are two feet wide, with

narrow alleys between them. A part of these plants are _non-bearers_.

These have large flowers with showy stamens and high black anthers. The

_bearers_ have short stamens, a great number of pistils, and the flowers

are every way less showy. In blossom-time, pull out all the non-bearers.

Some think it best to leave one non-bearer to every twelve bearers, and

others pull them all out. Many beds never produce any fruit, because all

the plants in them are non-bearers. Weeds should be kept from the vines.

When the vines are matted with young plants, the best way is to dig over

the beds in cross lines, so as to leave some of the plants standing in

little squares, while the rest are turned under the soil. This should be

done over a second time in the same year.

_To Raise Grapes_, manure the soil, and keep it soft and free

from weeds. A gravelly or sandy soil, and a south exposure are best.

Transplant the vines in the early spring, or better in the fall. Prune

them the first year so as to have only two main branches, taking off

all other shoots as fast as they come. In November, cut off all of

these two branches except four eyes. The second year, in the spring,

loosen the earth around the roots, and allow only two branches to grow,

and every month take off all side shoots. When they are very strong,

preserve only a part, and cut off the rest in the fall. In November,

cut off all the two main stems except eight eyes. After the second

year, no more pruning is needed, except to reduce the side shoots, for

the purpose of increasing the fruit. All the pruning of grapes (except

nipping side shoots) must be done when the sap is not running, or they

will bleed to death. Train, them on poles, or lattices, to expose them

to the air and sun. Cover tender vines in the autumn. Grapes are

propagated by cuttings, layers, and seeds. For cuttings, select in the

autumn well-ripened wood of the former year, and take fire joints for

each. Bury them till April; then soak them for some hours, and set

them out _aslant_, so that all the eyes but one shall be covered.

Apples, grapes, and such like fruit can be preserved in their natural

state by packing them when dry and solid in dry sand or saw-dust,

putting alternate layers of fruit and cotton, saw-dust or sand. Some

saw-dust gives a bad flavor to the fruit.

_Modes of Preserving Fruit-Trees_.--Heaps of ashes or tanner's bark

around peach-trees prevent the attack of the worm. The _yellows_ is a

disease of peach-trees, which is spread by the pollen of the blossom.

When a tree begins to turn yellow, take it away with all its roots,

before it blossoms again, or it will infect other trees. Planting tansy

around the roots of fruit-trees is a sure protection against worms, as

it prevents the moth from depositing her egg. Equal quantities of salt

and saltpetre, put around the trunk of a peach-tree, half a pound to a

tree, improve the size and flavor of the fruit. Apply this about the

first of April; and if any trees have worms already in them, put on half

the quantity in addition in June. To young trees just set out, apply one

ounce in April, and another in June, close to the stem. Sandy soil is

best for peaches.

Apple-trees are preserved from insects by a wash of strong lye to the

body and limbs, which, if old, should be first scraped. Caterpillars

should be removed by cutting down their nests in a damp day. Boring

a hole in a tree infested with worms, and filling it with sulphur,

will often drive them off immediately.

The _fire-blight_, or _brulure_ in pear-trees can be stopped by cutting

off all the blighted branches. It is supposed by some to be owing to an

excess of sap, which is remedied by diminishing the roots.

The _curculio_, which destroys plums and other stone-fruit, can be

checked only by gathering up all the fruit that falls, (which contains

their eggs,) and destroying it. The _canker-worm_ can be checked by

applying a bandage around the body of the tree, and every evening

smearing it with fresh tar.

XXXIV.

THE CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

One of the most interesting illustrations of the design of our

benevolent Creator in establishing the family state is the nature of

the domestic animals connected with it. At the very dawn of life, the

infant watches with delight the graceful gambols of the kitten, and

soon makes it a playmate. Meantime, its out-cries when hurt appeal to

kindly sympathy, and its sharp claws to fear; while the child's mother

has a constant opportunity to inculcate kindness and care for weak and

ignorant creatures. Then the dog becomes the out-door playmate and

guardian of early childhood, and he also guards himself by cries of

pain, and protects himself by his teeth. At the same time, his faithful

loving nature and caresses awaken corresponding tenderness and care;

while the parent again has a daily opportunity to inculcate these

virtues toward the helpless and dependent. As the child increases in

knowledge and reason, the horse, cows, poultry, and other domestic

animals come under his notice. These do not ordinarily express their

hunger or other sufferings by cries of distress, but depend more on

the developed reason and humanity of man. And here the parent is called

upon to instruct a child in the nature and wants of each, that he may

intelligently provide for their sustenance and for their protection

from injury and disease.

To assist in this important duty of home life, which so often falls

to the supervision of woman, the following information is prepared

through the kindness of one of the editors of a prominent, widely

known, agricultural paper.

Domestic animals are very apt to catch the spirit and temper of their

masters. A surly man will be very likely to have a cross dog and a

biting horse. A passionate man will keep all his animals in moral fear

of him, making them, snappish, and liable to hurt those of whom they

are not afraid.

It is, therefore, most important that all animals should be treated

uniformly with kindness. They are all capable of returning affection,

and will show it very pleasantly if we manifest affection for them.

They also have intuitive perceptions of our emotions which we can not

conceal. A sharp, ugly dog will rarely bite a person who has no fear

of him. A horse knows the moment a man mounts or takes the reins whether

he is afraid or not; and so it is with other animals.

If live stock can not be well fed, they ought not to be kept. One well

wintered horse is worth as much, as two that drag through on straw,

and by browsing the hedgerows. The same is true of oxen, and

emphatically so of cows. The owner of a half-starved dog loses the use

of him almost altogether; for, at the very time--the night--when lie

is most needed as a guard, he must be off scouring the country for

food.

_Shelter_ in winter is most important for cows. They should have

good tight stables or byres, well ventilated, and so warm that water

in a pail will only freeze a little on the top the severest nights.

Oxen should have the same stabling, though they bear cold better.

Horses in stables will bear almost any degree of cold, if they have

all they can eat. Sheep, except young lambs, are well enough sheltered

in dry sheds, with one end open. Cattle, sheep, and dogs do not sweat

as horses do, they "loll;" that is, water or slobber runs from their

tongues; hence, they are not liable to take cold as the horse is. Hogs

bear cold pretty well; but they eat enough to convince any one that

true economy lies in giving them warm sties in winter, for the colder

they are the more they eat. Fowls will not lay in cold weather unless

they have light and warm quarters.

_Cleanliness_ is indispensable, if one would keep his animals healthy.

In their wild state all our domestic animals are very clean, and, at the

same time, very healthy. The hog is not naturally a dirty animal, but

quite the reverse. He enjoys currying as much as a horse or a cow, and

would be as careful of his litter as a cat if he had a fair chance.

Horses ought to be groomed daily; cows and oxen as often as twice a

week; dogs should be washed with soapsuds frequently. Stables should be

cleaned out daily. Absorbents of liquid in stables should be removed as

often as they become wet. Dry earth is one of the best absorbents, and

is especially useful in the fowl-house. Hogs in pens should have straw

for their rests or lairs, and it should be often renewed.

_Parasitic Vermin_.--These are lice, fleas, ticks, the scale insects,

and other pests which afflict our live stock. There are many ways of

destroying them; the best and safest is a free use of _carbolic acid

soap_. The larger animals, as well as hogs, dogs, and sheep may be

washed in strong suds of this soap, without fear, and the application

repeated after a week. This generally destroys both the creatures and

their eggs. Hen lice are best destroyed by greasing the fowls, and

dusting them with flowers of sulphur. Sitting hens must never be

greased, but the sulphur may be dusted freely in their nests,

and it is well to put it in all hens' nests.

_Salt and Water_.--All animals except poultry require salt, and all,

free supplies of fresh water.

_Light_.--Stables, or places where any kind of animals are confined,

should have plenty of light. Windows are not more important in a house

than in a barn. The _sun_ should come in freely; and if it shines

directly upon the stock, all the better. When beeves and sheep are

fattening very rapidly, the exclusion of the light makes them more

quiet, and fatten faster; but their state is an unnatural and hardly a

healthy one.

_Exercise_ in the open air is important for breeding animals. It

is especially necessary for horses of all kinds. Cows need very little

and swine none, unless kept for breeding.

_Breeding_,--Always use thorough-bred males, and improvement is certain.

_Horses_.--The care which horses require varies with the circumstances

in which the owner is placed, and the uses to which they are put. In

general, if kept stabled, they should be fed with good upland hay,

almost as much as they will eat; and if absent from the stable, and at

work most of the day, they should have all they will eat of hay,

together with four to eight quarts of oats or an equal weight of other

grain or meal. Barley is good for horses, and so is dry corn. Corn-meal

put upon cut hay, wet and well-mixed, is good, steady feed, if not in

too large quantities. Four quarts a day may be fed unmixed with other

grain; but if the horse be hard worked and needs more, mix the meal with

wheat bran, or linseed oil-cake meal, or use corn and oats ground

together; carrots are especially wholesome. A quart of linseed oil-cake

meal, daily, is an excellent occasional addition to a horse's food, when

carrots can not be had. It gives a lustre to his coat, and brings the

new coat of hair out in the spring. A stabled horse needs daily

exercise, as much as to trot three miles. Where a horse is traveling, it

is well to give him six quarts of oats in the morning, four at noon, and

six at night.

Thorough grooming is indispensable to the health of horses. Especial

care should be taken of the legs and fetlocks, that no dirt remain to

cause that distressing disease, _grease_ or _scratches_, which results

from filthy fetlocks and standing in dirty stables. When a horse comes

in from work on muddy roads with dirty legs, they should be immediately

cleaned, the dirt brushed off, then rubbed with straw; then, if very

dirty, washed clean and rubbed dry with a piece of sacking. A horse

should never stand in a draught of cold air, if he can not turn and put

his back to it. If sweaty or warm from work, he should be blanketed, if

he is to stand a minute in the winter air. If put at once into the

stable, he should be stripped and rubbed down with straw actively for

five minutes or more, and then blanketed. The blanket must be removed in

an hour, and the horse given water and feed, if it is the usual time. It

will not hurt him to eat hay when hot, unless he be thoroughly

exhausted, when all food should be withheld for a while.

It is very comforting to a tired horse, when he is too hot to drink,

to sponge out his mouth with cool water. A horse should never drink

when very hot, nor be turned into a yard to "cool off," even in summer,

neither should he be turned out to pasture before he is quite cool.

_Cows_.--Gentle but firm treatment will make a cow easy to milk

and to handle in every way. If stabled or yarded, cows should have

access to water at all times, or have it frequently offered to them.

Clover hay is probably the best steady food for milk cows. Cornstalks

cut up, thoroughly soaked with water for half a day, and then sprinkled

with corn or oil-cake meal is perhaps unsurpassed as good winter food

for milk cows. The amount of meal may vary. With plenty of oil-meal,

there is little danger of feeding too much, as that is loosening to

the bowels and a safe nutritious article. Corn-meal alone, in large

quantities, is too heating. Roots should, if possible, form part of

the diet of a milch cow, especially before and soon after calving;

feed well before this period, yet not to make the cow very fat; but

it is better to err in that way than to have her "come in" thin. Take

the calf away from the mother as soon as it stands tip, and the

separation will worry neither dam nor young. This is always best,

unless the calf is to be kept with the cow. The calf will soon learn

to drink its food, if two fingers be held in its mouth. Let it have

all the first drawn milk for three days as soon as milked; after this,

skimmed milk warmed to blood heat. Soon a little fine scalded meal may

be mixed with the milk; and it will, at three to five weeks old, nibble

hay and grass. It is well also to keep a box containing some dry

wheat-bran and fine corn-meal mixed in the calf-pen, so that calves

may take as much as they like.