[1] The comte de Franqueville comments on the misuse of the title
"Lord" in addressing judges as another anomaly which only adds to the
confusion, but perhaps unnecessarily. According to Foss (vol. viii.
p. 200) it was only in the 18th century that the judges began to be
addressed by the title of "Your Lordship." In the Year Books (he
adds) they are constantly addressed by the title of "Sir." "Sir, vous
voyez bien," &c.
CHANDA, a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur division of
the Central Provinces. In 1901 the town had a population of 17,803. It
is situated at the junction of the Virai and Jharpat rivers. It was the
capital of the Gond kingdom of Chanda, which was established on the
ruins of a Hindu state in the 11th or 12th century, and survived until
1751 (see GONDWANA). The town is still surrounded by a stone wall
5-1/2m. in circuit. It has several old temples and tombs, and the
district at large is rich in remains of antiquity. There are
manufactures of cotton, silk, brass-ware and leather slippers, and a
considerable local trade.
The DISTRICT OF CHANDA has an area of 10,156 sq. m. Excepting in the
extreme west, hills are thickly dotted over the country, sometimes in
detached ranges, occasionally in isolated peaks rising sheer out from
the plain. Towards the east they increase in height, and form a broad
tableland, at places 2000 ft. above sea-level. The Wainganga river flows
through the district from north to south, meeting the Wardha river at
Seoni, where their streams unite to form the Pranhita. Chanda is thickly
studded with fine tanks, or rather artificial lakes, formed by closing
the outlets of small valleys, or by throwing a dam across tracts
intersected by streams. The broad clear sheets of water thus created are
often very picturesque in their surroundings of wood and rock. The chief
architectural objects of interest are the cave temples at Bhandak,
Winjbasani, Dewala and Ghugus; a rock temple in the bed of the Wardha
river below Ballalpur; the ancient temples at Markandi, Ambgaon and
elsewhere; the forts of Wairagarh and Ballalpur; and the old walls of
the city of Chanda, its system of waterworks, and the tombs of the Gond
kings. In 1901 the population was 601,533, showing a decrease of 15% in
the decade. The principal crops are rice, millet, pulse, wheat,
oil-seeds and cotton. The district contains the coalfield of Warora,
which was worked by government till 1906, when it was closed. Other
fields are known, and iron ores also occur. The district suffered
severely from famine in 1900, when in April the number of persons
relieved rose to 90,000.
CHANDAUSI, a town of British India, in the Moradabad district of the
United Provinces, 28 m. south of Moradabad. Pop. (1901) 25,711. It is an
important station on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, with a junction for
Aligarh. Its chief exports are of cotton, hemp, sugar and stone. There
is a factory for pressing cotton.
CHAND BARDAI (fl. c. 1200), Hindu poet, was a native of Lahore, but
lived at the court of Prithwi Raja (Prithiraj), the last Hindu sovereign
of Delhi. His _Prithiraj Rasau_, a poem of some 100,000 stanzas,
chronicling his master's deeds and the contemporary history of his part
of India, is valuable not only as historical material but as the
earliest monument of the Western Hindi language, and the first of the
long series of bardic chronicles for which Rajputana is celebrated. It
is written in ballad form, and portions of it are still sung by
itinerant bards throughout north-western India and Rajputana.
See Lieut.-Col. James Tod, _Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han_ (2
vols., London, 1829-1832; repub. by Lalit Mohan Auddy, 2 vols. ib.,
1894-1895), where good translations are given.
CHANDELIER, a frame of metal, wood, crystal, glass or china, pendent
from roof or ceiling for the purpose of holding lights. The word is
French, but the appliance has lost its original significance of a
candle-holder, the chandelier being now chiefly used for gas and
electric lighting. Clusters of hanging lights were in use as early as
the 14th century, and appear originally to have been almost invariably
of wood. They were, however, so speedily ruined by grease that metal was
gradually subsituted, and fine and comparatively early examples in
beaten iron, brass, copper and even silver are still extant. Throughout
the 17th century the hanging candle-holder of brass or bronze was common
throughout northern Europe, as innumerable pictures and engravings
testify. In the great periods of the art of decoration in France many
magnificent chandeliers were made by Boulle, and at a later date by
Gouthiere and Thomire and others among the extraordinarily clever
_fondeurs-ciseleurs_ of the second half of the 18th century. The
chandelier in rock crystal and its imitations had come in at least a
hundred years before their day, and continued in favour to the middle of
the 19th century, or even somewhat later. It reached at last the most
extreme elaboration of banality, with ropes of pendants and hanging
faceted drops often called lustres. When many lights were burning in one
of these chandeliers an effect of splendour was produced that was not
out of place in a ballroom, but the ordinary household varieties were
extremely ugly and inartistic. The more purely domestic chandelier
usually carries from two to six lights. The rapidly growing use of
electricity as an illuminating medium and the preference for smaller
clusters of lights have, however, pushed into the background an
appliance which had grown extremely commonplace in design, and had
become out of character with modern ideas of household decoration.
CHANDERNAGORE, or CHANDARNAGAR, a French settlement in India, with a
small adjoining territory, situated on the right bank of the river
Hugli, 20 m. above Calcutta, in 22 deg. 51' 40" N, and 88 deg. 24' 50"
E. Area 3 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 25,000. Chandernagore has played an
important part in the European history of Bengal. It became a permanent
French settlement, in 1688, but did not rise to any importance till the
time of Dupleix, during whose administration more than two thousand
brick houses were erected in the town and a considerable maritime trade
was carried on. In 1757 Chandernagore was bombarded by an English fleet
under Admiral Watson and captured; the fortifications and houses were
afterwards demolished. On peace being established the town was restored
to the French in 1763. When hostilities afterwards broke out in 1794, it
was again taken possession of by the English, and was held by them till
1816, when it was a second time given up to the French; it has ever
since remained in their possession. All the former commercial grandeur
of Chandernagore has now passed away, and at present it is little more
than a quiet suburb of Calcutta, without any external trade. The
European town is situated at the bottom of a beautiful reach of the
Hugli, with clean wide thoroughfares, and many elegant residences along
the river-bank. The authorities of Chandernagore are subject to the
jurisdiction of the governor-general of Pondicherry, to whom is confided
the general government of all the French possessions in India.
CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM (1828-1889), English scholar, was born in London
on the 31st of January 1828. In 1848 he entered Pembroke College,
Oxford, where he was elected fellow in 1853. In 1867 he succeeded H.L.
Mansel as Waynflete professor of moral and metaphysical philosophy, and
in 1884 was appointed curator of the Bodleian library. He died by his
own hand in Oxford on the 16th of May 1889. He was chiefly known as an
Aristotelian scholar, and his knowledge of the Greek commentators on
Aristotle was profound. He collected a vast amount of material for an
edition of the fragments of his favourite author, but on the appearance
of Valentine Rose's work in 1886 he abandoned the idea. Two works on the
bibliography of Aristotle, _A Catalogue of Editions of Aristotle's
Nicomachean Ethics and of Works illustrative of them printed in the 15th
century_ (1868), and _A Chronological Index to Editions of Aristotle's
Nicomachean Ethics, and of Works illustrative of them from the Origin of
Printing to 1799_ (1878), are of great value. Chandler's collection of
works on Aristotelian literature is now in the library of Pembroke
College. His _Practical Introduction to Greek Accentuation_ (1862, ed.
min. 1877) is the standard work in English.
CHANDLER, RICHARD (1738-1810), British antiquary, was born in 1738 at
Elson in Hampshire, and educated at Winchester and at Queen's and
Magdalen Colleges, Oxford. His first work consisted of fragments from
the minor Greek poets, with notes (_Elegiaca Graeca_, 1759); and in 1763
he published a fine edition of the Arundelian marbles, _Marmora
Oxoniensia_, with a Latin translation, and a number of suggestions for
supplying the lacunae. He was sent by the Dilettanti Society with
Nicholas Revett, an architect, and Pars, a painter, to explore the
antiquities of Ionia and Greece (1763-1766); and the result of their
work was the two magnificent folios of Ionian antiquities published in
1769. He subsequently held several church preferments, including the
rectory of Tylehurst, in Berkshire, where he died on the 9th of February
1810. Other works by Chandler were _Inscriptiones Antiquae pleraeque
nondum editae_ (Oxford, 1774); _Travels in Asia Minor_ (1775); _Travels
in Greece_ (1776); _History of Ilium_ (1803), in which he asserted the
accuracy of Homer's geography. His _Life of Bishop Waynflete_, lord high
chancellor to Henry VI., appeared in 1811.
A complete edition (with notes by Revett) of the _Travels in Asia
Minor and Greece_ was published by R. Churton (Oxford, 1825), with an
"Account of the Author."
CHANDLER, SAMUEL (1693-1766), English Nonconformist divine, was born in
1693 at Hungerford, in Berkshire, where his father was a minister. He
was sent to school at Gloucester, where he began a lifelong friendship
with Bishop Butler and Archbishop Secker; and he afterwards studied at
Leiden. His talents and learning were such that he was elected fellow of
the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and was made D.D. of Edinburgh and
Glasgow. He also received offers of high preferment in the Church of
England. These he refused, remaining to the end of his life in the
position of a Presbyterian minister. He was moderately Calvinistic in
his views and leaned towards Arianism. He took a leading part in the
deist controversies of the time, and discussed with some of the bishops
the possibility of an act of comprehension. From 1716 to 1726 he
preached at Peckham, and for forty years he was pastor of a
meeting-house in Old Jewry. During two or three years, having fallen
into pecuniary distress through the failure of the South Sea scheme, he
kept a book-shop in the Poultry. On the death of George II. in 1760
Chandler published a sermon in which he compared that king to King
David. This view was attacked in a pamphlet entitled _The History of the
Man after God's own Heart_, in which the author complained of the
parallel as an insult to the late king, and, following Pierre Bayle,
exhibited King David as an example of perfidy, lust and cruelty.
Chandler condescended to reply first in a review of the tract (1762) and
then in _A Critical History of the Life of David_, which is perhaps the
best of his productions. This work was just completed when he died, on
the 8th of May 1766. He left 4 vols. of sermons (1768), and a paraphrase
of the Epistles to the Galatians and Ephesians (1777), several works on
the evidences of Christianity, and various pamphlets against Roman
Catholicism.
CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH (1813-1879), American politician, was born at
Bedford, New Hampshire, on the 10th of December 1813. In 1833 he removed
to Detroit, Michigan, where he became a prosperous dry-goods merchant.
He took a prominent part as a Whig in politics (serving as mayor in
1851), and, impelled by his strong anti-slavery views, actively
furthered the work of the "Underground Railroad," of which Detroit was
one of the principal "transfer" points. He was one of the organizers in
Michigan of the Republican party, and in 1857 succeeded Lewis Cass in
the United States Senate, serving until 1875, and at once taking his
stand with the most radical opponents of slavery extension. When the
Civil War became inevitable he endeavoured to impress upon the North the
necessity of taking extraordinary measures for the preservation of the
Union. After the fall of Fort Sumter he advocated the enlistment of
500,000 instead of 75,000 men for a long instead of a short term, and
the vigorous enforcement of confiscation measures. In July 1862 he made
a bitter attack in the Senate on General George B. McClellan, charging
him with incompetency and lack of "nerve." Throughout the war he allied
himself with the most radical of the Republican faction in opposition to
President Lincoln's policy, and subsequently became one of the bitterest
opponents of President Johnson's plan of reconstruction. From October
1875 to March 1877 he was secretary of the interior in the cabinet of
President Grant, succeeding Columbus Delano (1809-1896). In 1876, as
chairman of the national republican committee, he managed the campaign
of Hayes against Tilden. In February 1879 he was re-elected to the
Senate to succeed Isaac P. Christiancy (1812-1890), and soon afterwards,
in a speech concerning Mexican War pensions, bitterly denounced
Jefferson Davis. He died at Chicago, Illinois, on the 1st of November
1879. By his extraordinary force of character he exercised a wide
personal influence during his lifetime, but failed to stamp his
personality upon any measure or policy of lasting importance.
CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF. The English title of Chandos began as a
barony in 1554, and was continued in the family of Brydges (becoming a
dukedom in 1719) till 1789. In 1822 the dukedom was revived in connexion
with that of Buckingham.
JOHN BRYDGES, 1st Baron Chandos (c. 1490-1557), a son of Sir Giles
Brydges, or Bruges (d. 1511), was a prominent figure at the English
court during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Mary. He took
part in suppressing the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyat in 1554, and as
lieutenant of the Tower of London during the earlier part of Mary's
reign, had the custody, not only of Lady Jane Grey and of Wyat, but for
a short time of the princess Elizabeth. He was created Baron Chandos of
Sudeley in 1554, one of his ancestors, Alice, being a grand-daughter of
Sir Thomas Chandos (d. 1375), and he died in March 1557. The three
succeeding barons, direct descendants of the 1st baron, were all members
of parliament and persons of some importance. Grey, 5th Baron Chandos
(c. 1580-1621), lord-lieutenant of Gloucestershire, was called the "king
of the Cotswolds," owing to his generosity and his magnificent style of
living at his residence, Sudeley Castle. He has been regarded by Horace
Walpole and others as the author of some essays, _Horae Subsecivae_. His
elder son George, 6th Baron Chandos (1620-1655), was a supporter of
Charles I. during his struggle with Parliament, and distinguished
himself at the first battle of Newbury in 1643. He had six daughters but
no sons, and after the death of his brother William in 1676 the barony
came to a kinsman, Sir James Brydges, Bart. (1642-1714), who was English
ambassador to Constantinople from 1680 to 1685.
JAMES BRYDGES, 1st duke of Chandos (1673-1744), son and heir of the
last-named, had been member of parliament for Hereford from 1698 to
1714, and, three days after his father's death, was created Viscount
Wilton and earl of Carnarvon. For eight years, from 1705 to 1713, during
the War of the Spanish Succession, he was paymaster-general of the
forces abroad, and in this capacity he amassed great wealth. In 1719 he
was created marquess of Carnarvon and duke of Chandos. The duke is
chiefly remembered on account of his connexion with Handel and with
Pope. He built a magnificent house at Canons near Edgware in Middlesex,
and is said to have contemplated the construction of a private road
between this place and his unfinished house in Cavendish Square, London.
For over two years Handel, employed by Chandos, lived at Canons, where
he composed his oratorio _Esther_. Pope, who in his _Moral Essays_
(_Epistle to the Earl of Burlington_) doubtless described Canons under
the guise of "Timon's Villa," referred to the duke in the line, "Thus
gracious Chandos is belov'd at sight"; but Swift, less complimentary,
called him "a great complier with every court." The poet was caricatured
by Hogarth for his supposed servility to the duke. Chandos, who was
lord-lieutenant of the counties of Hereford and Radnor, and chancellor
of the university of St Andrews, became involved in financial
difficulties, and after his death on the 9th of August 1744 Canons was
pulled down. He was succeeded by his son Henry, 2nd duke (1708-1771),
and grandson James, 3rd duke (1731-1789). On the death of the latter
without sons in September 1789 all his titles, except that of Baron
Kinloss, became extinct, although a claimant arose for the barony of
Chandos of Sudeley. The 3rd duke's only daughter, Anna Elizabeth, who
became Baroness Kinloss on her father's death, was married in 1796 to
Richard Grenville, afterwards marquess of Buckingham; and in 1822 this
nobleman was created duke of Buckingham and Chandos (see BUCKINGHAM,
DUKES OF).
See G.E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); and J.R. Robinson,
_The Princely Chandos_, i.e. the 1st duke (1893).
CHANDOS, SIR JOHN (?-1370), one of the most celebrated English
commanders of the 14th century. He is found at the siege of Cambrai in
1337, and at the battle of Crecy in 1346. At the battle of Poitiers, in
1356, it was he who decided the day and saved the life of the Black
Prince. For these services Edward III. made him a knight of the Garter,
gave him the lands of the viscount of Saint Sauveur in Cotentin, and
appointed him his lieutenant in France and vice-chamberlain of the royal
household. In 1362 he was made constable of Aquitaine, and won the
victories of Auray (1364) and Navaret in Spain (1367) over Duguesclin.
He was seneschal of Poitou in 1369, and was mortally wounded at the
bridge of Lussac near Poitiers on the 31st of December. He died on the
following day, the 1st of January 1370.
See Benjamin Fillon, "John Chandos, Connetable d'Aquitaine et Senechal
de Poitou," in the _Revue des provinces de l'ouest_ (1855).
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (reigned 321-296 B.C.), known to the Greeks as
Sandracottus, founder of the Maurya empire and first paramount ruler of
India, was the son of a king of Magadha by a woman of humble origin,
whose caste he took, and whose name, Mura, is said to have been the
origin of that of Maurya assumed by his dynasty. As a youth he was
driven into exile by his kinsman, the reigning king of Magadha. In the
course of his wanderings he met Alexander the Great, and, according to
Plutarch (_Alexander_, cap. 62), encouraged him to invade the Ganges
kingdom by enlarging on the extreme unpopularity of the reigning
monarch. During his exile he collected a large force of the warlike
clans of the north-west frontier, and on the death of Alexander attacked
the Macedonian garrisons and conquered the Punjab. He next attacked
Magadha, dethroned and slew the king, his enemy, with every member of
his family, and established himself on the throne (321). The great army
acquired from his predecessor he increased until it reached the total of
30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants, and 600,000 infantry; and with this huge
force he overran all northern India, establishing his empire from the
Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. In 305 Seleucus Nicator crossed the
Indus, but was defeated by Chandragupta and forced to a humiliating
peace (303), by which the empire of the latter was still farther
extended in the north. About six years later Chandragupta died, leaving
his empire to his son Bindusura.
An excellent account of the court and administrative system of
Chandragupta has been preserved in the fragments of Megasthenes, who
came to Pataliputra as the envoy of Seleucus shortly after 303. The
government was, of course, autocratic and even tyrannous, but it was
organized on an elaborate system, army and civil service being
administered by a series of boards, while the cities were governed by
municipal commissioners responsible for public order and the upkeep of
public works. Chandragupta himself is described as living in barbaric
splendour, appearing in public only to hear causes, offer sacrifice, or
to go on military and hunting expeditions, and withal so fearful of
assassination that he never slept two nights running in the same room.
See J.W. MacCrindle, _Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and
Arrian_ (Calcutta, 1877); V.A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_ (Oxford,
1908); also the articles INDIA: _History_, and INSCRIPTIONS: _Indian_.
CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THEODULE (1793-1877), French general, was born
at Autun on the 26th of April 1793. Educated at St Cyr, he served for a
short time in the bodyguard of Louis XVIII., and entered the line as a
lieutenant in January 1815. He achieved distinction in the Spanish
campaign of 1823, and became captain in 1825. In 1830 he entered the
Royal Guard and was sent to Africa, where he took part in the Mascara
expedition. Promoted commandant in 1835, he distinguished himself under
Marshal Clausel in the campaign against Ahmed Pasha, bey of Constantine,
and became lieutenant-colonel in 1837. The part he took in the
expedition of Portes-de-Fer gained him a colonelcy, and his success
against the Hajutas and Kabyles, the cross of the Legion of Honour.
Three more years of brilliant service in Africa won for him the rank of
_marechal de camp_ in 1840, and of lieutenant-general in 1843. In 1847
he held the Algiers divisional command. He visited France early in 1848,
assisted the provisional government to establish order, and returned to
Africa in May to succeed General Cavaignac in the government of Algeria.
He was speedily recalled on his election to the general assembly for the
department of the Seine, and received the command of the National Guard
of Paris, to which was added soon afterwards that of the troops in
Paris, altogether nearly 100,000 men. He held a high place and exercised
great influence in the complicated politics of the next two years. In
1849 he received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. An avowed
enemy of republican institutions, he held a unique position in upholding
the power of the president; but in January 1851 he opposed Louis
Napoleon's policy, was in consequence deprived of his double command,
and at the _coup d'etat_ in December was arrested and sent to Mazas,
until his banishment from France by the decree of the 9th of January
1852. He returned to France after the general amnesty, and resided in
his estate in the department of Saone-et-Loire. In 1870 he held no
command, but was present with the headquarters, and afterwards with
Bazaine in Metz. He was employed on an unsuccessful mission to Prince
Frederick Charles, commanding the German army which besieged Metz, and
on the capitulation became a prisoner of war. At the armistice he
returned to Paris, and in 1871 was elected to the National Assembly by
four departments, and sat for the Somme. He took an active part in
politics, defended the conduct of Marshal Bazaine, and served on the
committee which elaborated the monarchical constitution. When the comte
de Chambord refused the compromise, he moved the resolution to extend
the executive power for ten years to Marshal MacMahon. He was elected a
life senator in 1875. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1877.
CHANG-CHOW, a town of China, in the province of Fu-kien, on a branch of
the Lung Kiang, 35 m. W. of Amoy. It is surrounded by a wall 4-1/2 m. in
circumference, which, however, includes a good deal of open ground. The
streets are paved with granite, but are very dirty. The river is crossed
by a curious bridge, 800 ft. long, constructed of wooden planks
supported on twenty-five piles of stones about 30 ft. apart. The city is
a centre of the silk-trade, and carries on an extensive commerce in
different directions. Brick-works and sugar-factories are among its
chief industrial establishments. Its population is estimated at about
1,000,000.
CHANG CHUN, KIU (1148-1227), Chinese Taoist sage and traveller, was born
in 1148. In 1219 he was invited by Jenghiz Khan, founder of the Mongol
empire and greatest of Asiatic conquerors, to visit him. Jenghiz' letter
of invitation, dated the 15th of May 1219 (by present reckoning), has
been preserved, and is among the curiosities of history; here the
terrible warrior appears as a meek disciple of wisdom, modest and
simple, almost Socratic in his self-examination, alive to many of the
deepest truths of life and government. Chang Chun obeyed this summons;
and leaving his home in Shantung (February 1220) journeyed first to
Peking. Learning that Jenghiz had gone far west upon fresh conquests,
the sage stayed the winter in Peking. In February 1221 he started again
and crossed eastern Mongolia to the camp of Jenghiz' brother Ujughen,
near Lake Bor or Buyur in the upper basin of the Kerulun-Amur. Thence he
travelled south-westward up the Kerulun, crossed the Karakorum region in
north-central Mongolia, and so came to the Chinese Altai, probably
passing near the present Uliassutai. After traversing the Altai he
visited Bishbalig, answering to the modern Urumtsi, and moved along the
north side of the Tian Shan range to lake Sairam, Almalig (or Kulja),
and the rich valley of the Ili. We then trace him to the Chu, over this
river to Talas and the Tashkent region, and over the Jaxartes (or Syr
Daria) to Samarkand, where he halted for some months. Finally, through
the "Iron Gates" of Termit, over the Oxus, and by way of Balkh and
northern Afghanistan, Chang Chun reached Jenghiz' camp near the Hindu
Kush. Returning home he followed much the same course as on his outward
route: certain deviations, however, occur, such as a visit to
Kuku-khoto. He was back in Peking by the end of January 1224. From the
narrative of his expedition (the _Si yu ki_, written by his pupil and
companion Li Chi Chang) we derive some of the most faithful and vivid
pictures ever drawn of nature and man between the Great Wall of China
and Kabul, between the Aral and the Yellow Sea: we may particularly
notice the sketches of the Mongols, and of the people of Samarkand and
its neighbourhood; the account of the fertility and products of the
latter region, as of the Ili valley, at or near Almalig-Kulja; and the
description of various great mountain ranges, peaks and defiles, such as
the Chinese Altai, the Tian Shan, Mt Bogdo-ola (?), and the Iron Gates
of Termit. There is, moreover, a noteworthy reference to a land
apparently identical with the uppermost valley of the Yenisei. After his
return Chang Chun lived at Peking till his death on the 23rd of July
1227. By order of Jenghiz some of the former imperial garden grounds
were made over to him, for the foundation of a Taoist monastery.
See E. Bretschneider, _Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic
Sources_, vol. i. pp. 35-108, where a complete translation of the
narrative is given, with a valuable commentary; C.R. Beazley _Dawn of
Modern Geography_, iii. 539. (C. R. B.)
CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. _cambium, cambiare_,
to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which
appears in the Gr. [Greek: kamptein], to bend), properly the
substitution of one thing for another, hence any alteration or
variation, so applied to the moon's passing from one phase to another.
The use of the word for a place of commercial business has usually been
taken to be a shortened form of Exchange (q.v.) and so is often written
'Change. The _New English Dictionary_ points out that "change" appears
earlier than "exchange" in this sense. "Change" is particularly used of
coins of lower denomination given in substitution for those of larger
denomination or for a note, cheque, &c., and also for the balance of a
sum paid larger than that which is due. A further application is that in
bell-ringing, of the variations in order in which a peal of bells may be
rung. The term usually excludes the ringing of the bells according to
the diatonic scale in which they are hung (see BELL). It is from a
combination of these two meanings that the thieves' slang phrase
"ringing the changes" arises; it denotes the various methods by which
wrong change may be given or extracted, or counterfeit coin passed.
CHANGELING, the term used of a child substituted or changed for another,
especially in the case of substitutions popularly supposed to be through
fairy agency. There was formerly a widespread superstition that infants
were sometimes stolen from their cradles by the fairies. Any specially
peevish or weakly baby was regarded as a changeling, the word coming at
last to be almost synonymous with imbecility. It was thought that the
elves could only effect the exchange before christening, and in the
highlands of Scotland babies were strictly watched till then. Strype
states that in his time midwives had to take an oath binding themselves
to be no party to the theft or exchange of babies. The belief is
referred to by Shakespeare, Spenser and other authors. Pennant, writing
in 1796, says: "In this very century a poor cottager, who lived near the
spot, had a child who grew uncommonly peevish; the parents attributed
this to the fairies and imagined it was a changeling. They took the
child, put it in a cradle, and left it all night beneath the "Fairy Oak"
in hopes that the _tylwydd teg_ or fairy family would restore their own
before morning. When morning came they found the child perfectly quiet,
so went away with it, quite confirmed in their belief" (_Tour in
Scotland_, 1796, p. 257).
See W. Wirt Sikes, _British Goblins_ (1880).
CHANGOS, a tribe of South American Indians who appear to have originally
inhabited the Peruvian coast. A few of them still live on the coast of
Atacama, northern Chile. They are a dwarfish race, never exceeding 5 ft.
in height. Their sole occupation is fishing, and in former times they
used boats of inflated sealskins, lived in sealskin huts, and slept on
heaps of dried seaweed. They are a hospitable and friendly people, and
never resisted the whites.
CHANGRA, or KANGHARI (anc. _Gangra_; called also till the time of
Caracalla, _Germanicopolis_, after the emperor Claudius), the chief town
of a sanjak of the same name in the Kastamuni vilayet, Asia Minor,
situated in a rich, well-watered valley; altitude 2500 ft. The ground is
impregnated with salt, and the town is unhealthy. Pop. (1894) 15,632, of
whom 1086 are Christians (Cuinet). Gangra, the capital of the
Paphlagonian kingdom of Deiotarus Philadelphus, son of Castor, was taken
into the Roman province of Galatia on his death in 6-5 B.C. The earlier
town, the name of which signified "she-goat," was built on the hill
behind the modern city, on which are the ruins of a late fortress; while
the Roman city occupied the site of the modern. In Christian times
Gangra was the metropolitan see of Paphlagonia. In the 4th century the
town was the scene of an important ecclesiastical synod.
_Synod of Gangra._--Conjectures as to the date of this synod vary from
341 to 376. All that can be affirmed with certainty is that it was held
about the middle of the 4th century. The synodal letter states that
twenty-one bishops assembled to take action concerning Eustathius (of
Sebaste?) and his followers, who contemned marriage, disparaged the
offices of the church, held conventicles of their own, wore a peculiar
dress, denounced riches, and affected especial sanctity. The synod
condemned the Eustathian practices, declaring however, with remarkable
moderation, that it was not virginity that was condemned, but the
dishonouring of marriage; not poverty, but the disparagement of honest
and benevolent wealth; not asceticism, but spiritual pride; not
individual piety, but dishonouring the house of God. The twenty canons
of Gangra were declared ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451.
See Mansi ii. pp. 1095-1122; Hardouin i. pp. 530-540; Hefele 2nd ed.,
i. pp. 777 sqq. (English trans. ii. pp. 325 sqq.).
CHANNEL ISLANDS (French _Iles Normandes_), a group of islands in the
English Channel, belonging (except the Iles Chausey) to Great Britain.
(For map, see ENGLAND, Section VI.) They lie between 48 deg. 50' and 49
deg. 45' N., and 1 deg. 50' and 2 deg. 45' W., along the French coast of
Cotentin (department of Manche), at a distance of 4 to 40 m. from it,
within the great rectangular bay of which the northward horn is Cape La
Hague. The greater part of this bay is shallow, and the currents among
the numerous groups of islands and rocks are often dangerous to
navigation. The nearest point of the English coast to the Channel
Islands is Portland Bill, a little over 50 m. north of the northernmost
outlier of the islands. The total land area of the islands is about 75
sq. m. (48,083 acres), and the population in 1901 was 95,618. The
principal individual islands are four:--JERSEY (area 45 sq. m., pop.
52,576), GUERNSEY (area 24.5 sq. m., pop. 40,446), ALDERNEY (area 3.06
sq. m., pop. 2062), and SARK (area nearly 2 sq. m., pop. 504). Each of
these islands is treated in a separate article. The chief town and port
of Jersey is St Helier, and of Guernsey St Peter Port; a small town on
Alderney is called St Anne. Regular communication by steamer with
Guernsey and Jersey is provided on alternate days from Southampton and
Weymouth, by steamers of the London & South-Western and Great Western
railway companies of England. Railway communications within the islands
are confined to Jersey. Regular steamship communications are kept up
from certain French ports, and locally between the larger islands. In
summer the islands, especially Jersey, Guernsey and Sark, are visited by
numerous tourists, both from England and from France.
The islands fall physically into four divisions. The northernmost, lying
due west of Cape La Hague, and separated therefrom by the narrow Race of
Alderney, includes that island, Burhou and Ortach, and numerous other
islets west of it, and west again the notorious Casquets, an angry group
of jagged rocks, on the largest of which is a powerful lighthouse.
Doubtful tradition places here the wreck of the "White Ship," in which
William, son of Henry I., perished in 1120; in 1744 the "Victory," a
British man-of-war, struck on one of the rocks, and among calamities of
modern times the wreck of the "Stella," a passenger vessel, in 1899, may
be recalled. The second division of islands is also the most westerly;
it includes Guernsey with a few islets to the west, and to the east,
Sark, Herm, Jethou (inhabited islands) and others. The strait between
Guernsey and Herm is called Little Russel, and that between Herm and
Sark Great Russel. Sark is famous for its splendid cliffs and caves,
while Herm possesses the remarkable phenomenon of a shell-beach, or
shore, half-a-mile in length, formed wholly of small shells, which
accumulate in a tidal eddy formed at the north of the island. To the
south-east of these, across the channel called La Deroute, lies Jersey,
forming, with a few attendant islets, of which the Ecrehou to the
north-east are the chief, the third division. The fourth and
southernmost division falls into two main subdivisions. The Minquiers,
the more western, are a collection of abrupt rocks, the largest of
which, Maitresse Ile, affords a landing and shelter for fishermen. Then
eastern subdivision, the Iles Chausey, lies about 9 m. west by north of
Granville (to which commune they belong) on the French coast, and
belongs to France. These rocks are close set, low and curiously regular
in form. On Grande Ile, the only permanently inhabited island (pop.
100), some farming is carried on, and several of the islets are
temporarily inhabited by fishermen. There is also a little
granite-quarrying, and seaweed-burning employs many.
None of the islands is mountainous, and the fine scenery for which they
are famous is almost wholly coastal. In this respect each main island
has certain distinctive characteristics. Bold cliffs are found on the
south of Alderney; in Guernsey they alternate with lovely bays; Sark is
specially noted for its magnificent sea-caves, while the coast scenery
of Jersey is on the whole more gentle than the rest.
_Geology_.--Geologically, the Channel Islands are closely related to
the neighbouring mainland of Normandy. With a few exceptions, to be
noted later, all the rocks are of pre-Cambrian, perhaps in part of
Archean age. They consist of massive granites, gneisses, diorites,
porphyrites, schists and phyllites, all of which are traversed by
dykes and veins. In Jersey we find in the north-west corner a granitic
tract extending from Grosnez to St Mary and St John, beyond which it
passes into a small granulitic patch. South of the granites is a
schistose area, by St Ouen and St Lawrence, and reaching to St Aubin's
Bay. Granitic masses again appear round St Brelade's Bay. The eastern
half of the island is largely occupied by porphyrites and similar
rocks (hornstone porphyry) with rhyolites and denitrified obsidians;
some of the latter contain large spherulites with a diameter of as
much as 24 in.; these are well exposed in Bouley Bay; a complex
igneous and intrusive series of rocks lies around St Helier. In the
north-east corner of the island a conglomerate, possibly of Cambrian
age, occurs between Bouley Bay and St Catherine's Bay. Tracts of
blown-sand cover the ground for some distance north of St Clement's
Bay and again east of St Ouen's Bay. In the sea off the latter bay a
submerged forest occurs. The northern half of Guernsey is mainly
dioritic, the southern half, below St Peter, is occupied by gneisses.
Several patches of granite and granulite fringe the western coast, the
largest of these is a hornblende granite round Rocquaine Bay.
Hornblende gneiss from St Sampson and quartz diorite from Capelles,
Corvee and elsewhere are transported to England for road metal. Sark
is composed almost wholly of hornblende-schists and gneisses with
hornblendic granite at the north end of the island, in Little Sark and
in the middle of Brechou. Dykes of diabase and diorite are abundant.
Alderney consists mainly of hornblende granite and granulite, which
are covered on the east by two areas of sandstone which may be of
Cambrian age. An enstatite-augite-diorite is sent from Alderney for
road-making. Besides the submerged forest on the coast of Jersey
already mentioned, there are similar occurrences near St Peter Port
and St Sampson's harbour, and in Vazon Bay in Guernsey. Raised beaches
are to be seen at several points in the islands.
_Climate_.--The climate is mild and very pleasant. In Jersey the mean
temperature for twenty years is found to be--in January (the coldest
month) 42.1 deg. F., in August (the hottest) 63 deg., mean annual 51.7
deg. In Guernsey the figures are, for January 42.5 deg., for August 59.7
deg., mean annual 49.5 deg. The mean annual rainfall for twenty-five
years in Jersey is 34.21 in., and in Guernsey 38.64 in. The average
amount of sunshine in Jersey is considerably greater than in the most
favoured spots on the south coast of England; and in Guernsey it is only
a little less than in Jersey. Snow and frost are rare, and the seasons
of spring and autumn are protracted. Thick sea-fogs are not uncommon,
especially in May and June.
_Flora and Fauna._--The flora of the islands is remarkably rich,
considering their extent, nearly 2000 different species of plants having
been counted throughout the group. Of timber properly speaking there is
little, but the evergreen oak, the elm and the beech are abundant. Wheat
is the principal grain in cultivation; but far more ground is taken up
with turnips and potatoes, mangold, parsnip and carrot. The tomato
ripens as in France, and the Chinese yam has been successfully grown.
There is a curious cabbage, chiefly cultivated in Jersey, which shoots
up into a long woody stalk from 10 to 15 ft. in height, fit for
walking-sticks or palisades. Grapes and peaches come to perfection in
greenhouses without artificial heat; and not only apples and pears but
oranges and figs can be reared in the open air. The arbutus ripens its
fruit, and the camellia clothes itself with blossom, as in more southern
climates; the fuchsia reaches a height of 15 or 20 ft., and the magnolia
attains the dimensions of a tree. Of the flowers, both indigenous and
exotic, that abound throughout the islands, it is sufficient to mention
the Guernsey lily with its rich red petals, which is supposed to have
been brought from Japan.
The number of the species of the mammalia is little over twenty, and
several of these have been introduced by man. There is a special breed
of horned cattle, and each island has its own variety, which is
carefully kept from all intermixture. The animals are small and
delicate, and marked by a peculiar yellow colour round the eyes and
within the ears. The red deer was once indigenous, and the black rat is
still common in Alderney, Sark and Herm. The list of birds includes
nearly 200 species, nearly 100 of which are permanent inhabitants of the
islands. There are few localities in the northern seas which are visited
by a greater variety of fish, and the coasts abound in crustacea,
shell-fish and zoophytes.
_Government_.--For the purposes of government the Channel Islands
(excluding the French Chauseys) are divided into two divisions:--(1)
Jersey, and (2) the bailiwick of Guernsey, which includes Alderney,
Sark, Herm and Jethou with the island of Guernsey. The constitutions of
each division are peculiar and broadly similar, but differing in certain
important details; they may therefore be considered together for the
sake of comparison. Until 1854 governors were appointed by the crown;
now a separate military lieutenant-governor is appointed for each
division on the recommendation of the war office after consultation with
the home office. The other crown officials are the bailiff (_bailli_)
or chief magistrate, the _procureur du roi_, representing the
attorney-general, and the _avocat du roi_, or in Guernsey the
_controle_, representing the solicitor-general. In Jersey the _vicomte_
is also appointed by the crown, in the position of a high sheriff (and
coroner); but his counterpart in Guernsey, the _prevot_, is not so
appointed. The bailiff in each island is president of the royal court,
which is composed of twelve jurats, elected for life, in Jersey by the
ratepayers of each parish, in Guernsey by the Elective States, a body
which also elects the _prevot_, who, with the jurats, serves upon it.
The rest of the body is made up of the rectors of the parishes, the
_douzaines_, or elected parish councils ("dozens," from the original
number of their members) of the town parish of St Peter Port, the four
cantons, and the county parishes, and certain other officials. The royal
court administers justice (but in Jersey there is a trial by jury for
criminal cases), and in Guernsey can pass temporary ordinances subject
to no higher body. It also puts forward _projets de loi_ for the
approval of the Deliberative States. Alderney and Sark have a separate
legal existence with courts dependent on the royal court of Guernsey. In
both Jersey and Guernsey the chief administrative body is the
Deliberative States. The Jersey States is composed of the
lieutenant-governor (who has a veto on the deliberation of any question,
but no vote), the bailiff, jurats, parish rectors, parish constables and
deputies, the _procureur_ and _avocat_, with right to speak but no vote,
and the _vicomte_, with right of attendance only. Besides the veto of
the lieutenant-governor, the bailiff has the power to dissent from any
measure, in which case it is referred to the privy council. In Guernsey
the States consists of the bailiff, jurats, eight out of ten rectors,
the _procureur_ and deputies; while the lieutenant-governor is always
invited and may speak if he attends. By both States local administration
is carried on (largely through committees); and relations with the
British parliament are maintained through the privy council. Acts of
parliament are transmitted to the islands by an order in council to be
registered in the rolls of the royal court, and are not considered to be
binding until this is done; moreover, registration may be held over
pending discussion by the States if any act is considered to menace the
privileges of the islands. The right of the crown to legislate by order
in council is held to be similarly limited. In cases of encroachment on
property, a remarkable form of appeal of very ancient origin called
_Clameur de Haro_ survives (see HARO, CLAMEUR DE). The islands are in
the diocese of Winchester, and there is a dean in both Jersey and
Guernsey, who is also rector of a parish.
These peculiar constitutions are of local development, the history of
which is obscure. The bailiff was originally assisted in his judicial
work by itinerant justices; their place was later taken by the elected
jurats; later still the practice of summoning the States to assist in
the passing of Ordinances was established by the bailiff and jurats, and
at last the States claimed the absolute right of being consulted. This
was confirmed to them in 1771.
It is characteristic of these islands that there should be compulsory
service in the militia. In Jersey and Alderney every man between the
ages of sixteen and forty-five is liable, but in Jersey after ten years'
service militiamen are transferred to the reserve. In Guernsey the age
limit is from sixteen to thirty-three, and the obligation is extended to
all who are British subjects, and draw income from a profession
practised in the island. Garrisons of regular troops are maintained in
all three islands. Taxation is light in the islands, and pauperism is
practically unknown.
In 1904 the revenue of Jersey was L70,191, and its expenditure
L69,658; the revenue of Guernsey was L79,334, and the expenditure
L43,385. The public debt in the respective islands was L322,070 and
L195,794. In Jersey the annual revenues from crown rights (principally
seigneurial dues, houses and lands and tithes) amount to about L2700,
and about L360 is remitted to the paymaster-general. In Guernsey these
revenues, in which the principal item is fines on transference of
property (_treiziemes_ or fees), amount to about L4500, and about
L1000 is remitted. In Alderney the revenues (chiefly from harbour
dues) amount to about L1400.
In Jersey the English gold and silver coinage are current, but there
is a local copper coinage and local one-pound notes are issued.
Guernsey has also such notes, and its copper coinage consists of
pence, halfpence, two-double and one-double (one-eighth of a penny)
pieces. A Guernsey pound is taken as equal to 24 francs, and English
and French currency pass equally throughout the islands.
_Industry_.--The old Norman system of land-tenure has survived, and the
land is parcelled out among a great number of small proprietors;
holdings ranging from 5 to 25 acres as a rule. The results of this
arrangement seem to be favourable in the extreme. Every corner of the
ground is carefully and intelligently cultivated, and a considerable
proportion is allotted to market-gardening. The cottages are neat and
comfortable, the hedges well-trimmed, and the roads kept in excellent
repair. There is a considerable export trade in agricultural produce and
stock, including vegetables and fruit, in fish (the fisheries forming an
important industry) and in stone. There is no manufacture of importance.
The inhabitants share in common the right of collecting and burning
seaweed (called _vraic_) for manure. The cutting of the weed (vraicking)
became a ceremonial occasion, taking place at times fixed by the
government, and connected with popular festivities.
_Language_.--The language spoken in ordinary life by the inhabitants of
the islands is in great measure the same as the old Norman French. The
use of the _patois_ has decreased naturally in modern times. Modern
French is the official language, used in the courts and states, and
English is taught in the parochial schools, and is familiar practically
to all. The several islands have each its own dialect, differing from
that of the others in vocabulary and idiom; differences are also
observable in different localities within the same island, as between
the north and the south of Guernsey. None of the dialects has received
much literary cultivation, though Jersey is proud of being the
birthplace of one of the principal Norman poets, Wace, who flourished in
the 12th century.
_History_.--The original ethnology and pre-Christian history of the
Channel Islands are largely matters of conjecture and debate. Of early
inhabitants abundant proof is afforded by the numerous megalithic
monuments--cromlechs, kistvaens and maenhirs--still extant. But little
trace has been left of Roman occupation, and such remains as have been
discovered are mainly of the portable description that affords little
proof of actual settlement, though there may have been an unimportant
garrison here. The constant recurrence of the names of saints in the
place-names of the islands, and the fact that pre-Christian names do not
occur, leads to the inference that before Christianity was introduced
the population was very scanty. It may be considered to have consisted
originally of Bretons (Celts), and to have received successively a
slight admixture of Romans and Legionaries, Saxons and perhaps Jutes and
Vandals. Christianity may have been introduced in the 5th century.
Guernsey is said to have been visited in the 6th century by St Sampson
of Dol (whose name is given to a small town and harbour in the island),
St Marcou or Marculfus and St Magloire, a friend and fellow-evangelist
of St Sampson, who founded monasteries at Sark and at Jersey, and died
in Jersey in 575. Another evangelist of this period was St Helerius,
whose name is borne by the chief town of Jersey, St Helier. In his life
it is stated that the population of the island when he reached it was
only 30. In 933 the islands were made over to William, duke of Normandy
(d. 943), and after the Norman conquest of England their allegiance
shifted between the English crown and the Norman coronet according to
the vicissitudes of war and policy. During the purely Norman period they
had been enriched with numerous ecclesiastical buildings, some of which
are still extant, as the chapel of Rozel in Jersey.
In the reign of John of England the future of the islands was decided by
their attachment to the English crown, in spite of the separation of the
duchy of Normandy. To John it has been usual to ascribe a document, at
one time regarded by the islanders as their Magna Carta; but modern
criticism leaves little doubt that it is not genuine. An unauthenticated
"copy" of uncertain origin alone has been discovered, and there is
little proof of there ever having been an original. The reign of Edward
I. was full of disturbance; and in 1279 Jersey and Guernsey received
from the king, by letters patent, a public seal as a remedy for the
dangers and losses which they had incurred by lack of such a
certificate. Edward II. found it necessary to instruct his collectors
not to treat the islanders as foreigners: his successor, Edward III.,
fully confirmed their privileges, immunities and customs in 1341; and
his charter was recognized by Richard II. in 1378. In 1343 there was a
descent of the French on Guernsey; the governor was defeated, and Castle
Cornet besieged. In 1372 there was another attack on Guernsey, and in
1374 and 1404 the French descended on Jersey. None of these attempts,
however, resulted in permanent settlement. Henry V. confiscated the
alien priories which had kept up the same connexion with Normandy as
before the conquest, and conferred them along with the regalities of the
islands on his brother, the duke of Bedford. During the Wars of the
Roses, Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., made an agreement with
Pierre de Breze, comte de Maulevrier, the seneschal of Normandy, that if
he afforded assistance to the king he should hold the islands
independently of the crown. A force was accordingly sent to take
possession of Mont Orgueil. It was captured and a small part of the
island subjugated, and here Maulevrier remained as governor from 1460 to
1465; but the rest held out under Sir Philip de Carteret, seigneur of St
Ouen, and in 1467 the vice-admiral of England, Sir Richard Harliston,
recaptured the castle and brought the foreign occupation to an end. In
1482-1483 Pope Sixtus IV., at the instance of King Edward IV., issued a
bull of anathema against all who molested the islands; it was formally
registered in Brittany in 1484, and in France in 1486; and in this way
the islands acquired the right of neutrality, which they retained till
1689. In the same reign (Edward IV.) Sark was taken by the French, and
only recovered in the reign of Mary, by the strategy (according to
tradition) of landing from a vessel a coffin nominally containing a body
for burial, but in reality filled with arms. By a charter of 1494, the
duties of the governors of Jersey were defined and their power
restricted; and the educational interests of the island were furthered
at the same time by the foundation of two grammar schools. The religious
establishments in the islands were dissolved, as in England, in the
reign of Henry VIII. The Reformation was heartily welcomed in the
islands. The English liturgy was translated into French for their use.
In the reign of Mary there was much religious persecution; and in that
of Elizabeth Roman Catholics were maltreated in their turn. In 1568 the
islands were attached to the see of Winchester, being finally separated
from that of Coutances, with which they had long been connected, with
short intervals in the reign of John, when they had belonged to the see
of Exeter, and that of Henry VI., when they had belonged to Salisbury.
The Presbyterian form of church government was adopted under the
influence of refugees from the persecution of Protestantism on the
continent. It was formally sanctioned in St Helier and St Peter Port by
Queen Elizabeth; and in 1603 King James enacted that the whole of the
islands "should quietly enjoy their said liberty." During his reign,
however, disputes arose. An Episcopal party had been formed in Jersey,
and in 1619 David Bandinel was declared dean of the island. A body of
canons which he drew up agreeable to the discipline of the Church of
England was accepted after considerable modification by the people of
his charge; but the inhabitants of Guernsey maintained their
Presbyterian practices. Of the hold which this form of Protestantism had
got on the minds of the people even in Jersey abundant proof is afforded
by the general character of the worship at the present day.
In the great struggle between king and parliament, Presbyterian Guernsey
supported the parliament; in Jersey, however, there were at first
parliamentarian and royalist factions. Sir Philip de Carteret,
lieutenant-governor, declared for the king, but Dean Bandinel and
Michael Lempriere, a leader of the people, headed the parliamentary
party. They received a commission for the apprehension of Carteret, who
established himself in Elizabeth Castle; but after some fighting had
taken place he died in the castle in August 1643. Meanwhile in Guernsey
Sir Peter Osborne, the governor, was defying the whole island and
maintaining himself in Castle Cornet. A parliamentarian governor,
Leonard Lydcott, arrived in Jersey immediately after Sir Philip de
Carteret's death. But the dowager Lady Carteret was holding Mont
Orgueil; George Carteret, Sir Philip's nephew, arrived from St Malo to
support the royalist cause, and Lydcott and Lempriere presently fled to
England. George Carteret established himself as lieutenant-governor and
bailiff. Bandinel was imprisoned in Mont Orgueil, and killed himself in
trying to escape. Jersey was now completely royalist. In 1646 the prince
of Wales, afterwards Charles II., arrived secretly at Jersey, and
remained over two months at Elizabeth Castle. He went on to France, but
returned in 1649, having been proclaimed king by George Carteret, and at
Elizabeth Castle he signed the declaration of his claims to the throne
on the 29th of October. In 1651, when Charles had fled to France again
after the battle of Worcester, parliamentarian vessels of war appeared
at Jersey. The islanders, weary of the tyrannical methods of their
governor, now Sir George Carteret, offered little resistance. On the
15th of December the royalist remnant yielded up Elizabeth Castle; and
at the same time Castle Cornet, Guernsey, which had been steadily held
by Osborne, capitulated. In each case honourable terms of surrender were
granted. Both islands had suffered severely from the struggle, and the
people of Guernsey, appealing to Cromwell on the ground of their support
of his cause, complained that two-thirds of the land was out of
cultivation, and that they had lost "their ships, their traffic and
their trading." After the Restoration there was considerable
improvement, and in the reign of James II. the islanders got a grant of
wool for the manufacture of stockings--4000 tods[1] of wool being
annually allowed to Jersey, 2000 to Guernsey, 400 to Alderney and 200 to
Sark. Alderney, which had been parliamentarian, was granted after the
Restoration to the Carteret family; and it continued to be governed
independently till 1825.
By William of Orange the neutrality of the islands was abolished in
1689, and during the war between England and France (1778-1783) there
were two unsuccessful attacks on Jersey, in 1779 and 1781, the second,
under Baron de Rullecourt, being famous for the victory over the
invaders due to the bravery of the young Major Peirson, who fell when
the French were on the point of surrender. During the revolutionary
period in France the islands were the home of many refugees. In the 18th
century various attempts were made to introduce the English custom-house
system; but proved practically a failure, and the islands throve on
smuggling and privateering down to 1800.
AUTHORITIES.--Heylin, _Relation of two Journeys_ (1656); P. Falle,
_Account of the Island of Jersey_ (1694; notes, &c., by E. Durell,
Jersey, 1837); J. Duncan, _History of Guernsey_ (London, 1841); P. le
Geyt, _Sur les constitutions, les lois et les usages de cette ile_
[Jersey], ed. R.P. Marett (Jersey, 1846-1847); F.B. Tupper,
_Chronicles of Castle Cornet, Guernsey_ (2nd ed. London, 1851), and
_History of Guernsey and its Bailiwick_ (Guernsey, 1854); S.E.
Hoskins, _Charles II. in the Channel Islands_ (London, 1854), and
other works; Delacroix, _Jersey, ses antiquites, &c._ (Jersey, 1859);
T. le Cerf, _L'archipel des Iles Normandes_ (Paris, 1863); G. Dupont,
_Le Cotentin et ses iles_ (Caen, 1870-1885); J.P.E. Havet, _Les Cours
royales des Iles Normandes_ (Paris, 1878); E. Pegot-Ogier, _Histoire
des Iles de la Manche_ (Paris, 1881); C. Noury, _Geologie de Jersey_
(Paris and Jersey, 1886); D.T. Ansted and R.G. Latham, _Channel
Islands_ (1865; 3rd ed., rev. by E.T. Nicolle, London, 1893), the
principal general work of reference; Sir E. MacCulloch, _Guernsey
Folklore_, ed. Edith F. Carey (London, 1903); E.F. Carey, _Channel
Islands_ (London, 1904).