Upper Chalk, with flints_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Cerargyrite" to "Charing Cross" Volume 5, Slice 7

/ chalk rock

Lower Chalk < chalk with few flints

\ chalk without flints

Chalk Marl / Totternhoe stone

\ " marl

In France, a similar system of classification was in vogue, the

subdivisions being _craie blanche_, _craie tufan_, _craie chloritee_,

until 1843 when d'Orbigny proposed the term _Senonien_ for the Upper

Chalk and _Turonien_ for the Lower; later he divided the _Turonien_,

giving the name _Cenomanien_ to the lower portion. The subdivisions of

d'Orbigny were based upon the fossil contents and not upon the

lithological characters of the rocks. In 1876 Prof. Ch. Barrois showed

how d'Orbigny's classification might be applied to the British chalk

rocks; and this scheme has been generally adopted by geologists,

although there is some divergence of opinion as to the exact position

of the base line of the Cenomanian.

The accompanying table shows the classification now adopted in

England, with the zonal fossils and the continental names of the substages:--

+-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+

+-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+

|B.< " _cor-testudinarium_ | | | and |

+-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+ | (not |

+-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+ | ites_. |

| _Holaster subglobosus_, Totternhoe stone. | | | |

+-----------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------+-----------+

* (See table in article CRETACEOUS SYSTEM,)

Since Prof. Barrois introduced the zonal system of subdivision (C. Evans

had used a similar scheme six years earlier), our knowledge of the

English chalk has been greatly increased by the work of Jukes-Browne and

William Hill, and particularly by the laborious studies of Dr A.W. Rowe.

Instead of employing the mixed assemblage of animals indicated as zone

fossils in the table, A. de Grossouvre proposed a scheme for the north

of France based upon ammonite faunas alone, which he contended would be

of more general applicability (_Recherches sur la Craie Superieure_,

Paris, 1901).

The Upper Chalk has a maximum thickness in England of about 1000 ft.,

but post-cretaceous erosion has removed much of it in many districts. It

is more constant in character, and more typically chalky than the lower

stages; flints are abundant, and harder nodular beds are limited to the

lower portions, where some of the compact limestones are known as "chalk

rock." The thickness of the Middle Chalk varies from about 100 to 240

ft.; flints become scarcer in descending from the upper to the lower

portions. The whole is more compact than the upper stage, and nodular

layers are more frequent--the "chalk rock" of Dorset and the Isle of

Wight belong to this stage. At the base is the hard "Melbourne rock."

The thickness of the Lower Chalk in England varies from 60 to 240 ft.

This stage includes part of the "white chalk without flints," the "chalk

marl," and the "grey chalk." The Totternhoe stone is a hard freestone

found locally in this stage. The basement bed in Norfolk is a pure

limestone, but very frequently it is marly with grains of sand and

glauconite, and often contains phosphatic nodules; this facies is

equivalent to the "Cambridge Greensand" of some districts and the

"chloritic marl" of others. In Devonshire the Lower Chalk has become

thin sandy calcareous series.

The chalk can be traced in England from Flamborough Head in Yorkshire,

in a south-westerly direction, to the coast of Dorset; and it not only

underlies the whole of the S.E. corner, where it is often obscured by

Tertiary deposits, but it can be followed across the Channel into

northern France. Rocks of the same age as the chalk are widespread (see

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM); but the variety of limestone properly called by this

name is almost confined to the Anglo-Parisian basin. Some chalk occurs

in the great Cretaceous deposits of Russia, and in Kansas, Iowa,

Nebraska and S. Dakota in the United States. Hard white chalk occurs in

Ireland in Antrim, and on the opposite shore of Scotland in Mull and

Morven.

_Economic Products of the Chalk._--Common chalk has been frequently used

for rough building purposes, but the more important building stones are

"Beer stone," from Beer Head in Devonshire, "Sutton stone" from a little

north of Beer, and the "Totternhoe stone." It is burned for lime, and

when mixed with some form of clay is used for the manufacture of cement;

chalk marl has been used alone for this purpose. As a manure, it has

been much used as a dressing for clayey land. Flints from the chalk are

used for road metal and concrete, and have been employed in building as

a facing for walls. Phosphatic nodules for manure have been worked from

the chloritic marl and Cambridge Greensand, and to some extent from the

Middle Chalk. The same material is worked at Ciply in Belgium and

Picardy in France. Chalk is employed in the manufacture of carbonate of

soda, in the preparation of carbon dioxide, and in many other chemical

processes; also for making paints, crayons and tooth-powder. _Whiting_

or _Spanish white_, used to polish glass and metal, is purified chalk

prepared by triturating common chalk with a large quantity of water,

which is then decanted and allowed to deposit the finely-divided

particles it holds in suspension.

_Chalk Scenery._--Where exposed at the surface, chalk produces rounded,

smooth, grass-covered hills as in the Downs of southern England and the

Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The hills are often intersected by

clean-cut dry valleys. It forms fine cliffs on the coast of Kent,

Yorkshire and Devonshire.

Chalk is employed medicinally as a very mild astringent either alone or

more usually with other astringents. It is more often used, however, for

a purely mechanical action, as in the preparation hydrargyrum cum creta.

As an antacid its use has been replaced by other drugs.

_Black chalk_ or _drawing slate_ is a soft carbonaceous schist, which

gives a black streak, so that it can be used for drawing or writing.

_Brown chalk_ is a kind of umber. _Red chalk_ or _reddle_ is an impure

earthy variety of haematite. _French chalk_ is a soft variety of

steatite, a hydrated magnesium silicate.

The most comprehensive account of the British chalk is contained in

the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom_, "The

Cretaceous Rocks of Britain," vol. ii. 1903, vol. iii. 1904 (with

bibliography), by Jukes-Browne and Hill. See also "The White Chalk of

the English Coast," several papers in the _Proceedings of the

Geologists' Association_, London, (1) Kent and Sussex, xvi. 1900, (2)

Dorset, xvii., 1901, (3) Devon, xviii., 1903, (4) Yorkshire, xviii.,

1904. (J. A. H.)

CHALKHILL, JOHN (fl. 1600?), English poet. Two songs by him are included

in Izaak Walton's _Compleat Angler_, and in 1683 appeared "Thealma and

Clearchus. A Pastoral History in smooth and easie Verse. Written long

since by John Chalkhill, Esq., an Acquaintant and Friend of Edmund

Spencer" (1683), with a preface written five years earlier by Walton.

Another poem, "Alcilia, Philoparthens Loving Follie" (1595, reprinted in

vol. x. of the _Jahrbuch des deutschen Shakespeare-Vereins_), was at one

time attributed to him. Nothing further is known of the poet, but a

person of his name occurs as one of the coroners for Middlesex in the

later years of Queen Elizabeth's reign. Professor Saintsbury, who

included _Thealma and Clearchus_ in vol. ii. of his _Minor Poets of the

Caroline Period_ (Oxford, 1906), points out a marked resemblance between

his work and that of William Chamberlayne.

CHALKING THE DOOR, a Scottish custom of landlord and tenant law. In

former days the law was that "a burgh officer, in presence of witnesses,

chalks the most patent door forty days before Whit Sunday, having made

out an execution of 'chalking,' in which his name must be inserted, and

which must be subscribed by himself and two witnesses." This ceremony

now proceeds simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The execution

of chalking is a warrant under which decree of removal will be

pronounced by the burgh court, in virtue of which the tenant may be

ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days.

CHALLAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE MARIUS AUGUSTIN (1818-1894), French historian,

was born in Paris on the 18th of March 1818. His writings consist

chiefly of popular works, which enjoyed great success. The value of some

of his books is enhanced by numerous illustrations, e.g. _Histoire-musee

de la Revolution francaise_, which appeared in 50 numbers in 1841-1842

(3rd ed., in 72 numbers, 1857-1858); _Histoire de la mode en France; la

toilette des femmes depuis l'epoque gallo-romaine jusqu'a nos jours_

(1874, with 12 plates; new ed., 1880, with 21 coloured plates). His

_Memoires du peuple francaise_ (1865-1873) and _La France et les

Francais a travers les siecles_ (1882) at least have the merit of being

among the first books written on the social history of France. In this

sense Challamel was a pioneer, of no great originality, it is true, but

at any rate of fairly wide information. He died on the 20th of October

1894.

CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND (1827-1896), French statesman, was born at

Avranches on the 19th of May 1827. After passing through the Ecole

Normale Superieure he became professor of philosophy successively at Pau

and at Limoges. The _coup d'etat_ of 1851 caused his expulsion from

France for his republican opinions. He travelled on the continent, and

in 1856 settled down as professor of French literature at the

Polytechnic of Zurich. The amnesty of 1859 enabled him to return to

France, but a projected course of lectures on history and art was

immediately suppressed. He now supported himself by his pen, and became

a regular contributor to the reviews. On the fall of the Second Empire

in September 1870 the government of national defence appointed him

prefect of the department of the Rhone, in which capacity he had to

suppress the Communist rising at Lyons. Resigning his post on the 5th of

February 1871, he was in January 1872 elected to the National Assembly,

and in 1876 to the Senate. He sat at first on the Extreme Left; but his

philosophic and critical temperament was not in harmony with the

recklessness of French radicalism, and his attitude towards political

questions underwent a steady modification, till the close of his life

saw him the foremost representative of moderate republicanism. During

Gambetta's lifetime, however, Challemel-Lacour was one of his warmest

supporters, and he was for a time editor of Gambetta's organ, the

_Republique francaise_. In 1879 he was appointed French ambassador at

Bern, and in 1880 was transferred to London; but he lacked the

suppleness and command of temper necessary to a successful diplomatist.

He resigned in 1882, and in February 1883 became minister of foreign

affairs in the Jules Ferry cabinet, but retired in November of the same

year. In 1890 he was elected vice-president of the Senate, and in 1893

succeeded Jules Ferry as its president. His influence over that body was

largely due to his clear and reasoned eloquence, which placed him at the

head of contemporary French orators. In 1893 he also became a member of

the French Academy. He distinguished himself by the vigour with which he

upheld the Senate against the encroachments of the chamber, but in 1895

failing health forced him to resign, and he died in Paris on the 26th of

October 1896. He published a translation of A. Heinrich Ritter's

_Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1861); _La Philosophie individualiste:

etude sur Guillaume de Humboldt_ (1864); and an edition of the works of

Madame d'Epinay (1869).

In 1897 appeared Joseph Reinach's edition of the _OEuvres oratoires

de Challemel-Lacour_.

CHALLENGE (O. Fr. _chalonge, calenge_, &c., from Lat. _calumnia_,

originally meaning trickery, from _calvi_, to deceive, hence a false

accusation, a "calumny"), originally a charge against a person or a

claim to anything, a defiance. The term is now particularly used of an

invitation to a trial of skill in any contest, or to a trial by combat

as a vindication of personal honour (see DUEL), and, in law, of the

objection to the members of a jury allowed in a civil action or in a

criminal trial (see JURY).

"CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION. The scientific results of several short

expeditions between 1860 and 1870 encouraged the council of the Royal

Society to approach the British government, on the suggestion of Sir

George Richards, hydrographer to the admiralty, with a view to

commissioning a vessel for a prolonged cruise for oceanic exploration.

The government detailed H.M.S. "Challenger," a wooden corvette of 2306

tons, for the purpose. Captain (afterwards Sir) George Nares was placed

in command, with a naval crew; and a scientific staff was selected by

the society with Professor (afterwards Sir) C. Wyville Thomson as

director. The staff included Mr (afterwards Sir) John Murray and Mr H.N.

Moseley, biologists; Dr von Willemoes-Suhm, Commander Tizard, and Mr

J.Y. Buchanan, chemist and geologist. A complete scheme of instructions

was drawn up by the society. The "Challenger" sailed from Portsmouth in

December 1872. For nearly a year the work of the expedition lay in the

Atlantic, which was crossed several times. Teneriffe, the Bermudas, the

Azores, Madeira, the Cape Verd Islands, Bahia and Tristan da Cunha were

successively visited, and in October 1873 the ship reached Cape Town.

Steering then south-east and east she visited the various islands

between 45 deg. and 50 deg. S., and reached Kerguelen Island in January

1874. She next proceeded southward about the meridian of 80 deg. E. She

was the first steamship to cross the Antarctic circle, but the

attainment of a high southerly latitude was not an object of the voyage,

and early in March the ship left the south polar regions and made for

Melbourne. Extensive researches were now made in the Pacific. The route

led by New Zealand, the Fiji Islands, Torres Strait, the Banda Sea, and

the China Sea to Hong Kong. The western Pacific was then explored

northward to Yokohama, after which the "Challenger" struck across the

ocean by Honolulu and Tahiti to Valparaiso. She then coasted southward,

penetrated the Straits of Magellan, touched at Montevideo, recrossed the

Atlantic by Ascension and the Azores, and reached Sheerness in May 1876.

This voyage is without parallel in the history of scientific research.

The _"Challenger" Report_ was issued in fifty volumes (London,

1880-1895), mainly under the direction of Sir John Murray, who succeeded

Wyville Thomson in this work in 1882. Specialists in every branch of

science assisted in its production. The zoological collections alone

formed the basis for the majority of the volumes; the deep-sea soundings

and samples of the deposits, the chemical analysis of water samples, the

meteorological, water-temperature, magnetic, geological, and botanical

observations were fully worked out, and a summary of the scientific

results, narrative of the cruise and indices were also provided.

See also Lord G. Campbell, _Log Letters from the "Challenger"_,

(1876); W.J.J. Spry, _Cruise of H.M.S. "Challenger"_ (1876); Sir C.

Wyville Thomson, _Voyage of the "Challenger," The Atlantic,

Preliminary Account of General Results_ (1877); J.J. Wild, _At Anchor;

Narrative of Experiences afloat and ashore during the Voyage of H.M.S.

"Challenger"_ (1878); H.N. Moseley, _Notes by a Naturalist on the

"Challenger"_ (1879).

CHALLONER, RICHARD (1691-1781), English Roman Catholic prelate, was born

at Lewes, Sussex, on the 29th of September 1691. After the death of his

father, who was a rigid Dissenter, his mother, left in poverty, lived

with some Roman Catholic families. Thus it came about that he was

brought up as a Roman Catholic, chiefly at the seat of Mr Holman at

Warkworth, Northamptonshire, where the Rev. John Gother, a celebrated

controversialist, officiated as chaplain. In 1704 he was sent to the

English College at Douai, where he was ordained a priest in 1716, took

his degrees in divinity, and was appointed professor in that faculty. In

1730 he was sent on the English mission and stationed in London. The

controversial treatises which he published in rapid succession attracted

much attention, particularly his _Catholic Christian Instructed_ (1737),

which was prefaced by a witty reply to Dr Conyers Middleton's _Letters

from Rome, showing an Exact Conformity between Popery and Paganism_.

Middleton is said to have been so irritated that he endeavoured to put

the penal laws in force against his antagonist, who prudently withdrew

from London. In 1741 Challoner was raised to the episcopal dignity at

Hammersmith, and nominated co-adjutor with right of succession to Bishop

Benjamin Petre, vicar-apostolic of the London district, whom he

succeeded in 1758. He resided principally in London, but was obliged to

retire into the country during the "No Popery" riots of 1780. He died on

the 12th of January 1781, and was buried at Milton, Berkshire. Bishop

Challoner was the author of numerous controversial and devotional works,

which have been frequently reprinted and translated into various

languages. He compiled the _Garden of the Soul_ (1740 ?), which

continues to be the most popular manual of devotion among

English-speaking Roman Catholics, and he revised an edition of the Douai

version of the Scriptures (1749-1750), correcting the language and

orthography, which in many places had become obsolete. Of his historical

works the most valuable is one which was intended to be a Roman Catholic

antidote to Foxe's well-known martyrology. It is entitled _Memoirs of

Missionary Priests and other Catholicks of both Sexes who suffered Death

or Imprisonment in England on account of their Religion, from the year

1577 till the end of the reign of Charles II._ (2 vols. 1741, frequently

reprinted). He also published anonymously, in 1745, the lives of

English, Scotch and Irish saints, under the title of _Britannia Sancta_,

an interesting work which has, however, been superseded by that of Alban

Butler.

For a complete list of his writings see J. Gillow's _Bibl. Dict. of

Eng. Cath._ i. 452-458; Barnard, _Life of R. Challoner_ (1784);

Flanagan, _History of the Catholic Church in England_ (1857); there is

also a critical history of Challoner by Rev. E. Burton.

CHALMERS, ALEXANDER (1750-1834), Scottish writer, was born in Aberdeen

on the 29th of March 1759. He was educated as a doctor, but gave up this

profession for journalism, and he was for some time editor of the

_Morning Herald_. Besides editions of the works of Shakespeare, Beattie,

Fielding, Johnson, Warton, Pope, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, he published _A

General Biographical Dictionary_ in 32 vols.(1812-1817); a _Glossary to

Shakspeare_ (1797); an edition of Steevens's Shakespeare (1809); and the

_British Essayists_, beginning with the _Tatler_ and ending with the

_Observer_, with biographical and historical prefaces and a general

index. He died in London on the 19th of December 1834.

CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825), Scottish antiquarian and political writer,

was born at Fochabers, a village in the county of Moray, in 1742. His

father, James Chalmers, was a grandson of George Chalmers of Pittensear,

a small estate in the parish of Lhanbryde, now St Andrews-Lhanbryde, in

the same county, possessed by the main line of the family from about the

beginning of the 17th to the middle of the 18th century. After

completing the usual course at King's College, Aberdeen, young Chalmers

studied law in Edinburgh for several years. Two uncles on the father's

side having settled in America, he visited Maryland in 1763, with the

view, it is said, of assisting to recover a tract of land of some extent

about which a dispute had arisen, and was in this way induced to

commence practice as a lawyer at Baltimore, where for a time he met with

much success. Having, however, espoused the cause of the Royalist party

on the breaking out of the American War of Independence, he found it

expedient to abandon his professional prospects in the New World, and

return to his native country. For the losses he had sustained as a

colonist he received no compensation, and several years elapsed before

he obtained an appointment that placed him in a state of comfort and

independence.

In the meantime Chalmers applied himself with great diligence and

assiduity to the investigation of the history and establishment of the

English colonies in North America; and enjoying free access to the state

papers and other documents preserved among what were then termed the

plantation records, he became possessed of much important information.

His work entitled _Political Annals of the present United Colonies from

their Settlement to the Peace of 1763_, 4to, London, 1780, was to have

formed two volumes; but the second, which should have contained the

period between 1688 and 1763, never appeared. The first volume, however,

is complete in itself, and traces the original settlement of the

different American colonies, and the progressive changes in their

constitutions and forms of government as affected by the state of public

affairs in the parent kingdom. Independently of its value as being

compiled from original documents, it bears evidence of great research,

and has been of essential benefit to later writers. Continuing his

researches, he next gave to the world _An Estimate of the Comparative

Strength of Britain during the Present and Four Preceding Reigns_,

London, 1782, which passed through several editions. At length, in

August 1786, Chalmers, whose sufferings as a Royalist must have strongly

recommended him to the government of the day, was appointed chief clerk

to the committee of privy council on matters relating to trade, a

situation which he retained till his death in 1825, a period of nearly

forty years. As his official duties made no great demands on his time,

he had abundant leisure to devote to his favourite studies,--the

antiquities and topography of Scotland having thenceforth special

attractions for his busy pen.

Besides biographical sketches of Defoe, Sir John Davies, Allan Ramsay,

Sir David Lyndsay, Churchyard and others, prefixed to editions of their

respective works, Chalmers wrote a life of Thomas Paine, the author of

the _Rights of Man_, which he published under the assumed name of

Francis Oldys, A.M., of the University of Pennsylvania; and a life of

Ruddiman, in which considerable light is thrown on the state of

literature in Scotland during the earlier part of the last century. His

life of Mary, Queen of Scots, in two 4to vols., was first published in

1818. It is founded on a MS. left by John Whitaker, the historian of

Manchester; but Chalmers informs us that he found it necessary to

rewrite the whole. The history of that ill-fated queen occupied much of

his attention, and his last work, _A Detection of the Love-Letters

lately attributed in Hugh Campbell's work to Mary Queen of Scots_, is an

exposure of an attempt to represent as genuine some fictitious letters

said to have passed between Mary and Bothwell which had fallen into

deserved oblivion. In 1797 appeared his _Apology for the Believers in

the Shakespeare Papers which were exhibited in Norfolk Street_, followed

by other tracts on the same subject. These contributions to the

literature of Shakespeare are full of curious matter, but on the whole

display a great waste of erudition, in seeking to show that papers which

had been proved forgeries might nevertheless have been genuine. Chalmers

also took part in the Junius controversy, and in _The Author of Junius

Ascertained, from a Concatenation of Circumstances amounting to Moral

Demonstration_, Lond. 1817, 8vo, sought to fix the authorship of the

celebrated letters on Hugh Boyd. In 1824 he published _The Poetical

Remains of some of the Scottish Kings, now first collected_; and in the

same year he edited and presented as a contribution to the Bannatyne

Club _Robene and Makyne and the Testament of Cresseid, by Robert

Henryson_. His political writings are equally numerous. Among them may

be mentioned _Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and other

Powers_, Lond. 1790, 2 vols. 8vo; _Vindication of the Privileges of the

People in respect to the Constitutional Right of Free Discussion_, &c.,

Lond. 1796, 8vo, published anonymously; _A Chronological Account of

Commerce and Coinage in Great Britain from the Restoration till 1810_,

Lond. 1810, 8vo; _Opinions of Eminent Lawyers on various points of

English Jurisprudence, chiefly concerning the Colonies, Fisheries, and

Commerce of Great Britain_, Lond. 1814, 2 vols. 8vo; _Comparative Views

of the State of Great Britain before and since the War_, Lond. 1817,

8vo.

But Chalmers's greatest work is his _Caledonia_, which, however, he did

not live to complete. The first volume appeared in 1807, and is

introductory to the others. It is divided into four books, treating

successively of the Roman, the Pictish, the Scottish and the Scoto-Saxon

periods, from 80 to 1306 A.D. In these we are presented, in a condensed

form, with an account of the people, the language and the civil and

ecclesiastical history, as well as the agricultural and commercial state

of Scotland during the first thirteen centuries of our era.

Unfortunately the chapters on the Roman period are entirely marred by

the author's having accepted as genuine Bertram's forgery _De Situ

Britanniae_; but otherwise his opinions on controverted topics are

worthy of much respect, being founded on a laborious investigation of

all the original authorities that were accessible to him. The second

volume, published in 1810, gives an account of the seven south-eastern

counties of Scotland--Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington, Edinburgh,

Linlithgow, Peebles and Selkirk--each of them being treated of as

regards name, situation and extent, natural objects, antiquities,

establishment as shires, civil history, agriculture, manufactures and

trade, and ecclesiastical history. In 1824, after an interval of

fourteen years, the third volume appeared, giving, under the same

headings, a description of the seven south-western counties--Dumfries,

Kirkcudbright, Wigtown, Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew and Dumbarton. In the

preface to this volume the author states that the materials for the

history of the central and northern counties were collected, and that he

expected the work would be completed in two years, but this expectation

was not destined to be realized. He had also been engaged on a history

of Scottish poetry and a history of printing in Scotland. Each of them

he thought likely to extend to two large quarto volumes, and on both he

expended an unusual amount of enthusiasm and energy. He had also

prepared for the press an elaborate history of the life and reign of

David I. In his later researches he was assisted by his nephew James,

son of Alexander Chalmers, writer in Elgin.

George Chalmers died in London on the 31st of May 1825. His valuable and

extensive library he bequeathed to his nephew, at whose death in 1841 it

was sold and dispersed. Chalmers was a member of the Royal and

Antiquarian Societies of London, an honorary member of the Antiquarian

Society of Scotland, and a member of other learned societies. In private

life he was undoubtedly an amiable man, although the dogmatic tone that

disfigures portions of his writings procured him many opponents. Among

his avowed antagonists in literary warfare the most distinguished were

Malone and Steevens, the Shakespeare editors; Mathias, the author of the

_Pursuits of Literature_; Dr Jamieson, the Scottish lexicographer;

Pinkerton, the historian; Dr Irving, the biographer of the Scottish

poets; and Dr Currie of Liverpool, But with all his failings in judgment

Chalmers was a valuable writer. He uniformly had recourse to original

sources of information; and he is entitled to great praise for his

patriotic and self-sacrificing endeavours to illustrate the history,

literature and antiquities of his native country. (J. M'D.)

CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL (1836-1878), Scottish painter, was born at

Montrose, and studied at Edinburgh. His landscapes are now more valued

than the portraits which formed his earlier work. The best of these are

"The End of the Harvest" (1873), "Running Water" (1875), and "The

Legend" (in the National Gallery, Edinburgh). He became an associate

(1867) and a full member (1871) of the Scottish Academy.

CHALMERS, JAMES (1841-1901), Scottish missionary to New Guinea, was born

at Ardrishaig in Argyll. After serving in the Glasgow City Mission he

passed through Cheshunt College, and, being accepted by the London

Missionary Society, was appointed to Rarotonga in the South Pacific in

1866. Here the natives gave him the well-known name "Tamate." After ten

years' service, especially in training native evangelists, he was

transferred to New Guinea. In addition to his enthusiastic but sane

missionary work, Chalmers did much to open up the island, and, with his

colleague W.G. Lawes, gave valuable aid in the British annexation of the

south-east coast of the island. On the 8th of April 1901, in company

with a brother missionary, Oliver Tomkins, he was killed by cannibals at

Goaribari Island. R.L. Stevenson has left on record his high

appreciation of Chalmers's character and work.

Chalmers's _Autobiography and Letters_ were edited by Richard Lovett

in 1902, who also wrote a popular life called _Tamate_.

CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847), Scottish divine, was born at Anstruther in

Fifeshire, on the 17th of March 1780. At the age of eleven he was

entered as a student at St Andrews, where he devoted himself almost

exclusively to mathematics. In January 1799 he was licensed as a

preacher of the Gospel by the St Andrews presbytery. In May 1803, after

attending further courses of lectures in Edinburgh, and acting as

assistant to the professor of mathematics at St Andrews, he was ordained

as minister of Kilmany in Fifeshire, about 9 m. from the university

town, where he continued to lecture. His mathematical lectures roused so

much enthusiasm that they were discontinued by order of the authorities,

who disliked the disturbance of the university routine which they

involved. Chalmers then opened mathematical classes on his own account

which attracted many students; at the same time he delivered a course of

lectures on chemistry, and ministered to his parish at Kilmany. In 1805

he became a candidate for the vacant professorship of mathematics at

Edinburgh, but was unsuccessful. In 1808 he published an _Inquiry into

the Extent and Stability of National Resources_, a contribution to the

discussion created by Bonaparte's commercial policy. Domestic

bereavements and a severe illness then turned his thoughts in another

direction. At his own request the article on Christianity was assigned

to him in Dr Brewster's _Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_, and in studying the

credentials of Christianity he received a new impression of its

contents. His journal and letters show how he was led from a sustained

effort to attain the morality of the Gospel to a profound spiritual

revolution. After this his ministry was marked by a zeal which made it

famous. The separate publication of his article in the _Edinburgh

Encyclopaedia_, and contributions to the _Edinburgh Christian

Instructor_ and the _Eclectic Review_, enhanced his reputation as an

author. In 1815 he became minister of the Tron Church, Glasgow, in spite

of determined opposition to him in the town council on the ground of his

evangelical teaching. From Glasgow his repute as a preacher spread

throughout the United Kingdom. A series of sermons on the relation

between the discoveries of astronomy and the Christian revelation was

published in January 1817, and within a year nine editions and 20,000

copies were in circulation. When he visited London Wilberforce wrote,

"all the world is wild about Dr Chalmers."

In Glasgow Chalmers made one of his greatest contributions to the life

of his own time by his experiments in parochial organization. His parish

contained about 11,000 persons, and of these about one-third were

unconnected with any church. He diagnosed this evil as being due to the

absence of personal influence, spiritual oversight, and the want of

parochial organizations which had not kept pace in the city, as they had

done in rural parishes, with the growing population. He declared that

twenty new churches, with parishes, should be erected in Glasgow, and he

set to work to revivify, remodel and extend the old parochial economy of

Scotland. The town council consented to build one new church, attaching

to it a parish of 10,000 persons, mostly weavers, labourers and factory

workers, and this church was offered to Dr Chalmers that he might have a

fair opportunity of testing his system.

In September 1819 he became minister of the church and parish of St

John, where of 2000 families more than 800 had no connexion with any

Christian church. He first addressed himself to providing schools for

the children. Two school-houses with four endowed teachers were

established, where 700 children were taught at the moderate fees of 2s.

and 3s. per quarter. Between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools were

opened, where more than 1000 children were taught the elements of

secular and religious education. The parish was divided into 25

districts embracing from 60 to 100 families, over each of which an elder

and a deacon were placed, the former taking oversight of their

spiritual, the latter of their physical needs. Chalmers was the

mainspring of the whole system, not merely superintending the

visitation, but personally visiting all the families, and holding

evening meetings, when he addressed those whom he had visited. This

parochial machinery enabled him to make a singularly successful

experiment in dealing with the problem of poverty. At this time there

were not more than 20 parishes north of the Forth and Clyde where there

was a compulsory assessment for the poor, but the English method of

assessment was rapidly spreading. Chalmers believed that compulsory

assessment ended by swelling the evil it was intended to mitigate, and

that relief should be raised and administered by voluntary means. His

critics replied that this was impossible in large cities. When he

undertook the management of the parish of St John's, the poor of the

parish cost the city L1400 per annum, and in four years, by the adoption

of his method, the pauper expenditure was reduced to L280 per annum. The

investigation of all new applications for relief was committed to the

deacon of the district, and every effort was made to enable the poor to

help themselves. When once the system was in operation it was found that

a deacon, by spending an hour a week among the families committed to his

charge, could keep himself acquainted with their character and

condition.

In 1823, after eight years of work at high pressure, he was glad to

accept the chair of moral philosophy at St Andrews, the seventh academic

offer made to him during his eight years in Glasgow. In his lectures he

excluded mental philosophy and included the whole sphere of moral

obligation, dealing with man's duty to God and to his fellow-men in the

light of Christian teaching. Many of his lectures are printed in the

first and second volumes of his published works. In ethics he made

contributions to the science in regard to the place and functions of

volition and attention, the separate and underived character of the

moral sentiments, and the distinction between the virtues of perfect and

imperfect obligation. His lectures kindled the religious spirit among

his students, and led some of them to devote themselves to missionary

effort. In November 1828 he was transferred to the chair of theology in

Edinburgh. He then introduced the practice of following the lecture with

a viva voce examination on what had been delivered. He also introduced

text-books, and came into stimulating contact with his people; perhaps

no one has ever succeeded as he did by the use of these methods in

communicating intellectual, moral and religious impulse to so many

students.

These academic years were prolific also in a literature of various

kinds. In 1826 he published a third volume of the _Christian and Civic

Economy of Large Towns_, a continuation of work begun at St John's,

Glasgow. In 1832 he published a _Political Economy_, the chief purpose

of which was to enforce the truth that the right economic condition of

the masses is dependent on their right moral condition, that character

is the parent of comfort, not vice versa. In 1833 appeared a treatise on

_The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual

Constitution of Man_. In 1834 Dr Chalmers was elected fellow of the

Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in the same year he became corresponding

member of the Institute of France; in 1835 Oxford conferred on him the

degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he became leader of the evangelical section of

the Scottish Church in the General Assembly. He was appointed chairman

of a committee for church extension, and in that capacity made a tour

through a large part of Scotland, addressing presbyteries and holding

public meetings. He also issued numerous appeals, with the result that

in 1841, when he resigned his office as convener of the church extension

committee, he was able to announce that in seven years upwards of

L300,000 had been contributed, and 220 new churches had been built. His

efforts to induce the Whig government to assist in this effort were

unsuccessful.

In 1841 the movement which ended in the Disruption was rapidly

culminating, and Dr Chalmers found himself at the head of the party

which stood for the principle that "no minister shall be intruded into

any parish contrary to the will of the congregation" (see FREE CHURCH OF

SCOTLAND). Cases of conflict between the church and the civil power

arose in Auchterarder, Dunkeld and Marnoch; and when the courts made it

clear that the church, in their opinion, held its temporalities on

condition of rendering such obedience as the courts required, the church

appealed to the government for relief. In January 1843 the government

put a final and peremptory negative on the church's claims for spiritual

independence. On the 18th of May 1843 470 clergymen withdrew from the

general assembly and constituted themselves the Free Church of Scotland,

with Dr Chalmers as moderator. He had prepared a sustentation fund

scheme for the support of the seceding ministers, and this was at once

put into successful operation. On the 30th of May 1847, immediately

after his return from the House of Commons, where he had given evidence

as to the refusal of sites for Free Churches by Scottish landowners, he

was found dead in bed.

Dr Chalmers' action throughout the Free Church controversy was so

consistent in its application of Christian principle and so free from

personal or party animus, that his writings are a valuable source for

argument and illustration on the question of Establishment. "I have no

veneration," he said to the royal commissioners in St Andrews, before

either the voluntary or the non-intrusive controversies had arisen, "for

the Church of Scotland _qua_ an establishment, but I have the utmost

veneration for it _qua_ an instrument of Christian good." He was

transparent in character, chivalrous, kindly, firm, eloquent and

sagacious; his purity of motive and unselfishness commanded absolute

confidence; he had originality and initiative in dealing with new and

difficult circumstances, and great aptitude for business details.

During a life of incessant activity Chalmers scarcely ever allowed a day

to pass without its modicum of composition; at the most unseasonable

times, and in the most unlikely places, he would occupy himself with

literary work. His writings occupy more than 30 volumes. He would have

stood higher as an author had he written less, or had he indulged less

in that practice of reiteration into which he was constantly betrayed by

his anxiety to impress his ideas upon others. As a political economist

he was the first to unfold the connexion that subsists between the

degree of the fertility of the soil and the social condition of a

community, the rapid manner in which capital is reproduced (see Mill's

_Political Economy_, i. 94), and the general doctrine of a limit to all

the modes by which national wealth may accumulate. He was the first also

to advance that argument in favour of religious establishments which

meets upon its own ground the doctrine of Adam Smith, that religion like

other things should be left to the operation of the natural law of

supply and demand. In the department of natural theology and the

Christian evidences he ably advocated that method of reconciling the

Mosaic narrative with the indefinite antiquity of the globe which

William Buckland (1784-1856) advanced in his Bridgewater Treatise, and

which Dr Chalmers had previously communicated to him. His refutation of

Hume's objection to the truth of miracles is perhaps his intellectual

_chef-d'oeuvre_. The distinction between the laws and dispositions of

matter, as between the ethics and objects of theology, he was the first

to indicate and enforce, and he laid great emphasis on the superior

authority as witnesses for the truth of Revelation of the Scriptural as

compared with the Extra-Scriptural writers, and of the Christian as

compared with the non-Christian testimonies. In his _Institutes of

Theology_, no material modification is attempted on the doctrines of

Calvinism, which he received with all simplicity of faith as revealed in

the Divine word, and defended as in harmony with the most profound

philosophy of human nature and of the Divine providence.

For biographical details see Dr W. Hanna's _Memoirs_ (Edinburgh, 4

vols., 1849-1852); there is a good short _Life_ by Mrs Oliphant

(1893). (W. Ha.; D. Mn.)

CHALONER, SIR THOMAS (1521-1565), English statesman and poet, was the

son of Roger Chaloner, mercer of London, a descendant of the

Denbighshire Chaloners. No details are known of his youth except that he

was educated at both Oxford and Cambridge. In 1540 he went, as secretary

to Sir Henry Knyvett, to the court of Charles V., whom he accompanied in

his expedition against Algiers in 1541, and was wrecked on the Barbary

coast. In 1547 he joined in the expedition to Scotland, and was

knighted, after the battle of Musselburgh, by the protector Somerset,

whose patronage he enjoyed. In 1549 he was a witness against Dr Bonner,

bishop of London; in 1551 against Stephen Gardiner, bishop of

Winchester; in the spring of the latter year he was sent as a

commissioner to Scotland, and again in March 1552. In 1553 he went with

Sir Nicholas Wotton and Sir William Pickering on an embassy to France,

but was recalled by Queen Mary on her accession. In spite of his

Protestant views, Chaloner was still employed by the government, going

to Scotland in 1555-1556, and providing carriages for troops in the war

with France, 1557-1558. In 1558 he went as Elizabeth's ambassador to the

emperor Ferdinand at Cambrai, from July 1559 to February 1559/60 he was

ambassador to King Philip at Brussels, and in 1561 he went in the same

capacity to Spain. His letters are full of complaints of his treatment

there, but it was not till 1564, when in failing health, that he was

allowed to return home. He died at his house in Clerkenwell on the 14th

of October 1565. He acquired during his years of service three estates,

Guisborough in Yorkshire, Steeple Claydon in Buckinghamshire, and St

Bees in Cumberland. He married (1) Joan, widow of Sir Thomas Leigh; and

(2) Etheldreda, daughter of Edward Frodsham, of Elton, Cheshire, by whom

he had one son, Sir Thomas Chaloner (1561-1615), the naturalist.

Chaloner was the intimate of most of the learned men of his day, and

with Lord Burghley he had a life-long friendship. Throughout his busy

official life he occupied himself with literature, his Latin verses and

his pastoral poems being much admired by his contemporaries. Chaloner's

"Howe the Lorde Mowbray ... was ... banyshed the Realme," printed in the

1559 edition of William Baldwin's _Mirror for Magistrates_ (repr. in

vol. ii. pt. 1 of Joseph Haslewood's edition of 1815), has sometimes

been attributed to Thomas Churchyard. His most important work, _De Rep.

Anglorum instauranda libri decem_, written while he was in Spain, was

first published by William Malim (1579, 3 pts.), with complimentary

Latin verses in praise of the author by Burghley and others. Chaloner's

epigrams and epitaphs were also added to the volume, as well as _In

laudem Henrici octavi ... carmen Panegericum_, first printed in 1560.

Amongst his other works are _The praise of folie, Moriae encomium_ ...

by Erasmus ... Englished by Sir Thomas Chaloner, Knight (1549, ed. Janet

E. Ashbee, 1901); _A book of the Office of Servantes_ (1543), translated

from Gilbert Cognatus; and _An homilie of Saint John Chrysostome_....

Englished by T.C. (1544).

See "The Chaloners, Lords of the Manor of St Bees," by William

Jackson, in _Transactions of the Cumberland Assoc. for the Advancement

of Literature and Science_, pt. vi. pp. 47-74, 1880-1881.

CHALONS-SUR-MARNE, a town of north-eastern France, capital of the

department of Marne, 107 m. E. of Paris on the main line of the Eastern

railway to Nancy, and 25 m. S.S.E. of Reims. Pop. (1906) 22,424. Chalons

is situated in a wide level plain principally on the right bank of the

Marne, its suburb of Marne, which contains the railwaystations of the

Eastern and Est-Etat railways, lying on the left bank. The town proper

is bordered on the west by the lateral canal of the Marne, across which

lies a strip of ground separating it from the river itself. Chalons is

traversed by branches of the canal and by small streams, and its streets

are for the most part narrow and irregular, but it is surrounded by

ample avenues and promenades, the park known as the Jard, in the

south-western quarter, being especially attractive. Huge barracks lie to

the north and east. There are several interesting churches in the town.

The cathedral of St Etienne dates chiefly from the 13th century, but its

west facade is in the classical style and belongs to the 17th century.

There are stained-glass windows of the 13th century in the north

transept. Notre-Dame, of the 12th and 13th centuries, is conspicuous for

its four Romanesque towers, two flanking the apse; the other two,

surmounted by tall lead spires, flanking the principal facade. The

churches of St. Alpin, St Jean and St Loup date from various periods

between the 11th and the 17th centuries. The hotel-de-ville (1771),

facing which stands a monument to President Carnot; the prefecture

(1750-1764), once the residence of the intendants of Champagne; the

college, once a Jesuit establishment; and a training college which

occupies the Augustinian abbey of Toussaints (16th and 17th centuries),

are noteworthy civil buildings. The houses of Chalons are generally

ill-built of timber and plaster, or rough-cast, but some old mansions,

dating from the 15th to the 16th centuries, remain. The church of Ste

Pudentienne, on the left bank of the river, is a well-known place of

pilgrimage. The town is the seat of a bishop and a prefect, and

headquarters of the VI. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance

and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a

museum, a library, training colleges, a higher ecclesiastical seminary,

a communal college and an important technical school. The principal

industry is brewing, which is carried on in the suburb of Marne.

Galleries of immense length, hewn in a limestone hill and served by

lines of railway, are used as store-houses for beer. The preparation of

champagne, the manufacture of boots and shoes, brushes, wire-goods and

wall-paper also occupy many hands. There is trade in cereals.

Chalons-sur-Marne occupies the site of the chief town of the Catalauni,

and some portion of the plains which lie between it and Troyes was the

scene of the defeat of Attila in the conflict of 451. In the 10th and

following centuries it attained great prosperity as a kind of

independent state under the supremacy of its bishops, who were

ecclesiastical peers of France. In 1214 the militia of Chalons served at

the battle of Bouvines; and in the 15th century the citizens maintained

their honour by twice (1430 and 1434) repulsing the English from their

walls. In the 16th century the town sided with Henry IV., king of

France, who in 1589 transferred thither the parlement of Paris, which

shortly afterwards burnt the bulls of Gregory XIV. and Clement VIII. In

1856 Napoleon III. established a large camp, known as the Camp of

Chalons, about 16 m. north of the town by the railway to Reims. It was

situated in the immediate neighbourhood of Grand Mourmelon and Petit

Mourmelon, and occupied an area of nearly 30,000 acres. The "Army of

Chalons," formed by Marshal MacMahon in the camp after the first

reverses of the French in 1870, marched thence to the Meuse, was

surrounded by the Germans at Sedan, and forced to capitulate. The camp

is still a training-centre for troops.

About 5 m. E. of Chalons is L'Epine, where there is a beautiful

pilgrimage church (15th and 16th centuries, with modern restoration)

with a richly-sculptured portal. In the interior there is a fine

choir-screen, an organ of the 16th century, and an ancient and

much-venerated statue of the Virgin.

CHALON-SUR-SAONE, a town of east-central France, capital of an

arrondissement in the department of Saone-et-Loire, 81 m. N. of Lyons

by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 26,538. It is a well-built town,

with fine quays, situated in an extensive plain on the right bank of the

Saone at its junction with the Canal du Centre. A handsome stone bridge

of the 15th century, decorated in the 18th century with obelisks,

connects it with the suburb of St Laurent on an island in the river. The

principal building is the church of St Vincent, once the cathedral. It

dates mainly from the 12th to the 15th centuries, but the facade is

modern and unpleasing. The old bishop's palace is a building of the 15th

century. The church of St Pierre, with two lofty steeples, dates from

the late 17th century. Chalon preserves remains of its ancient ramparts

and a number of old houses. The administrative buildings are modern. An

obelisk was erected in 1730 to commemorate the opening of the canal.

There is a statue of J.N. Niepce, a native of the town. Chalon is the

seat of a sub-prefect and a court of assizes, and there are tribunals of

first instance and commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a chamber

of commerce, communal colleges for boys and girls, a school of drawing,

a public library and a museum. Chalon ranks next to Le Creusot among the

manufacturing towns of Burgundy; its position at the junction of the

Canal du Centre and the Saone, and as a railway centre for Lyons, Paris,

Dole, Lons-le-Saunier and Roanne, brings it a large transit trade. The

founding and working of copper and iron is its main industry; the large

engineering works of Petit-Creusot, a branch of those of Le Creusot,

construct bridges, tug-boats and torpedo-boats; distilleries,

glass-works, chemical works, straw-hat manufactories, oil-works,

tile-works and sugar refineries also occupy many hands. Wine, grain,

iron, leather and timber are among the many products for which the town

is an entrepot. About 2 m. east of Chalon is St Marcel (named after the

saint who in the 2nd century preached Christianity at Chalon), which has

a church of the 12th century, once belonging to a famous abbey.

Chalon-sur-Saone is identified with the ancient _Cabillonum_, originally

an important town of the Aedui. It was chosen in the 6th century by

Gontram, king of Burgundy, as his capital; and it continued till the

10th to pay for its importance by being frequently sacked. The

bishopric, founded in the 4th century, was suppressed at the Revolution.

In feudal times Chalon was the capital of a countship. In 1237 it was

given in exchange for other fiefs in the Jura by Jean le Sage, whose

descendants nevertheless retained the title. Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy,

the other party to the exchange, gave the citizens a communal charter in

1256. In its modern history the most important event was the resistance

offered to a division of the Austrian army in 1814.

CHALUKYA, the name of an Indian dynasty which ruled in the Deccan from

A.D. 550 to 750, and again from 973 to 1190. The Chalukyas themselves

claimed to be Rajputs from the north who imposed their rule on the

Dravidian inhabitants of the Deccan tableland, and there is some

evidence for connecting them with the Chapas, a branch of the foreign

Gurjaras. The dynasty was founded by a chief named Pulakesin I., who

mastered the town of Vatapi (now Badami, in the Bijapur district) about

550. His sons extended their principality east and west; but the founder

of the Chalukya greatness was his grandson Pulakesin II., who succeeded

in 608 and proceeded to extend his rule at the expense of his

neighbours. In 609 he established as his viceroy in Vengi his brother

Kubja Vishnuvardhana, who in 615 declared his independence and

established the dynasty of Eastern Chalukyas, which lasted till 1070. In

620 Pulakesin defeated Harsha (q.v.), the powerful overlord of northern

India, and established the Nerbudda as the boundary between the South

and North. He also defeated in turn the Chola, Pandya and Kerala kings,

and by 630 was beyond dispute the most powerful sovereign in the Deccan.

In 642, however, his capital was taken and he himself killed by the

Pallava king Narasimhavarman. In 655 the Chalukya power was restored by

Pulakesin's son Vikramaditya I.; but the struggle with the Pallavas

continued until, in 740, Vikramaditya II. destroyed the Pallava capital.

In 750 Vikramaditya's son, Kirtivarman Chalukya, was overthrown by the

Rashtrakutas.

In 973, Taila or Tailapa II. (d. 995), a scion of the royal Chalukya

race, succeeded in overthrowing the Rashtrakuta king Kakka II., and in

recovering all the ancient territory of the Chalukyas with the exception

of Gujarat. He was the founder of the dynasty known as the Chalukyas of

Kalyani. About A.D. 1000 a formidable invasion by the Chola king

Rajaraja the Great was defeated, and in 1052 Somesvara I., or Ahamavalla

(d. 1068), the founder of Kalyani, defeated and slew the Chola

Rajadhiraja. The reign of Vikramaditya VI., or Vikramanka, which lasted

from 1076 to 1126, formed another period of Chalukya greatness.

Vikramanka's exploits against the Hoysala kings and others, celebrated

by the poet Bilhana, were held to justify him in establishing a new era

dating from his accession. With his death, however, the Chalukya power

began to decline. In 1156 the commander-in-chief Bijjala (or Vijjana)

Kalachurya revolted, and he and his sons held the kingdom till 1183. In

this year Somesvara IV. Chalukya recovered part of his patrimony, only

to succumb, about 1190, to the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Hoysalas of

Dorasamudra. Henceforth the Chalukya rajas ranked only as petty chiefs.

See J.F. Fleet, _Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts_; Prof. R.G.

Bhandarker, "Early History of the Deccan," in the _Bombay Gazetteer_

(1896), vol. i. part ii.; Vincent A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_

(Oxford, 1908), pp. 382 ff.

CHALYBAUS, HEINRICH MORITZ (1796-1862), German philosopher, was born at

Pfaffroda in Saxony. For some years he taught at Dresden, and won a high

reputation by his lectures on the history of philosophy in Germany. In

1839 he became professor in Kiel University, where, with the exception of

one brief interval, when he was expelled with several colleagues because

of his German sympathies, he remained till his death. His first published

work, _Historische Entwickelung der spekulativen Philosophic von Kant bis

Hegel_ (1837, 5th ed. 1860), which still ranks among the best expositions

of modern German thought, has been twice translated into English, by A.

Tulk (London, 1854), and by A. Edersheim (Edinburgh, 1854). His chief

works are _Entwurf eines Systems der Wissenschaftslehre_ (Kiel, 1846) and

_System der spekulativen Ethik_ (2 vols., 1850). He opposed both the

extreme realism of Herbart and what he regarded as the one-sided idealism

of Hegel, and endeavoured to find a mean between them, to discover the

ideal or formal principle which unfolds itself in the real or material

world presented to it. His _Wissenschaftslehre_, accordingly, divides

itself into (1) _Principlehre_, or theory of the one principle; (2)

_Vermittelungslehre_, or theory of the means by which this principle

realizes itself; and (3) _Teleologie_. The most noticeable point is the

position assigned by Chalybaus to the "World Ether," which is defined as

the infinite in time and space, and which, he thinks, must be posited as

necessarily coexisting with the Infinite Spirit or God. The fundamental

principle of the _System der Ethik_ is carried out with great strength of

thought, and with an unusually complete command of ethical material.

See J.E. Erdmann, _Grundriss der Gesch. d. Philos._ ii. 781-786; K.

Prantl, in _Allgem. deutsch. Biog._

CHALYBITE, a mineral species consisting of iron carbonate (FeCO3) and

forming an important ore of iron. It was early known as spathose iron,

spathic iron or steel ore. F.S. Beudant in 1832 gave the name siderose

(from [Greek: sideros], iron), which was modified by W. Haidinger in

1845 to siderite. Chalybite (from [Greek: chalyps], [Greek: chalybos],

Lat. _chalybs_, steel) is of slightly later date, having been given by

E.F. Glocker in 1847. The name siderite is in common use, but it is open

to objection since it had earlier been applied to several other species,

and is also now used as a group name for meteoric irons. Chalybite

crystallizes in the rhombohedral system and is isomorphous with calcite;

like this it possesses perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the

primitive rhombohedron, the angles between which are 73 deg. 0'.

Crystals are usually rhombohedral in habit, and the primitive

rhombohedron r {100} is a common form, the faces being often curved as

represented in the figure. Acute rhombohedra in combination with the

basal pinacoid are also frequent, giving crystals of octahedral aspect.

The mineral often occurs in cleavable masses with a coarse or fine

granular texture; also in botryoidal or globular (sphaerosiderite) and

oolitic forms. When compact and mixed with much clay and sand it

constitutes the well-known clay ironstone. Chalybite is usually

yellowish-grey or brown in colour; it is translucent and has a vitreous

lustre. Hardness 3-1/2; sp. gr. 3.8. The double refraction ([omega] -

[epsilon] = 0.241) is stronger than that of calcite. When pure it

contains 48.2% of iron, but this is often partly replaced isomorphously

by manganese, magnesium or calcium: the varieties known as oligon-spar

or oligonite, sideroplesite and siderodote contain these elements

respectively in large amount. These varieties form a passage to ankerite

(q.v.) and mesitite, and all are referred to loosely as brown-spar.

[Illustration: Crystal of Chalybite.]

Chalybite is a common gangue mineral in metalliferous veins, and

well-crystallized specimens are found with ores of copper, lead, tin,

&c., in Cornwall, the Harz, Saxony and many other places. It also occurs

alone as large masses in veins and beds in rocks of various kinds. The

clay ironstone so extensively worked as an ore of iron occurs as nodules

and beds in the Coal Measures of England and the United States, and the

oolitic iron ore of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire forms beds in

the Lias. The mineral is occasionally found as concretionary masses

(sphaerosiderite) in cavities in basic igneous rocks such as dolerite.

(L. J. S.)

CHAMBA, a native state of India, within the Punjab, amid the Himalayas,

and lying on the southern border of Kashmir. It has an area of 3216 sq.

m. Pop. (1901) 127,834. The sanatorium of Dalhousie, though within the

state, is attached to the district of Gurdaspur. Chamba is entirely

mountainous; in the east and north, and in the centre, are snowy ranges.

The valleys in the west and south are fertile. The chief rivers are the

Chandra and Ravi. The country is much in favour with sportsmen. The

principal crops are rice, maize and millet. Mineral ores of various

kinds are known, but unworked. Trade is chiefly in forest produce. The

capital of the state is Chamba (pop. 6000), situated above the gorge of

the Ravi. External communications are entirely by road. The state was

founded in the 6th century, and, though sometimes nominally subject to

Kashmir and afterwards tributary to the Mogul empire, always practically

maintained its independence. Its chronicles are preserved in a series of

inscriptions, mostly engraved on copper. It first came under British

influence in 1846, when it was declared independent of Kashmir. The line

of the rajas of Chamba was founded in the 6th century A.D. by Marut, of

an ancient family of Rajputs. In 1904 Bhuri Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., an

enlightened and capable ruler, succeeded.

CHAMBAL, a river of India, one of the principal tributaries of the

Jumna. Rising amid the summits of the Vindhya mountains in Malwa, it

flows north, and after being joined by the Chambla and Sipra, passes

through the gorges of the Mokandarra hills. After receiving the waters

of the Kali-Sind, Parbati and Banas, its principal confluents, the

Chambal becomes a great river, enters the British district of Etawah,

and joins the Jumna 40 m. below Etawah town, its total length being 650

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Cerargyrite" to "Charing Cross" Volume 5, Slice 7 · 第 14 / 24 题