sp', Spermathecal sac involving the last.
ov, Ovary.
r.o, Egg sac.
od, Oviduct.]
In _Benhamia caecifera_ and at least one other earthworm there are
numerous caeca, one pair to each segment.
_Classification._--The classifications of Adolf Eduard, Grube and
Claparede separated into two subdivisions the aquatic and the
terrestrial forms. This scheme, opposed by many, has been reinstated
by Sedgwick. The chief difficulty in this scheme is offered by the
Moniligastridae, which in some degree combine the characters of both
the suborders, into neither of which will they fit accurately. The
following arrangement is a compromise:--
Group I. _Aphaneura._--This group is referred by A. Sedgwick to the
Archiannelida. It is, however, though doubtless near to the base of
the Oligochaetous series, most nearly allied in the reproductive
system to the Oligochaeta. It contains but one family,
_Aeolosomatidae_. There are three pairs of spermathecae situated in
segments III-V, a testis in V and an ovary in VI. There are a
clitellum and sperm ducts which though like nephridia have a larger
funnel and a less complexly wound duct. This family consists of only
one well-known genus, _Aeolosoma_, which contains several species.
They are minute worms with coloured oil drops (green, olive green or
orange) contained in the epidermis. The nervous system is embedded in
the epidermis, and the pairs of ganglia are separated as in _Serpula_,
&c.; each pair has a longish commissure between its two ganglia. The
intersegmental septa are absent save for the division of the first
segment. The large prostomium is ciliated ventrally. The setae are
either entirely capillary or there are in addition some sigmoid setae
even with bifid free extremities. This genus also propagates
asexually, like _Ctenodrilus_, which may possibly belong to the same
family. Asexual reproduction universal.
Group II. _Limicolae._--With a few exceptions the Limicolae are, as
the name denotes, aquatic in habit. They are small to moderate-sized
Oligochaeta, with a smaller number of segments than in the Terricolae.
The alimentary canal is simple and a gizzard or oesophageal
diverticula rarely developed. The vascular system is simple with as a
rule direct communication between dorsal and ventral vessels in each
segment. Nerve cord lies in coelom; brain in first segment or
prostomium in many forms. Clitellum generally only two or three
segments and more anterior in position than in Terricolae. Nephridia
always paired and without plexus of blood capillaries. Spermatheca
rarely with diverticula; sperm ducts as a rule occupying two segments
only, usually opening by means of an atrium. Sperm sacs generally
occupying a good many segments and with simple interior undivided by a
network of trabeculae. Ova large and with much yolk. Asexual
reproduction only in Naids. Egg sacs as large or nearly so as sperm
sacs. Testes and ovaries always free. The following families
constitute the group, viz. _Naididae_, _Enchytraeidae_, _Tubificidae_,
_Lumbriculidae_, _Phreoryctidae_, _Phreodrilidae_, _Alluroididae_, the
latter possibly not referable to this group.
Group III. _Moniligastres._--Moderate-sized to very large Oligochaeta,
terrestrial in habit, with the appearance of Terricolae. Generative
organs anterior in position as in Limicolae. Sperm ducts and atria as
in Limicolae; egg sacs large; body wall thick; vascular system and
nephridia as in Terricolae. Only one family, _Moniligastridae_.
Group IV. _Terricolae._--Earthworms, rarely aquatic in habit. Of small
to very large size. Clitellum commonly extensive and more posterior in
position than in other groups. Vascular system complicated without
regular connexion between dorsal and ventral vessels, except in
anterior segments. Nephridia as a rule with abundant vascular supply.
Testes, and occasionally ovaries, enclosed in sacs. Sperm sacs
generally limited to one or two segments with interior subdivided by
trabeculae. Sperm ducts traverse several segments on their way to
exterior. They open in common with, or near to, or, more rarely, into,
glands which are not certainly comparable to the atria of the
Limicolae. Egg sacs minute and functionless(?). Eggs minute with
little yolk. Nephridia sometimes very numerous in each segment.
Spermathecae often with diverticula.
Earthworms are divided into the following families, viz.
_Megascolicidae_, _Geoscolicidae_, _Eudrilidae_, _Lumbricidae_.
As an appendix to the Oligochaeta, and possibly referable to that
group, though their systematic position cannot at present be
determined with certainty, are to be placed the _Bdellodrilidae_
(_Discodrilidae_ auct.), which are small parasites upon crayfish.
These worms lay cocoons like the Oligochaeta and leeches, and where
they depart from the structure of the Oligochaeta agree with that of
leeches. The body is composed of a small and limited number of
segments (not more than fourteen), and there is a sucker at each end
of the body. There are no setae and apparently only two pairs of
nephridia, of which the anterior pair open commonly by a common pore
on the third segment after the head, whose segments have not been
accurately enumerated. The intervening segments contain the genitalia,
which are on the Oligochaeta plan in that the gonads are independent
of their ducts and that there are special spermathecae, one pair. The
male ducts are either one pair or two pairs, which open by a common
and complicated efferent terminal apparatus furnished with a
protrusible penis. The ganglia are crowded at the posterior end of the
body as in leeches, and there is much tendency to the obliteration of
the coelom as in that group. _Pterodrilus_ and _Cirrodrilus_ bear a
few, or circles of, external processes which may be branchiae;
_Bdellodrilus_ and _Astacobdella_ have none. The vascular system is as
in the lower Oligochaeta. There are two chitinous jaws in the buccal
cavity, a dorsal and a ventral, which are of specially complicated
structure in _Cirrodrilus_.
LITERATURE.--F.E. Beddard, _A Monograph of the Oligochaeta_ (Oxford,
1895), also _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1886-1895, and _Proc. Zool.
Soc._, 1885-1906; W.B. Benham, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1886-1905;
W. Michaelsen, "Oligochaeta" in _Das Tierreich_, 1900, and _Mitth.
Mus._ (Hamburg, 1890-1906); A.G. Bourne, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._,
1894; H.J. Moore, _Journ. Morph._, 1895; F. Vezhdovsky, _System d.
Oligochaeten_ (Prague, 1884), and _Entwicklungsgeschichtliche
Untersuchungen_; and numerous papers by the above and by G. Eisen, E.
Perrier, D. Rosa, R. Horst, L. Cognetti, U. Pierantoni, W. Baldwin
Spencer, H. Ude, &c., and embryological memoirs by R.S. Bergh, E.B.
Wilson, N. Kleinenberg, &c.
HIRUDINEA.--The leeches are more particularly to be compared with the
Oligochaeta, and the following definition embraces the main features in
which they agree and disagree with that group. Setae are only present in
the genus _Acanthobdella_. Eyes are present, but hardly so complex as in
certain genera of Polychaetes. The appendages of the body are reduced to
branchiae, present in certain forms. A clitellum is present. The
segments of body are few (not more than thirty-four) and fixed in
number. The anus is dorsal. One or two (anterior and posterior) suckers
always present. Nervous system always in coelom. Coelom generally
reduced to a system of tubes, sometimes communicating with vascular
system; in _Acanthobdella_ and _Ozobranchus_ a series of metamerically
arranged chambers as in Oligochaeta. Nephridia always paired, rarely
(_Pontobdella_) forming a network communicating from segment to segment;
lumen of nephridia always intracellular, funnels pervious or impervious.
Alimentary canal sometimes with protrusible proboscis; never with
gizzard or oesophageal glands; intestine with caeca as a rule. Jaws
often present. Testes several pairs, rarely one pair, continuous with
sperm ducts; ovaries, one pair, continuous with oviducts; generative
pores single and median. No separate spermathecae or septal chambers for
the development of the ova and sperm. Eggs deposited in a cocoon.
Development direct. No asexual generation. Fresh-water, marine and
terrestrial. Parasitic or carnivorous.
In external characters the Hirudinea are unmistakable and not to be
confused with other Annelids, except perhaps with the
_Bdellodrilidae_, which resemble them in certain particulars. The
absence of setae--save in _Acanthobdella_, where five of the anterior
segments possess each four pairs of setae with reserve setae placed
close behind them (fig. 14), and the presence of an anterior and
posterior sucker, produce a looping mode of progression similar to
that of a Geometrid larva. The absence of setae and the great
secondary annulation render the mapping of the segments a subject of
some difficulty. The most reliable test appears to be the nerve
ganglia, which are more distinct from the intervening connectives than
in other Annelids.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Acanthobdella_, from the ventral surface,
showing the five sets of setae (S1 to S5) and the replacing setae (Sr)
behind them. The three pairs of pigmented spots show the position of
the eyes on the dorsal surface. (After Kovalevsky.)]
In the middle of the body, where the limits of the somites can be
checked by a comparison with the arrangement of the nephridia and the
gonads, and where the ganglia are quite distinct and separated by long
connectives, each ganglion is seen to consist of six masses of cells
enclosed by capsules and to give off three nerves on each side. This
corresponds to the usual presence (in the _Rhynchobdellidae_) of three
annuli to each segment. Anteriorly and posteriorly separate ganglia
have fused. The brain consists not only of a group of six capsules
corresponding to the archicerebrum of the Oligochaeta, but of a
further mass of cells surrounding and existing below the alimentary
canal, which can be analysed into five or six more separate ganglia.
The whole mass lies in the seventh or eighth segment. At the posterior
end of the body there are likewise seven separate ganglia partially
fused to form a single ganglionic mass, which innervates the segments
lying behind the anus and corresponding to the posterior sucker. So
that a leech in which only twenty-seven segments are apparent by the
enumeration of the annuli, separate ganglia, nephridia, lines of
sensillae upon the body, really possesses an additional seven lying
behind that which is apparently the last of the series and crowded
together into a minute space. The annuli into which segments are
externally divided are so deeply incised as to render it impossible to
distinguish, as can be readily done in the Oligochaeta as a rule, the
limits of an annulus from that of a true segment. As remarked, the
prevalent number of annuli to a segment is three in the
_Rhynchobdellidae_. But in that group (_Cystobranchus_) there may be
as many as eight annuli. In the _Gnathobdellidae_ the prevailing
number of annuli to a segment is five; but here again the number is
often increased, and _Trocheta_ has no less than eleven. The reason
for this excessive annulation has been seen in the limited number of
segments (thirty-four) of which the body is composed, which are laid
down early and do not increase. In the Oligochaeta, on the other hand,
there is growth of new segments. It is important to notice that the
metameric plan of growth of Chaetopods is still preserved.
The nephridia are like those of the Oligochaeta in general structure;
that is to say, they consist of drain-pipe cells which are placed end
to end and are perforated by their duct. The internal funnel varies in
the same way as in the Oligochaeta in the number of cells which form
it. In _Clepsine_ (_Glossiphonia_) there are only three cells, and in
_Nephelis_ five to eight cells. In _Hirudo_ the funnel is not pervious
and is composed of a large number of cells. Externally, the nephridium
opens by a vesicle, as in many Oligochaetes whose lumen is
intercellular. In _Pontobdella_ and _Branchellion_ the nephridia form
a network extending from segment to segment, but there is only one
pair of funnels in each segment. Slight differences in form have been
noted between nephridia of different segments; but the Hirudinea do
not show the marked differentiation that is to be seen in some other
Chaetopods; nor do the nephridia ever acquire any relations to the
alimentary canal.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Section of _Acanthobdella_ (after
Kovalevsky).
c, Coelom.
c.ch, Coelomic epithelium (yellow-cells).
cg, Glandular cells.
cl, Muscle cells of lateral line.
cp, Pigment cells.
ep, Ectoderm.
g, Nerve cord.
m, Intestine.
mc, Circular muscle.
ml, Longitudinal muscle.
vd, Dorsal vessel.
vv, Ventral vessel.]
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Section of _Acanthobdella_ (after
Kovalevsky). Identical letters as in fig. 2; in addition, cn, nerve
cord; in, intestine; nf, parts of nephridium; on, external opening of
nephridium; ov, ova; t, testis.]
_Coelom._--The coelom of the Hirudinea differs in most genera from
that of the Oligochaeta and Polychaeta. The difference is that it is
broken up into a complex sinus system. The least modified type is
shown by _Acanthobdella_, a leech, parasitic upon fishes, in which
transverse sections (see figs. 15 and 16) show the gut, the nervous
system, &c., lying in a spacious chamber which is the coelom. This
coelom is lined by peritoneal cells and is divided into a series of
metameres by septa which correspond to the segmentation of the body,
the arrangement being thus precisely like that of typical Chaetopoda.
Moreover, upon the intestine the coelomic cells are modified into
chloragogen cells. In _Acanthobdella_ the testes are, however, not
contained in the general coelom, and the nephridia lie in the septa.
It is remarkable, in view of the spaciousness of the coelom, that the
funnels of the latter have not been seen. _Ozobranchus_ possesses a
coelom which is less typically chaetopodous than that of
_Acanthobdella_, but more so than in other leeches. There is a
spacious cavity surrounding the gut and containing also blood-vessels,
and to some extent the generative organs, and the nervous cord.
Furthermore, in the mid region of the body this coelom is broken up by
metamerically arranged septa, as in _Acanthobdella_. These septa are,
however, rather incomplete and are not fastened to the gut; and, as in
_Acanthobdella_, the nephridia are embedded in them. In addition to
the median lacuna there are two lateral lacunae, one upon each side.
These regions of the coelom end at the ends of the body and
communicate with each other by means of a branched system of coelomic
sinuses, which are in places very fine tubes. Neither in this genus
nor in the last is there any communication between coelom and vascular
system. In _Clepsine_ (_Glossiphonia_) there is a further breaking up
of the coelom. The median lacuna no longer exists, but is represented
by a dorsal and ventral sinus. The former lodges the dorsal, the
latter the ventral, blood-vessel. The gut has no coelomic space
surrounding it. A complex network places these sinuses and the
lateral sinuses in communication. Here also the blood system has no
communication with the sinus system of the coelom. In _Hirudo_ and the
_Gnathobdellidae_ there is only one system of cavities which consist
of four principal longitudinal trunks, of which the two lateral are
contractile, which communicate with a network ramifying everywhere,
even among the cells of the epidermis. The network is partly formed
out of pigmented cells which are excavated and join to form tubes, the
so-called botryoidal tissue, not found among the _Rhynchobdellidae_ at
all. It seems clear from the recent investigations of A.G. Bourne and
E.S. Goodrich that the vascular system and the coelom are in
communication (as in vertebrates by means of the lymph system). On the
other hand, it has been held that in these leeches there is no
vascular system at all and that the entire system of spaces is coelom.
In favour of regarding the vascular system as totally absent, is the
fact that the median coelomic channels contain no dorsal and ventral
vessel. In favour of seeing in the lateral trunks and their branches a
vascular system, is the contractility of the former, and the fact of
the intrusion of the latter into the epidermis, matched among the
Oligochaeta, where undoubted blood capillaries perforate the
epidermis. A further fact must be considered in deciding this
question, which is the discovery of ramifying coelomic tubes,
approaching close to, but not entering, the epidermis in the
Polychaete _Arenicola_. These tubes are lined by flattened epithelium
and often contain blood capillaries; they communicate with the coelom
and are to be regarded as prolongation of it into the thickness of the
body wall.
_Gonads and Gonad Ducts._--The gonads and their ducts in the Hirudinea
invariably form a closed system of cavities entirely shut off from the
coelom in which they lie. There is thus a broad resemblance to the
_Eudrilidae_, to which group of Oligochaeta the Hirudinea are further
akin by reason of the invariably unpaired condition of the generative
apertures, and the existence of a copulatory apparatus (both of which
characters, however, are present occasionally in other Oligochaeta).
The testes are more numerous than the ovaries, of which latter there
are never more than one pair. The testes vary in numbers of pairs.
Four (_Ozobranchus_) to six (_Glossiphonia_) or ten (_Philaemon_) are
common numbers. In _Acanthobdella_, however, the testes of each side
of the body have grown together to form a continuous band, which
extends in front of external pore. Each testis communicates by means
of an efferent duct with a common collecting duct of its side of the
body, which opens on to the exterior by means of a protrusible penis,
and to which is sometimes appended a seminal vesicle. The efferent
ducts are ciliated, and there is a patch of cilia at the point where
they communicate with the cavity of each testis. The ovaries are more
extensive in some forms (e.g. _Ozobranchus_) than in others, where
they are small rounded bodies. The two ducts continuous with the
gonads open by a common vagina on to the exterior behind the male
pores. This "vagina" is sometimes of exaggerated size. Thus, in
_Philaemon pungens_ (Lambert) it has the form of a large sac, into
which open by a single orifice the conjoined oviducts. From this
vagina arises a narrow duct leading to the exterior. In _Ozobranchus_
the structures in question are still more complicated. The two long
ovarian sacs communicate with each other by a transverse bridge before
uniting to form the terminal canal. Into each ovarian sac behind the
transverse junction opens a slender tube, which is greatly coiled,
and, in its turn, opens into a spherical "spermathecal sac." From this
an equally slender tube proceeds, which joins its fellow of the
opposite side, and the two form a thick, walled tube, which opens on
to the exterior within the bursa copulatrix through which the penis
protrudes. These two last-mentioned types show features which can be,
as it seems, matched in the Eudrilidae.
The gonads develop (O. Burger) in coelomic spaces close to nephridial
funnels, which have, however, no relation to the gonad ducts. The
ovaries are solid bodies, of which the outer layer becomes separated
from the plug of cells lying within; thus a cavity is formed which is
clearly coelom. This cavity and its walls becomes prolonged to form
the oviducts. A stage exactly comparable to the stage in the leeches,
where the ovary is surrounded by a closed sac, has been observed in
_Eudrilus_. In this Annelid later the sac in question joins its
fellow, passing beneath the nerve cord exactly as in the leech, and
also grows out to reach the exterior. The sole difference is therefore
that in _Eudrilus_ the ovarian sac gives rise to a tube which
bifurcates, one branch meeting a corresponding branch of the other
ovary of the pair, while the second branch reaches the exterior. In
the leech the two branches are fused into one. We have here clearly a
case of a true coelomoduct performing the function of an oviduct in
both leeches and _Eudrilidae_. The facts just referred to suggest
further comparisons between the Hirudinea and _Eudrilidae_. The large
sacs which have been termed vagina are suggestive of the large
coelomic spermathecae in Eudrilids, a comparison which needs, however,
embryological data, not at present forthcoming, for its justification.
It is at least clear that in _Ozobranchus_ this comparison is
justifiable; but only probable, or perhaps possible, in the case of
_Philaemon_. In the former, the duct, leading from the ovarian sac,
and swelling along its course into the spherical sac, the
"spermatheca," is highly suggestive of the oviduct and receptaculum of
the _Eudrilidae_.
The testes during development become hollowed out and are prolonged
into the vasa efferentia. These ducts therefore have not their exact
counterparts in the Oligochaeta, unless we are to assume that they
collectively are represented by the seminal vesicles of earthworms and
the vasa deferentia. It is to be noted that the Hirudinea differ from
the Oligochaeta in that the male pore is in advance of the gonads
(except in _Acanthobdella_, which here, as in so many points,
approximates to the Oligochaeta), whereas in Oligochaeta that pore is
behind the gonads (again with an exception, _Allurus_).
_Classification_.--The Hirudinea may be divided into three families:--
(i.) _Rhynchobdellidae_.--A protrusible proboscis exists, but there
are no jaws. The blood is colourless. _Pontobdella_, _Glossiphonia_,
&c.
(ii.) _Gnathobdellidae_.--A proboscis absent, but jaws usually
present. Blood coloured red with haemoglobin. _Hirudo_, _Nephelis_,
&c.
(iii.) _Acanthobdellidae_.--Proboscis present, but short. Paired setae
of Oligochaetous pattern present in anterior segments. Blood red.
_Acanthobdella_.
LITERATURE.--A.O. Kovalevsky, _Bull. Imp. Sci._ (St Petersburg,
November 1896) (_Acanthobdella_); A.G. Bourne, _Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sci._, 1884; A. Oka, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._, 1894; E.S. Goodrich,
_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._, 1899; W.E. Castle, _Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool._, 1900; A.M. Lambert, _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (Victoria, 1897); C.O.
Whitman, _Journ. Morph._, 1889 and 1891; O. Burger, _Zeitschr. wiss.
Zool._, 1902, and other memoirs by the above, and by St V. Apathy, R.
Blanchard, H. Bolsius, A. Dendy, R.S. Bergh, &c. (F. E. B.)
CHAETOSOMATIDA, a small group of minute, free-living, aquatic organisms
which are usually placed as an annex to the Nematoda. Indeed Mechnikov,
to whom we owe much of our knowledge of these forms, calls them
"creeping Nematoda." They are usually found amongst seaweed in temperate
seas, but they are probably widely distributed; some are fresh-water.
The genus _Chaetosoma_, with the two species _Ch. claparedii_ and _Ch.
ophicephalum_ and the genus _Tristicochaeta_, have swollen heads. The
third genus _Rhabdogaster_ has no such distinct head, though the body
may be swollen anteriorly. The mouth is terminal and anterior and
surrounded by a ring of spicules or a half-ring of hooks. Scattered
hairs cover the body. Just in front of the anus there is in _Chaetosoma_
a double, and in _Tristicochaeta_ a triple row of about fifteen stout
cylindrical projections upon which the animals creep. The females are a
little larger than the males; in _Ch. claparedii_ the former attain a
length of 1.5 mm., the latter of 1.12 mm. The mouth opens into an
oesophagus which passes into an intestine; this opens by a ventral anus
situated a little in front of the posterior end. The testis is single,
and its duct opens with the anus, and is provided with a couple of
spicules. The ovary is double, and the oviducts open by a median ventral
pore about the middle of the body; in this region there is a second
swelling both in _Chaetosoma_ and in _Rhabdogaster_. The last-named form
is in the female 0.36 mm. in length. In it the hairs are confined to the
dorsal middle line and the creeping setae are hooked, of a finer
structure than in _Chaetosoma_, and situated so far forward that the
vagina opens amongst them. _Ch. ophicephalum_ has been taken in the
English Channel.
[Illustration: From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. ii. "Worms." by
permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
Mature female of _Chaetosoma daparedii_, (From Mechnikov.) a,
Oesophagus; b, intestine; c, anus; d, ovary; e, generative pore; f,
ventral bristles.]
See E. Mechnikov, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._ xvii., 1867, p. 537;
Panceri, _Atti Acc. Napoli_, vii., 1878, p. 7. (A. E. S.)
CHAFER, a word used in modern speech to distinguish the beetles of the
family _Scarabaeidae_, and more especially those species which feed on
leaves in the adult state. The word is derived from the O. Eng.
_ceafor_, and it is interesting to note that the cognate Ger. _Kafer_ is
applied to beetles of all kinds. For the characters of the
_Scarabaeidae_ see COLEOPTERA. This family includes a large number of
beetles, some of which feed on dung and others on vegetable tissues.
The cockchafers and their near allies belong to the subfamily
_Melolonthinae_, and the rose-chafers to the _Cetoniinae_; in both the
beetles eat leaves, and their grubs spend a long life underground
devouring roots. In Britain the Melolonthines that are usually noted as
injurious are the two species of cockchafer (_Melolontha vulgaris_ and
_M. hippocastani_), large heavy beetles with black pubescent pro-thorax,
brown elytra and an elongated pointed tail-process; the summer-chafer
(_Rhizotrogus solstitialis_), a smaller pale brown chafer; and the still
smaller garden-chafer or "cocker-bundy" (_Phyllopertha horticola_),
which has a dark green pro-thorax and brown elytra. Of the Cetoniines,
the beautiful metallic green rose-chafer, _Cetonia aurata_, sometimes
causes damage, especially in gardens. The larvae of the chafers are
heavy, soft-skinned grubs, with hard brown heads provided with powerful
mandibles, three pairs of well-developed legs, and a swollen abdomen. As
they grow, the larvae become strongly flexed towards the ventral
surface, and lie curled up in their earthen cells, feeding on roots. The
larval life lasts several years, and in hard frosts the grubs go deep
down away from the surface. Pupation takes place in the autumn, and
though the perfect insect emerges from the cuticle very soon afterwards,
it remains in its underground cell for several months, not making its
way to the upper air until the ensuing summer. After pairing, the female
crawls down into the soil to lay her eggs. The grubs of chafers, when
turned up by the plough, are greedily devoured by poultry, pigs and
various wild birds. When the beetles become so numerous as to call for
destruction, they are usually shaken off the trees where they rest on to
sheets or tarred boards. On the continent of Europe chafers are far more
numerous than in the United Kingdom, and the rural governments in France
give rewards for their destruction. D. Sharp states that in the
department of Seine-inferieure 867,173,000 cockchafers and 647,000,000
larvae were killed in the four years preceding 1870.
The anatomy of _Melolontha_ is very fully described in a classical
memoir by H.E. Strauss-Durckheim (Paris, 1828). (G. H. C.)
CHAFF (from the A.S. _ceaf_, allied to the O. High Ger. _cheva_, a husk
or pod), the husks left after threshing grain, and also hay and straw
chopped fine as food for cattle; hence, figuratively, the refuse or
worthless part of anything. The colloquial use of the word, to chaff, in
the sense of to banter or to make fun of a person, may be derived from
this figurative sense, or from "to chafe," meaning to vex or irritate.
CHAFFARINAS, or ZAITARINES, a group of islands belonging to Spain off
the north coast of Morocco, near the Algerian frontier, 2-1/2 m. to the
north of Cape del Agna. The largest of these isles, Del Congreso, is
rocky and hilly. It has a watch-house on the coast nearest to Morocco.
Isabella II., the central island, contains several batteries, barracks
and a penal convict settlement. The Spanish government has undertaken
the construction of breakwaters to unite this island with the
neighbouring islet of El Rey, with a view to enclose a deep and already
sheltered anchorage. This roadstead affords a safe refuge for many large
vessels. The Chaffarinas, which are the _Tres Insulae_ of the Romans and
the _Zafran_ of the Arabs, were occupied by Spain in 1848. The Spanish
occupation anticipated by a few days a French expedition sent from Oran
to annex the islands to Algeria. The population of the islands is under
1000.
CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA (1842- ), American general, was born at Orwell,
Ohio, on the 14th of April 1842. At the outbreak of the Civil War he
entered the United States cavalry as a private, and he rose to
commissioned rank in 1863, becoming brevet captain in 1865. He remained
in the army after the war and took part with distinction in many Indian
campaigns. His promotion was, however, slow, and he was at the age of
fifty-six still a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. But in 1898, at the
outbreak of the Spanish-American War, he was made brigadier-general and
soon afterwards major-general of volunteers. In the Cuban campaign he won
particular distinction, and the victory of the Americans in the action of
El Caney was in large measure due to his careful personal reconnaissances
of the ground to be attacked and to the endurance of his own brigade.
After reverting for a time to the rank of brigadier-general, he was made
a major-general U.S.V. again in 1900 and was appointed to command the
United States contingent in China. He took a brilliant and successful
part in the advance on Peking and the relief of the Legations. In 1901 he
became a major-general in the regular army, and in 1901-1902 commanded
the Division of the Philippines. In 1902-1903 he commanded the Department
of the East, and from 1904 to 1906 was chief of the general staff of the
army. In 1904 he received the rank of lieutenant-general in the United
States army, being the first enlisted man of the regular army to attain
this, the highest rank in the service. He was retired at his own request
on the 1st of February 1906, after more than forty years' service.
CHAFFINCH (_Fringilla coelebs_), the common English name of a bird
belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ (see FINCH), and distinguished,
in the male sex, by the deep greyish blue of its crown feathers, the
yellowish green of its rump, the white of the wing coverts, so disposed
as to form two conspicuous bars, and the reddish brown passing into
vinous red of the throat and breast. The female is drab, but shows the
same white markings as the male, and the young males resemble the
females until after the first autumn moult, when they gradually assume
the plumage of their sex. The chaffinch breeds early in the season, and
its song may often be heard in February. Its nest, which is a model of
neatness and symmetry, it builds on trees and bushes, preferring such as
are overgrown with moss and lichens. It is chiefly composed of moss and
wool, lined internally with grass, wool, feathers, and whatever soft
material the locality affords. The outside consists of moss and lichens,
and according to Selby, "is always accordant with the particular colour
of its situation." When built in the neighbourhood of towns the nest is
somewhat slovenly and untidy, being often composed of bits of dirty
straw, pieces of paper and blackened moss; in one instance, near
Glasgow, the author of the _Birds of the West of Scotland_ found several
postage-stamps thus employed. It lays four or five eggs of a pale
purplish buff, streaked and spotted with purplish red. In spring the
chaffinch is destructive to early flowers, and to young radishes and
turnips just as they appear above the surface; in summer, however, it
feeds principally on insects and their larvae, while in autumn and
winter its food consists of grain and other seeds. On the continent of
Europe the chaffinch is a favourite song-bird, especially in Germany,
where great attention is paid to its training.
CHAFING-DISH (from the O. Fr. _chaufer_, to make warm), a kind of
portable grate heated with charcoal, and used for cooking or keeping
food warm. In a light form, and heated over a spirit lamp, it is also
used for cooking various dainty dishes at table. The employment of the
chafing-dish for the latter purpose has been largely restored in modern
cookery.
CHAGOS, a group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, belonging to Britain,
disposed in circular form round the Chagos bank, in 4 deg. 44' to 7 deg.
39' S., and 70 deg. 55' to 72 deg. 52' E. The atolls on the south and
east side of the bank, which has a circumference of about 270 m., have
disappeared through subsidence; a few--Egmont, Danger, Eagle, and Three
Brothers--still remain on the east side, but most of the population
(about 700) is centred on Diego Garcia, which lies on the south-east
side, and is nearly 13 m. long by 6 m. wide. The lagoon, which is
enclosed by two coral barriers and accessible to the largest vessels on
the north side, forms one of the finest natural harbours in the world.
The group, which has a total land area of 76 sq. m., is dependent for
administrative purposes on Mauritius, and is regularly visited by
vessels from that colony. The only product is cocoa-nut oil, of which
about 106,000 gallons are annually exported. The French occupied the
islands in 1791 from Mauritius, and the oil industry (from which the
group is sometimes called the Oil Islands) came into the hands of French
Creoles.
CHAGRES, a village of the Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast of
the Isthmus, at the mouth of the Chagres river, and about 8 m. W. of
Colon. It has a harbour from 10 to 12 ft. deep, which is difficult to
enter, however, on account of bars at its mouth. The port was discovered
by Columbus in 1502, and was opened for traffic with Panama, on the
Pacific coast, by way of the Chagres river, in the 16th century. With
the decline of Porto Bello in the 18th century Chagres became the chief
Atlantic port of the Isthmus, and was at the height of its importance
during the great rush of gold-hunters across the Isthmus to California
in 1849 and the years immediately following. With the completion of the
Panama railway in 1855, however, travel was diverted to Colon, and
Chagres soon became a village of miserable huts, with no evidence of its
former importance. On a high rock at the mouth of the river stands the
castle of Lorenzo, which was destroyed by Sir Henry Morgan when he
captured the town in 1671, but was rebuilt soon afterwards by the
Spaniards. Chagres was again captured in 1740 by British forces under
Admiral Edward Vernon.
CHAIN (through the O. Fr. _choeine_, _choene_, &c., from Lat. _catena_),
a series of links of metal or other material so connected together that
the whole forms a flexible band or cord. Chains are used for a variety
of purposes, such as fastening, securing, or connecting together two or
more objects, supporting or lifting weights, transmitting mechanical
power, &c.; or as an ornament to serve as a collar, as a symbol of
office or state, or as part of the insignia of an order of knighthood;
or as a device from which to hang a jewelled or other pendant, a watch,
&c. (see COLLAR). Ornamental chains are made with a great variety of
links, but those intended for utilitarian purposes are mostly of two
types. In stud chains a stud or brace is inserted across each link to
prevent its sides from collapsing inwards under strain, whereas in open
link chains the links have no studs. The addition of studs is reckoned
to increase the load which the chain can safely bear by 50%. Small
chains of the open-link type are to a great extent made by machinery.
For larger sizes the smith cuts off a length of iron rod of suitable
diameter, forms it while hot to the shape of the link by repeated blows
of his hammer, and welds together the two ends of the link, previously
slipped inside its fellow, by the aid of the same tool; in some cases
the bending is done in a mechanical press and the welding under a power
hammer (see also CABLE). Weldless chains are also made; in A.G.
Strathern's process, for instance, cruciform steel bars are pressed,
while hot, into links, each without join and engaging with its
neighbours. Chains used for transmitting power are known as
pitch-chains; the chain of a bicycle (q.v.) is an example.
From the use of the chain as employed to bind or fetter a prisoner or
slave, comes the figurative application to anything which serves as a
constraining or restraining force; and from its series of connected
links, to any series of objects, events, arguments, &c., connected by
succession, logical sequence or reasoning. Specific uses are for a
measuring line in land-surveying, consisting of 100 links, i.e. iron
rods, 7.92 in. in length, making 22 yds. in all, hence a lineal measure
of that length; and, as a nautical term, for the contrivance by which
the lower shrouds of a mast are extended and secured to the ship's
sides, consisting of dead-eyes, chain-plates, and chain-wale or
"channel."
CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. _choere_, through O. Fr. _chaere_ or _chaiere_,
from Lat. _cathedra_, later _caledra_, Gr. [Greek: kathedra], seat, cf.
"cathedral"; the modern Fr. form _chaise_, a chair, has been adopted in
English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; _chaire_ in
French is still used of a professorial or ecclesiastical "chair," or
_cathedra_), a movable seat, usually with four legs, for a single
person, the most varied and familiar article of domestic furniture. The
chair is of extreme antiquity, although for many centuries and indeed
for thousands of years it was an appanage of state and dignity rather
than an article of ordinary use. "The chair" is still extensively used
as the emblem of authority in the House of Commons and in public
meetings. It was not, in fact, until the 16th century that it became
common anywhere. The chest, the bench and the stool were until then the
ordinary seats of everyday life, and the number of chairs which have
survived from an earlier date is exceedingly limited; most of such
examples are of ecclesiastical or seigneurial origin. Our knowledge of
the chairs of remote antiquity is derived almost entirely from
monuments, sculpture and paintings. A few actual examples exist in the
British Museum, in the Egyptian museum at Cairo, and elsewhere. In
ancient Egypt they appear to have been of great richness and splendour.
Fashioned of ebony and ivory, or of carved and gilded wood, they were
covered with costly stuffs and supported upon representations of the
legs of beasts of the chase or the figures of captives. An arm-chair in
fine preservation found in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings is
astonishingly similar, even in small details, to that "Empire" style
which followed Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. The earliest monuments of
Nineveh represent a chair without a back but with tastefully carved legs
ending in lions' claws or bulls' hoofs; others are supported by figures
in the nature of caryatides or by animals. The earliest known form of
Greek chair, going back to five or six centuries before Christ, had a
back but stood straight up, front and back. On the frieze of the
Parthenon Zeus occupies a square seat with a bar-back and thick turned
legs; it is ornamented with winged sphinxes and the feet of beasts. The
characteristic Roman chairs were of marble, also adorned with sphinxes;
the curule chair was originally very similar in form to the modern
folding chair, but eventually received a good deal of ornament.
The most famous of the very few chairs which have come down from a
remote antiquity is the reputed chair of St Peter in St Peter's at Rome.
The wooden portions are much decayed, but it would appear to be
Byzantine work of the 6th century, and to be really an ancient _sedia
gestatoria_. It has ivory carvings representing the labours of Hercules.
A few pieces of an earlier oaken chair have been let in; the existing
one, Gregorovius says, is of acacia wood. The legend that this was the
curule chair of the senator Pudens is necessarily apocryphal. It is not,
as is popularly supposed, enclosed in Bernini's bronze chair, but is
kept under triple lock and exhibited only once in a century. Byzantium,
like Greece and Rome, affected the curule form of chair, and in addition
to lions' heads and winged figures of Victory and dolphin-shaped arms
used also the lyre-back which has been made familiar by the
pseudo-classical revival of the end of the 18th century. The chair of
Maximian in the cathedral of Ravenna is believed to date from the middle
of the 6th century. It is of marble, round, with a high back, and is
carved in high relief with figures of saints and scenes from the
Gospels--the Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi, the flight into
Egypt and the baptism of Christ. The smaller spaces are filled with
carvings of animals, birds, flowers and foliated ornament. Another very
ancient seat is the so-called "Chair of Dagobert" in the Louvre. It is
of cast bronze, sharpened with the chisel and partially gilt; it is of
the curule or faldstool type and supported upon legs terminating in the
heads and feet of animals. The seat, which was probably of leather, has
disappeared. Its attribution depends entirely upon the statement of
Suger, abbot of St Denis in the 12th century, who added a back and arms.
Its age has been much discussed, but Viollet-le-Duc dated it to early
Merovingian times, and it may in any case be taken as the oldest
faldstool in existence. To the same generic type belongs the famous
abbots' chair of Glastonbury; such chairs might readily be taken to
pieces when their owners travelled. The _faldisterium_ in time acquired
arms and a back, while retaining its folding shape. The most famous, as
well as the most ancient, English chair is that made at the end of the
13th century for Edward I., in which most subsequent monarchs have been
crowned. It is of an architectural type and of oak, and was covered with
gilded _gesso_ which long since disappeared.
Passing from these historic examples we find the chair monopolized by
the ruler, lay or ecclesiastical, to a comparatively late date. As the
seat of authority it stood at the head of the lord's table, on his dais,
by the side of his bed. The seigneurial chair, commoner in France and
the Netherlands than in England, is a very interesting type,
approximating in many respects to the episcopal or abbatial throne or
stall. It early acquired a very high back and sometimes had a canopy.
Arms were invariable, and the lower part was closed in with panelled or
carved front and sides--the seat, indeed, was often hinged and
sometimes closed with a key. That we are still said to sit "in" an
arm-chair and "on" other kinds of chairs is a reminiscence of the time
when the lord or seigneur sat "in his chair." These throne-like seats
were always architectural in character, and as Gothic feeling waned took
the distinctive characteristics of Renaissance work. It was owing in
great measure to the Renaissance that the chair ceased to be an appanage
of state, and became the customary companion of whomsoever could afford
to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily came into
general use, and almost at once began to reflect the fashions of the
hour. No piece of furniture has ever been so close an index to sumptuary
changes. It has varied in size, shape and sturdiness with the fashion
not only of women's dress but of men's also. Thus the chair which was
not, even with its arms purposely suppressed, too ample during the
several reigns of some form or other of hoops and farthingale, became
monstrous when these protuberances disappeared. Again, the costly laced
coats of the dandy of the 18th and early 19th centuries were so
threatened by the ordinary form of seat that a "conversation chair" was
devised, which enabled the buck and the ruffler to sit with his face to
the back, his valuable tails hanging unimpeded over the front. The early
chair almost invariably had arms, and it was not until towards the close
of the 16th century that the smaller form grew common.
The majority of the chairs of all countries until the middle of the 17th
century were of oak without upholstery, and when it became customary to
cushion them, leather was sometimes employed; subsequently velvet and
silk were extensively used, and at a later period cheaper and often more
durable materials. Leather was not infrequently used even for the costly
and elaborate chairs of the faldstool form--occasionally sheathed in
thin plates of silver--which Venice sent all over Europe. To this day,
indeed, leather is one of the most frequently employed materials for
chair covering. The outstanding characteristic of most chairs until the
middle of the 17th century was massiveness and solidity. Being usually
made of oak, they were of considerable weight, and it was not until the
introduction of the handsome Louis XIII. chairs with cane backs and
seats that either weight or solidity was reduced. Although English
furniture derives so extensively from foreign and especially French and
Italian models, the earlier forms of English chairs owed but little to
exotic influences. This was especially the case down to the end of the
Tudor period, after which France began to set her mark upon the British
chair. The squat variety, with heavy and sombre back, carved like a
piece of panelling, gave place to a taller, more slender, and more
elegant form, in which the framework only was carved, and attempts were
made at ornament in new directions. The stretcher especially offered
opportunities which were not lost upon the cabinet-makers of the
Restoration. From a mere uncompromising cross-bar intended to strengthen
the construction it blossomed, almost suddenly, into an elaborate
scroll-work or an exceedingly graceful semicircular ornament connecting
all four legs, with a vase-shaped knob in the centre. The arms and legs
of chairs of this period were scrolled, the splats of the back often
showing a rich arrangement of spirals and scrolls. This most decorative
of all types appears to have been popularized in England by the
cavaliers who had been in exile with Charles II. and had become familiar
with it in the north-western parts of the European continent. During he
reign of William and Mary these charming forms degenerated into
something much stiffer and more rectangular, with a solid, more or less
fiddle-shaped splat and a cabriole leg with pad feet. The more
ornamental examples had cane seats and ill-proportioned cane backs. From
these forms was gradually developed the Chippendale chair, with its
elaborately interlaced back, its graceful arms and square or cabriole
legs, the latter terminating in the claw and ball or the pad foot.
Hepplewhite, Sheraton and Adam all aimed at lightening the chair, which,
even in the master hands of Chippendale, remained comparatively heavy.
The endeavour succeeded, and the modern chair is everywhere
comparatively slight. Chippendale and Hepplewhite between them
determined what appears to be the final form of the chair, for since
their time practically no new type has lasted, and in its main
characteristics the chair of the 20th century is the direct derivative
of that of the later 18th.
The 18th century was, indeed, the golden age of the chair, especially in
France and England, between which there was considerable give and take
of ideas. Even Diderot could not refrain from writing of them in his
_Encyclopedie_. The typical Louis Seize chair, oval-backed and ample of
seat, with descending arms and round-reeded legs, covered in Beauvais or
some such gay tapestry woven with Boucher or Watteau-like scenes, is a
very gracious object, in which the period reached its high-water mark.
The Empire brought in squat and squabby shapes, comfortable enough no
doubt, but entirely destitute of inspiration. English Empire chairs were
often heavier and more sombre than those of French design. Thenceforward
the chair in all countries ceased to attract the artist. The _art
nouveau_ school has occasionally produced something of not unpleasing
simplicity; but more often its efforts have been frankly ugly or even
grotesque. There have been practically no novelties, with the exception
perhaps of the basket-chair and such like, which have been made possible
by modern command over material. So much, indeed, is the present
indebted to the past in this matter that even the revolving chair, now
so familiar in offices, has a pedigree of something like four centuries
(see also SEDAN-CHAIR). (J. P.-B.)
CHAISE (the French for "chair," through a transference from a
"sedan-chair" to a wheeled vehicle), a light two- or four-wheeled
carriage with a movable hood or "calash"; the "post-chaise" was the
fast-travelling carriage of the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was
closed and four-wheeled for two or four horses and with the driver
riding postillion.
CHAKRATA, a mountain cantonment in the Dehra Dun district of the United
Provinces of India, on the range of hills overlooking the valleys of the
Jumna and the Tons, at an elevation of 7000 ft. It was founded in 1866
and first occupied in April 1869.
CHALCEDON, more correctly CALCHEDON (mod. _Kadikeui_), an ancient
maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost directly opposite
Byzantium, south of Scutari. It was a Megarian colony founded on a site
so obviously inferior to that which was within view on the opposite
shore, that it received from the oracle the name of "the City of the
Blind." In its early history it shared the fortunes of Byzantium, was
taken by the satrap Otanes, vacillated long between the Lacedaemonian
and the Athenian interests, and was at last bequeathed to the Romans by
Attalus III. of Pergamum (133 B.C.). It was partly destroyed by
Mithradates, but recovered during the Empire, and in A.D. 451 was the
seat of the Fourth General Council. It fell under the repeated attacks
of the barbarian hordes who crossed over after having ravaged Byzantium,
and furnished an encampment to the Persians under Chosroes, c. 616-626.
The Turks used it as a quarry for building materials for Constantinople.
The site is now occupied by the village of Kadikeui ("Village of the
Judge"), which forms the tenth "cercle" of the municipality of
Constantinople. Pop. about 33,000, of whom 8000 are Moslems. There is a
large British colony with a church, and also Greek and Armenian churches
and schools, and a training college for Roman Catholic Armenians. To the
S. are the ruins of Panteichion (mod. _Pendik_), where Belisarius is
said to have lived in retirement.
See J. von Hammer, _Constantinopolis_ (Pesth, 1822); Murray's
_Handbook for Constantinople_ (London, 1900).
CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF, the fourth ecumenical council of the Catholic
Church, was held in 451, its occasion being the Eutychian heresy and the
notorious "Robber Synod" (see EUTYCHES and EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF), which
called forth vigorous protests both in the East and in the West, and a
loud demand for a new general council, a demand that was ignored by the
Eutychian Theodosius II., but speedily granted by his successor,
Marcian, a "Flavianist." In response to the imperial summons, five to
six hundred bishops, all Eastern, except the Roman legates and two
Africans, assembled in Chalcedon on the 8th of October 451. The bishop
of Rome claimed for his legates the right to preside, and insisted that
any act that failed to receive their approval would be invalid. The
first session was tumultuous; party feeling ran high, and scurrilous and
vulgar epithets were bandied to and fro. The acts of the Robber Synod
were examined; fraud, violence and coercion were charged against it; its
entire proceedings were annulled, and, at the third session, its leader,
Dioscurus, was deposed and degraded. The emperor requested a declaration
of the true faith; but the sentiment of the council was opposed to a new
symbol. It contented itself with reaffirming the Nicene and
Constantinopolitan creeds and the Ephesine formula of 431, and
accepting, only after examination, the Christological statement
contained in the _Epistola Dogmatica_ of Leo I. (q.v.) to Flavianus.
Thus the council rejected both Nestorianism and Eutychianism, and stood
upon the doctrine that Christ had two natures, each perfect in itself
and each distinct from the other, yet perfectly united in one person,
who was at once both God and man. With this statement, which was
formally subscribed in the presence of the emperor, the development of
the Christological doctrine was completed, but not in a manner to
obviate further controversy (see MONOPHYSITES and MONOTHELITES).
The remaining sessions, vii.-xvi., were occupied with matters of
discipline, complaints, claims, controversies and the like. Canons were
adopted, thirty according to the generally received tradition, although
the most ancient texts contain but twenty-eight, and, as Hefele points
out, the so-called twenty-ninth and thirtieth are properly not canons,
but repetitions of proposals made in a previous session.
The most important enactments of the council of Chalcedon were the
following: (1) the approval of the canons of the first three ecumenical
councils and of the synods of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, Changra, Antioch and
Laodicea; (2) forbidding trade, secular pursuits and war to the clergy,
bishops not even being allowed to administer the property of their
dioceses; (3) forbidding monks and nuns to marry or to return to the
world; likewise forbidding the establishment of a monastery in any
diocese without the consent of the bishop, or the disestablishment of a
monastery once consecrated; (4) punishing with deposition an ordination
or clerical appointment made for money; forbidding "absolute ordination"
(i.e. without assignment to a particular charge), the translation of
clerics except for good cause, the enrolment of a cleric in two churches
at once, and the performance of sacerdotal functions outside of one's
diocese without letters of commendation from one's bishop; (5)
confirming the jurisdiction of bishops over all clerics, regular and
secular alike, and punishing with deposition any conspiracy against
episcopal authority; (6) establishing a gradation of ecclesiastical
tribunals, viz. bishop, provincial synod, exarch of the diocese,
patriarch of Constantinople (obviously the council could not here have
been legislating for the entire church); forbidding clerics to be
running to Constantinople with complaints, without the consent of their
respective bishops; (7) confirming the possession of rural parishes to
those who had actually administered them for thirty years, providing for
the adjudication of conflicting claims, and guaranteeing the integrity
of metropolitan provinces; (8) confirming the third canon of the second
ecumenical council, which accorded to Constantinople equal privileges
([Greek: isa presbeia]) with Rome, and the second rank among the
patriarchates, and, in addition, granting to Constantinople patriarchal
jurisdiction over Pontus, Asia and Thrace.
The Roman legates, who were absent (designedly?) when this famous
twenty-eighth canon was adopted, protested against it, but in vain, the
imperial commissioners deciding in favour of its regularity and
validity. Leo I., although he recognized the council as ecumenical and
confirmed its doctrinal decrees, rejected canon xxviii. on the ground
that it contravened the sixth canon of Nicaea and infringed the rights
of Alexandria and Antioch. In what proportion zeal for the ancient
canons and the rights of others, and jealous fear of encroachment upon
his own jurisdiction, were mixed in the motives of Leo, it would be
interesting to know. The canon was universally received in the East,
and was expressly confirmed by the Quinisext Council, 692 (see
CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF).
The emperor Marcian approved the doctrinal decrees of the council and
enjoined silence in regard to theological questions. Eutyches and
Dioscurus and their followers were deposed and banished. But harmony was
not thus to be restored; hardly had the council dissolved when the
church was plunged into the Monophysite controversy.
See Mansi vi. pp. 529-1102, vii. pp. 1-868; Hardouin ii. pp. 1-772;
Hefele (2nd ed.) ii. pp. 394-578 (English translation, iii. pp.
268-464); also extended bibliographies in Herzog-Hauck,
_Realencyklopadie_, 3rd ed., s.v. "Eutyches" (by Loofs) and s.v.
"Nestorianer" (by Kessler). (T. F. C.)
CHALCEDONY, or CALCEDONY (sometimes called by old writers cassidoine), a
variety of native silica, often used as an ornamental stone. The present
application of the term is comparatively modern. The "chalcedonius" of
Pliny was quite a different mineral, being a green stone from the
copper-mines of Chalcedon, in Asia Minor, whence the name. There has
been some confusion between chalcedony and the ancient "carcedonia," a
stone which seems to have been a carbuncle from Africa, brought by way
of Carthage ([Greek: Karchedon]). Our chalcedony was probably included
by the ancients among the various kinds of jasper and agate, especially
the varieties termed "leucachates" and "cerachates."
By modern mineralogists the name chalcedony is restricted to those kinds
of silica which occur not in distinct crystals like ordinary quartz, but
in concretionary, mammillated or stalactitic forms, which break with a
fine splintery fracture, and display a delicate fibrous structure.
Chalcedony may be regarded as a micro-crystalline form of quartz. It is
rather softer and less dense than crystallized quartz, its hardness
being about 6.5 and its specific gravity 2.6, the difference being
probably due to the presence of a small amount of opaline silica between
the fibres. Chalcedony is a translucent substance of rather waxy lustre,
presenting great variety of colours, though usually white, grey, yellow
or brown. A rare blue chalcedony is sometimes polished under the name of
"sapphirine"--a term applied also to a distinct mineral (an
aluminium-magnesium silicate) from Greenland.
Chalcedony occurs as a secondary mineral in volcanic rocks, representing
usually the silica set free by the decomposition of various silicates,
and deposited in cracks, forming veins, or in vesicular hollows, forming
amygdales. Its occurrence gives the name to Chalcedony Park, Arizona. It
is found in the basalts of N. Ireland, the Faroe Isles and Iceland: it
is common in the traps of the Deccan in India, and in volcanic rocks in
Uruguay and Brazil. Certain flat oval nodules from a decomposed lava
(augite-andesite) in Uruguay present a cavity lined with quartz crystals
and enclosing liquid (a weak saline solution), with a movable
air-bubble, whence they are called "enhydros" or water-stones. Very fine
examples of stalactitic chalcedony, in whimsical forms, have been
yielded by some of the Cornish copper-mines. The surface of chalcedony
is occasionally coated with a delicate bluish bloom. A chalcedonic
deposit in the form of concentric rings, on fossils and fragments of
limestone in S. Devon, is known as "orbicular silica" or "beekite,"
having been named after Dr Henry Beeke, dean of Bristol, who first
directed attention to such deposits. Certain pseudomorphs of chalcedony
after datolite, from Haytor in Devonshire, have received the name of
"haytorite." Optical examination of many chalcedonic minerals by French
mineralogists has shown that they are aggregates of various fibrous
crystalline bodies differing from each other in certain optical
characters, whence they are distinguished as separate minerals under
such names as calcedonite, pseudocalcedonite, quartzine, lutecite and
lussatite. Many coloured and variegated chalcedonies are cut and
polished as ornamental stones, and are described under special headings.
Chalcedony has been in all ages the commonest of the stones used by the
gem-engraver.
See AGATE, BLOODSTONE, CARNELIAN, CHRYSOPRASE, HELIOTROPE, MOCHA
STONE, ONYX, SARD and SARDONYX. (F. W. R.*)
CHALCIDICUM, in Roman architecture, the vestibule or portico of a public
building opening on to the forum; as in the basilica of Eumactria at
Pompeii, and the basilica of Constantine at Rome, where it was placed at
one end.
CHALCIS, the chief town of the island of Euboea in Greece, situated on
the strait of the Euripus at its narrowest point. The name is preserved
from antiquity and is derived from the Greek [Greek: chalkos] (copper,
bronze), though there is no trace of any mines in the neighbourhood.
Chalcis was peopled by an Ionic stock which early developed great
industrial and colonizing activity. In the 8th and 7th centuries it
founded thirty town-ships on the peninsula of Chalcidice, and several
important cities in Sicily (q.v.). Its mineral produce, metal-work,
purple and pottery not only found markets among these settlements, but
were distributed over the Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth and
Samos. With the help of these allies Chalcis engaged the rival league of
its neighbour Eretria (q.v.) in the so-called Lelantine War, by which it
acquired the best agricultural district of Euboea and became the chief
city of the island. Early in the 6th century its prosperity was broken
by a disastrous war with the Athenians, who expelled the ruling
aristocracy and settled a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently
became a member of both the Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period it
gained importance as a fortress by which the Macedonian rulers
controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus III. of Syria
(192) and Mithradates VI. of Pontus (88) as a base for invading Greece.
Under Roman rule Chalcis retained a measure of commercial prosperity;
since the 6th century A.D. it again served as a fortress for the
protection of central Greece against northern invaders. From 1209 it
stood under Venetian control; in 1470 it passed to the Ottomans, who
made it the seat of a pasha. In 1688 it was successfully held against a
strong Venetian attack. The modern town has about 10,000 inhabitants,
and maintains a considerable export trade which received an impetus from
the establishment of railway connexion with Athens and Peiraeus (1904).
It is composed of two parts--the old walled town towards the Euripus,
called the Castro, where the Jewish and Turkish families who have
remained there mostly dwell; and the more modern suburb that lies
outside it, which is chiefly occupied by the Greeks. A part of the walls
of the Castro and many of the houses within it were shaken down by the
earthquake of 1894; part has been demolished in the widening of the
Euripus. The most interesting object is the church of St Paraskeve,
which was once the chief church of the Venetians; it dates from the
Byzantine period, though many of its architectural features are Western.
There is also a Turkish mosque, which is now used as a guard-house.
AUTHORITIES.--Strabo vii. fr. 11, x. p. 447; Herodotus v. 77;
Thucydides i. 15; _Corpus Inscr. Atticarum_, iv. (1) 27a, iv. (2) 10,
iv. (2) p. 22; W.M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (London,
1835), ii. 254-270; E. Curtius in _Hermes_, x. (1876), p. 220 sqq.; A.
Holm, _Lange Fehde_ (Berlin, 1884); H. Dondorff, _De Rebus
Chalcidensium_ (Gottingen, 1869); for coinage, B.V. Head, _Historia
Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 303-5; and art. NUMISMATICS: _Greek_ S
Euboea.
CHALCONDYLES[1] (or CHALCOCONDYLAS), LAONICUS, the only Athenian
Byzantine writer. Hardly anything is known of his life. He wrote a
history, in ten books, of the period from 1298-1463, describing the fall
of the Greek empire and the rise of the Ottoman Turks, which forms the
centre of the narrative, down to the conquest of the Venetians and
Mathias, king of Hungary, by Mahommed II. The capture of Constantinople
he rightly regarded as an historical event of far-reaching importance,
although the comparison of it to the fall of Troy is hardly appropriate.
The work incidentally gives a quaint and interesting sketch of the
manners and civilization of England, France and Germany, whose
assistance the Greeks sought to obtain against the Turks. Like that of
other Byzantine writers, Chalcondyles' chronology is defective, and his
adherence to the old Greek geographical nomenclature is a source of
confusion. For his account of earlier events he was able to obtain
information from his father, who was one of the most prominent men in
Athens during the struggles between the Greek and Frankish nobles. His
model is Thucydides (according to Bekker, Herodotus); his language is
tolerably pure and correct, his style simple and clear. The text,
however, is in a very corrupt state.
_Editio princeps_, ed. J.B. Baumbach (1615); in Bonn _Corpus
Scriptorum Hist. Byz._ ed. I. Bekker (1843); Migne, _Patrologia
Graeca_, clix. There is a French translation by Blaise de Vigenere
(1577, later ed. by Artus Thomas with valuable illustrations on
Turkish matters); see also F. Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Athen
im Mittelalter_, ii. (1889); Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. 66; C.
Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). There
is a biographical sketch of Laonicus and his brother in Greek by
Antonius Calosynas, a physician of Toledo, who lived in the latter
part of the 16th century (see C. Hopf, _Chroniques greco-romanes_,
1873).
His brother, DEMETRIUS CHALCONDYLES (1424-1511), was born in Athens. In
1447 he migrated to Italy, where Cardinal Bessarion gave him his
patronage. He became famous as a teacher of Greek letters and the
Platonic philosophy; in 1463 he was made professor at Padua, and in 1479
he was summoned by Lorenzo de' Medici to Florence to fill the
professorship vacated by John Argyropoulos. In 1492 he removed to Milan,
where he died in 1511. He was associated with Marsilius Ficinus, Angelus
Politianus, and Theodorus Gaza, in the revival of letters in the western
world. One of his pupils at Florence was the famous John Reuchlin.
Demetrius Chalcondyles published the editio princeps of Homer,
Isocrates, and Suidas, and a Greek grammar (_Erotemata_) in the form of
question and answer.
See H. Hody, _De Graecis illustribus_ (1742); C. Hopf, _Chroniques
greco-romanes_ (1873); E. Legrand, _Bibliographic hellenique_, i.
(1885).