FOOTNOTE:

[1] For the Cesnola controversy see C.D. Cobham's _Attempt at a

Bibliography of Cyprus_ (4th ed., 1900). See also article CYPRUS.

CESPEDES (in Ital. CEDASPE), PABLO DE (1538-1608), Spanish poet,

painter, sculptor and architect, was born at Cordova, and was educated

at Alcala de Henares, where he studied theology and Oriental languages.

On leaving the university, he went to Rome, where he became the pupil

and friend of Federigo Zuccaro, under whose direction he studied

particularly the works of Raphael and of Michelangelo. In 1560, while

yet in Rome, proceedings were taken against him by the Inquisition at

Valladolid on account of a letter which, found among the papers of the

archbishop of Toledo, had been written by Cespedes during the preceding

year, and in which he had spoken with great freedom against the holy

office and the inquisitor-general, Fernando de Valdes. Cespedes remained

in Rome at this critical moment, and he appears rightly to have treated

the prosecution with derision. It is not known how he contrived to bring

the proceedings to an end; he returned, however, to Spain a little

before 1577, and in that year was installed in a prebend of the

cathedral at Cordova, where he resided till his death. Pablo de Cespedes

has been called the most _savant_ of Spanish artists. According to his

friend Francisco Pacheco, to whom posterity is indebted for the

preservation of all of Cespedes's verse that is extant, the school of

Seville owes to him its introduction to the practice of chiaroscuro. He

was a bold and correct draughtsman, a skilful anatomist, a master of

colour and composition; and the influence he exerted to the advantage of

early Spanish art was considerable. Cristobal de Vera, Juan de Penalosa

and Zambrano were among his pupils. His best picture is a Last Supper at

Cordova, but there are good examples of his work at Seville and at

Madrid. Cespedes was author of several opuscules in prose on subjects

connected with his profession. Of his poem on _The Art of Painting_

enough was preserved by Pacheco to enable us to form an opinion of the

whole. It is esteemed the best didactic verse in Spanish; and it has

been compared, not disadvantageously, with the _Georgics_. It is written

in strong and sonorous octaves, in the majestic declamatory vein of

Fernando Herrera, and is not altogether so dull and lifeless as is most

didactic verse. It contains a glowing eulogy of Michelangelo, and some

excellent advice to young painters, insisting particularly on hard work

and on the study of nature. The few fragments yet remaining, amounting

in all to some six hundred lines, were first printed by Pacheco in his

treatise _Del arte de la pintura_, in 1649.

CESPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE (1585?-1638), Spanish novelist, was born

at Madrid about 1585. Nothing positive is known of him before the

publication of his celebrated romance, the _Poema tragico del Espanol

Gerardo, y desengano del amor lascivo_ (1615-1617); there is evidence

that he had been sentenced to eight years at the galleys previous to the

1st of January 1620, and that the penalty had been remitted; but the

nature of his offence is not stated. His treatment of political

questions in the _Historia apologetica en los sucesos del reyno de

Aragon, y su ciudad de Zaragoza, anos de 91 y 92_ (1622), having led to

the confiscation of the book, Cespedes took up his residence at

Saragossa and Lisbon. While in exile he issued a collection of short

stories entitled _Historias peregrinas y exemplares_ (1623), the

unfinished romance _Varia fortuna del soldado Pindaro_ (1626), and the

first part of his _Historia de Felipe IV._ (1631), a fulsome eulogy

which was rewarded by the author's appointment as official

historiographer to the Spanish king. Cespedes died on the 27th of

January 1638. His novels, though written in a ponderous, affected style,

display considerable imagination and insight into character. The _Poema

tragico_ has been utilized by Fletcher in _The Spanish Curate_ and in

_The Maid of the Mill_.

The _Historias peregrinas_ has been reprinted (1906) with a valuable

introduction by Sr. Cotarelo y Mori.

CESS (a shortened form of "assess"; the spelling is due to a mistaken

connexion with "census"), a tax; a term formerly more particularly

applied to local taxation, in which sense it still is used in Ireland;

otherwise it has been superseded by "rate." In India it is applied, with

the qualifying word prefixed, to any taxation, such as "irrigation-cess"

and the like, and in Scotland to the land-tax.

CESSIO BONORUM (Latin for a "surrender of goods"), in Roman law, a

voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his creditors. It did not

amount to a discharge unless the property ceded was sufficient for the

purpose, but it secured the debtor from personal arrest. The creditors

sold the goods in satisfaction, _pro tanto_, of their claims. The

procedure of _cessio bonorum_ avoided infamy, and the debtor, though his

after-acquired property might be proceeded against, could not be

deprived of the bare necessaries of life. The main features of the Roman

law of _cessio bonorum_ were adopted in Scots law, and also in the

French legal system. (See further BANKRUPTCY.)

CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO (1620?-1669?), Italian musical composer, was born

at Florence about 1620. He was a pupil of Carissimi, and after holding a

post somewhere in Florence as _maestro di cappella_ entered the papal

chapel in 1660. In 1666 he became _Vice-Kapellmeister_ at Vienna, and

died at Venice in 1669. Cesti is known principally as a composer of

operas, the most celebrated of which were _La Dori_ (Venice, 1663) and

_Il Pomo d' oro_ (Vienna, 1668). He was also a composer of

chamber-cantatas, and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate

style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the stage.

CESTIUS, LUCIUS, surnamed Pius, Latin rhetorician, flourished during the

reign of Augustus. He was a native of Smyrna, a Greek by birth.

According to Jerome, he was teaching Latin at Rome in the year 13 B.C.

He must have been living after A.D. 9, since we are told that he taunted

the son of Quintilius Varus with his father's defeat in the Teutoburgian

forest (Seneca, _Controv._ i. 3, 10). Cestius was a man of great

ability, but vain, quarrelsome and sarcastic. Before he left Asia, he

was invited to dinner by Cicero's son, then governor of the province.

His host, being uncertain as to his identity, asked a slave who Cestius

was; and on receiving the answer, "he is the man who said your father

was illiterate," ordered him to be flogged (Seneca, _Suasoriae_, vii.

13). As an orator in the schools Cestius enjoyed a great reputation, and

was worshipped by his youthful pupils, one of whom imitated him so

slavishly that he was nicknamed "my monkey" by his teacher (Seneca,

_Controv._ ix. 3, 12). As a public orator, on the other hand, he was a

failure. Although a Greek, he always used Latin in his declamations,

and, although he was sometimes at a loss for Latin words, he never

suffered from lack of ideas. Numerous specimens of his declamations will

be found in the works of Seneca the rhetorician.

See the monograph _De Lucio Cestio Pio_, by F.G. Lindner (1858); T.

Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 2 (1899);

Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist, of Roman Lit._ (Eng. tr.), S 268, 6; M.

Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_, ii.

CESTUI, CESTUY, an Anglo-French word, meaning "that person," which

appears in the legal phrases _cestui que trust_, _use_, or _vie_. It is

usually pronounced as "cetty." _Cestui que trust_ means literally "the

person for whose benefit the trust" is created. The _cestui que trust_

is the person entitled to the equitable, as opposed to the legal,

estate. Thus, if land be granted unto, and to the use of A. in trust for

B., B. is _cestui que trust_, and A. trustee. The term, principally

owing to its cumbersomeness, is being gradually superseded in modern law

by that of "beneficiary." _Cestui que use_ (sometimes _cestui a que

use_) means "the person for whose benefit a use" is created (see TRUST).

_Cestui que vie_ is "the person for whose life" lands are held by

another (see REMAINDER).

CETACEA (from the Gr. [Greek: ketos], a whale), the name of the

mammalian order represented by whales, dolphins, porpoises, &c. From

their fish-like form, which is manifestly merely an adaptation to their

purely aquatic life, these creatures are often regarded as fishes,

although they are true mammals, with warm blood, and suckle their young.

The general form is essentially fish-like, the spindle-shaped body

passing anteriorly into the head without any distinct neck, and

posteriorly tapering gradually towards the extremity of the tail, which

is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions of skin supported

by fibrous tissue, called "flukes," forming a horizontal triangular

propelling organ, notched behind in the middle line. The head is

generally large, in some cases attaining more than one-third the entire

length; and the mouth is wide, and bounded by stiff, immobile lips. The

fore-limbs are reduced to flattened paddles, encased in a continuous

skin, showing no external sign of division, and without trace of nails.

There are no signs of hind-limbs visible externally. The surface of the

skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in many

species there are a few bristles in the neighbourhood of the mouth which

may persist through life or be present only in the young state.

Immediately beneath the skin is a thick layer of fat, held together by a

mesh of tissue, constituting the "blubber," which retains the heat of

the body. In nearly all species a compressed dorsal fin is present. The

eye is small, and not provided with a true lacrymal apparatus. The

external ear is a minute aperture in the skin situated at a short

distance behind the eye. The nostrils open separately or by a single

crescentic aperture, near the vertex of the head.

The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being filled

with oil. In the vertebral column, the cervical region is short and

immobile, and the vertebrae, always seven in number, are in many

species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The odontoid

process of the second cervical vertebra, when that bone is free, is

usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. In a paper on the form and

function of the cervical vertebrae published in the _Jenaische

Zeitschrift_ for 1905, Dr O. Reche points out that the shortening and

soldering is most pronounced in species which, like the right-whales,

live entirely on minute organisms, to capture which there is no

necessity to turn the head at all. Accordingly we find that in these

whales the whole seven cervical vertebrae are fused into an immovable

solid mass, of which the compound elements, with the exception of the

first and second, are but little thicker than plates. On the other

hand, in the finner-whales, several of which live exclusively on fish,

and thus require a certain amount of mobility in the head and neck, we

find all the cervical vertebrae much thicker and entirely separate

from one another. Among the dolphin group the narwhal and the white

whale, or beluga, are distinguished from all other cetaceans by the

great comparative length of their cervical vertebrae, all of which are

completely free. In the case of the narwhal such an abnormal structure

is easily accounted for, seeing that to use effectively the long tusk

with which the male is armed a considerable amount of mobility in the

neck is absolutely essential. The beluga, too, which is believed to

feed on large and active fishes, would likewise seem to require

mobility in the same region in order to effect their capture. On the

other hand, the porpoise preys on herrings, pilchards and mackerel,

which in their densely packed shoals must apparently fall an easy prey

with but little exertion on the part of their captor, and we

accordingly find all the neck-vertebrae very short, and at least six

out of the seven coalesced into a solid immovable mass. None of the

vertebrae are united to form a sacrum. The lumbar and caudal vertebrae

are numerous and large, and, as their arches are not connected by

articular processes (zygapophyses), they are capable of free motion in

all directions. The caps, or epiphyses, at the end of the vertebral

bodies are flattened disks, not uniting until after the animal has

attained its full dimensions. There are largely developed

chevron-bones on the under side of the tail, the presence of which

indicates the distinction between caudal and lumbar vertebrae.

In the skull, the brain-case is short, broad and high, almost

spherical, in fact (fig. 1). The supra-occipital bone rises upwards

and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the frontals at the

vertex, completely excluding the parietals from the upper region; and

the frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits.

The nasal aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a more or

less horizontally prolonged beak, formed of the maxillae, premaxillae,

vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards to form the upper

jaw or roof of the mouth.

There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the scapula

at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of the limb

are imperfect; the flattened ends of the bones coming in contact, with

fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any motion. The radius

and ulna are distinct, and about equally developed, and much

flattened, as are all the bones of the flippers. There are four, or

more commonly five, digits, and the number of the phalanges of the

second and third always exceeds the normal number in mammals,

sometimes considerably; they present the exceptional character of

having epiphyses at both ends. The pelvis is represented by a pair of

small rod-like bones placed longitudinally, suspended below and at

some distance from the vertebral column at the commencement of the

tail. In some species, to the outer surface of these are fixed other

small bones or cartilages, the rudiments of the hind-limb.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A Section of the Skull of a Black-Fish

(_Globicephalus melas_).

PMx, Premaxilla.

Mx, Maxilla.

ME, Ossified portion of the mesethmoid.

an, Nostrils.

Na, Nasal.

IP, Inter-parietal.

Fr, Frontal.

Pa, Parietal.

SO, Supra-occipital.

ExO, Ex-occipital.

BO, Basi-occipital.

Sq, Squamosal.

Per, Periotic.

AS, Alisphenoid.

PS, Presphenoid.

Pt, Pterygoid.

pn, Posterior nares.

Pl, Palatine.

Vo, Vomer.

s, Symphysis of lower jaw.

id, Inferior dental canal.

cp, Coronoid process of lower jaw.

cd, Condyle.

a, Angle.

sh, Stylo-hyal.

bh, Basi-hyal.

th, Thyro-hyal.]

Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number. In

existing species, they are of simple, uniform character, with conical

or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never preceded by

milk-teeth. In the whalebone whales teeth are absent (except in the

foetal condition), and the palate is provided with numerous

transversely placed horny plates, forming the "whalebone." Salivary

glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach is complex, and the

intestine simple, and only in some species provided with a small

caecum. The liver is little fissured, and there is no gall-bladder.

The blood-vascular system is complicated by net-like expansions of

both arteries and veins, or _retia mirabilia_, The larynx is of

peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis being

elongated, and forming a tubular prolongation, which projects into the

posterior nares, and when embraced by the soft palate forms a

continuous passage between the nostrils and the trachea, or wind-pipe,

in a more perfect manner. The brain is relatively large, round in

form, with its surface divided into numerous and complex convolutions.

The kidneys are deeply lobulated; the testes are abdominal; and there

are no vesiculae seminales nor an os penis. The uterus is bicornuate;

the placenta non-deciduate and diffuse. The two teats are placed in

depressions on each side of the genital aperture. The ducts of the

milk-glands are dilated during suckling into large reservoirs, into

which the milk collects, and from which it is injected by the action

of a muscle into the mouth of the young animal, so that sucking under

water is greatly facilitated.

Whales and porpoises are found in all seas, and some dolphins and

porpoises are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America and

Asia. Their organization necessitates their passing their life entirely

in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless. They have,

however, to rise very frequently to the surface for the purpose of

respiration; and, in relation to the upward and downward movement in the

water thus necessitated, the principal instrument of motion, the tail,

is expanded horizontally. The position of the nostril on the highest

part of the head is important for this mode of life, as it is the only

part of the body the exposure of which above the surface is absolutely

necessary. Of numerous erroneous ideas connected with natural history,

few are so widespread as that whales spout through their blow-holes

water taken in at the mouth. But the "spouting," or "blowing," of whales

is nothing more than the ordinary act of expiration, which, taking place

at longer intervals than land-animals, is performed with a greater

emphasis. The moment the animal rises to the surface it forcibly expels

from its lungs the air taken in at the last inspiration, which is

charged with vapour in consequence of the respiratory changes. This

rapidly condensing in the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is

often observed, forms a column of steam or spray, which has been taken

for water. It happens, however, especially when the surface of the ocean

is agitated into waves, that the animal commences its expiratory puff

before the orifice has cleared the top of the water, some of which may

thus be driven upwards with the blast, tending to complete the illusion.

From photographs of spouting rorquals, it appears that the height and

volume of the "spout" of all the species is much less than was supposed

to be the case by the older observers; even that of the huge

"sulphur-bottom" (_Balaenoptera sibbaldi_) averaging only about 14 ft.

in height, although it may occasionally reach 20 ft.

As regards their powers of hearing, the capacity of cetaceans for

receiving (and acting upon) sound-waves is demonstrated by the practice

of shouting on the part of the fishermen when engaged in driving a shoal

of porpoises or black-fish into shallow water, for the purpose of

frightening their intended victims. As regards the possession of a voice

by cetaceans, it is stated that one species, the "buckelwal" of the

Germans, utters during the breeding-season a prolonged scream,

comparable to the scream of a steam-siren, and embracing the whole

musical scale, from base to treble. In respect of anatomical

considerations, it is true that the external ear is much reduced, the

"pinna" being absent, and the tube or "meatus" of very small calibre. On

the other hand, the internal auditory organs are developed on the plan

of those of ordinary mammals, but display certain peculiar modifications

(notably the remarkable shell-like form of the tympanic bone) for

intensifying and strengthening the sound-waves as they are received from

the water. It seems, therefore, perfectly evident that whales must hear

when in the water. This inference is confirmed by the comparatively

small development of the other sense-organs. The eye, for instance, is

very small, and can be of little use even at the comparatively small

depths to which whales are now believed to descend. Again, the sense of

smell, judging from the rudimentary condition of the olfactory organs,

must be in abeyance; and whales have no sense-organs comparable to the

lateral-line-system of fishes. Consequently, it would seem that when

below the surface of the water they must depend chiefly upon the sense

of hearing. Probably this sense is so highly developed as to enable the

animals, in the midst of the vibrations made by the screw-like movements

of the tail, or flukes, to distinguish the sound (or the vibrations)

made by the impact of water against rocks, even in a dead calm, and, in

the case of piscivorous species, to recognize by the pulse in the water

the presence of a shoal of fish. Failing this explanation, it is

difficult to imagine how whales can find their way about in the

semi-darkness, and avoid collisions with rocks and rock-bound coasts.

In the Christiania _Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne_, vol.

xxxviii., Dr G. Guldberg has published some observations on the

body-temperature of the Cetacea, in which he shows how extremely

imperfect is our knowledge of this subject. As he remarks, it is a

matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the temperature of living

cetaceans, although this has been taken in the case of a white-whale

and a dolphin, which some years ago were kept in confinement in a pond

in the United States. With the larger whales such a mode of procedure

is, however, obviously quite impracticable, and we have, accordingly,

to rely on _post-mortem_ observations. The layer of blubber by which

all cetaceans are protected from cold renders the _post-mortem_

refrigeration of the blood a much slower process than in most mammals,

so that such observations have a much higher value than might at first

be supposed to be the case. Indeed, the blood-temperature of a

specimen of Sibbald's rorqual three days after death still stood at 34

deg. C. The various observations that have been taken have afforded

the following results in individual cases: Sperm-whale, 40 deg. C.;

Greenland right-whale, 38.8 deg. C.; porpoise, 35.6 deg. C.; liver of

a second individual, 37.8 deg. C.; common rorqual, 35.4 deg. C.;

dolphin, 35.6 deg. C. The average blood-temperature of man is 37 deg.

C., and that of other mammals 39 deg. C.; while that of birds is 42 C.

The record of 40 deg. C. in the case of the sperm-whale seems to

indicate that at least some cetaceans have a relatively high

temperature.

With the possible exception of one West African dolphin, all the Cetacea

are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of some kind. One kind

alone (_Orca_) eats other warm-blooded animals, as seals, and even

members of its own order, both large and small. Many feed on fish,

others on small floating crustaceans, pteropods and jelly-fishes, while

the principal staple of the food of many is constituted by cuttle-fishes

and squids. In size cetaceans vary much, some of the smaller dolphins

scarcely exceeding 4 ft. in length, while whales are the most colossal

of all animals. It is true that many statements of their bulk are

exaggerated, but the actual dimensions of the larger species exceed

those of all other animals, not even excluding the extinct dinosaurian

reptiles. With some exceptions, cetaceans are generally timid,

inoffensive animals, active in their movements and affectionate in their

disposition towards one another, especially the mother towards the

young, of which there is usually but one, or at most two at a time. They

are generally gregarious, swimming in herds or "schools," sometimes

amounting to many thousands in number; though some species are met with

either singly or in pairs.

Commercially these animals are of importance on account of the oil

yielded by the blubber of all of them; while whalebone, spermaceti and

ambergris are still more valuable products yielded by certain species.

Within the last few years whalebone has been sold in America for L2900

per ton, while it is also asserted that L3000 per ton has been paid for

two and a quarter tons at Aberdeen, although there seems to be some

degree of doubt attaching to the statement. Soon after the middle of the

last century, the price of this commodity was as low as L150 per ton,

but, according to Mr Frank Buckland, it suddenly leapt up to L620 with

the introduction of "crinoline" into ladies' costume, and it has

apparently been on the rise ever since. Ambergris, which is very largely

used in perfumery, is solely a product of the sperm-whale, and appears

to be a kind of biliary calculus. It generally contains a number of the

horny beaks of the cuttle-fishes and squids upon which these whales

chiefly feed. Its market-price is subject to considerable variation, but

from L3 to L4 per oz. is the usual average for samples of good quality.

In 1898 a merchant in Mincing Lane was the owner of a lump of ambergris

weighing 270 lb., which was sold in Paris for about 85 s. per oz., or

L18,360.

_Whalebone Whales_.--Existing Cetacea are divisible into two sections,

or suborders, the relationships of which are by no means clearly

apparent. The first section is that of the whalebone whales, or

Mystacoceti, in which no functional teeth are developed, although

there are tooth-germs during foetal life. The palate is furnished with

plates of baleen or whalebone; the skull is symmetrical; and the nasal

bones form a roof to the nasal passages, which are directed upwards

and forwards. The maxilla is produced in front of, but not over, the

orbital process of the frontal. The lacrymal is small and distinct

from the jugal. The tympanic is welded with the periotic, which is

attached to the base of the skull by two strong diverging processes.

The olfactory organ is distinctly developed. The two halves of the

lower jaw are arched outwards, their anterior ends meeting at an

angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any symphysis. All the

ribs at their upper extremity articulate only with the transverse

processes of the vertebrae; their capitular processes when present not

articulating directly with the bodies of the vertebrae. The sternum is

composed of a single piece, and articulates only with a single pair of

ribs; and there are no ossified sternal ribs. External openings of

nostrils distinct from each other, longitudinal. A short conical

caecum.

When in the foetal state these whales have numerous minute teeth lying

in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws. They are best

developed about the middle of foetal life, after which they are

absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth. The

whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth; and consists

of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and four hundred

in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare interval along the

middle line. The plates are placed transversely to the long axis of

the palate, with short intervals between them. Each plate or blade is

somewhat triangular in form, with the base attached to the palate and

the apex hanging downwards. The outer edge of the blade is hard and

smooth, but the inner edge and apex fray out into long bristly fibres,

so that the roof of the whale's mouth looks as if covered with hair,

as described by Aristotle. At the inner edge of each principal blade

are two or three much smaller or subsidiary blades. The principal

blades are longest near the middle of the series, and gradually

diminish towards the front and back of the mouth. The horny plates

grow from a fibrous and vascular matrix, which covers the palatal

surface of the maxillae, and sends out plate-like processes, one of

which penetrates the base of each blade. Moreover, the free edges of

these processes are covered with long vascular thread-like papillae,

one of which forms the central axis of each of the hair-like fibres

mainly composing the blade. A transverse section of fresh whalebone

shows that it is made up of numbers of these soft vascular papillae,

circular in outline, and surrounded by concentrically arranged

epidermic cells, the whole bound together by other epidermic cells,

that constitute the smooth (so-called "enamel") surface of the blade,

which, disintegrating at the free edge, allows the individual fibres

to become loose and assume a hair-like appearance.

Whalebone really consists of modified papillae of the mucous membrane

of the mouth, with an excessive and horny epithelial development. The

blades are supported and bound together for a certain distance from

their base, by a mass of less hardened epithelium, secreted by the

surface of the palatal membrane or matrix of the whalebone in the

intervals of the plate-like processes. This is the "gum" of the

whalers. Whalebone varies much in colour in different species; in some

it is almost jet black, in others slate colour, horn colour, yellow,

or even creamy-white. In some descriptions the blades are variegated

with longitudinal stripes of different hues. It differs also greatly

in other respects, being short, thick, coarse, and stiff in some

cases, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in those species in

which it has attained its fullest development. Its function is to

strain the water from the small marine molluscs, crustaceans, or fish

upon which the whales subsist. In feeding, whales fill the immense

mouth with water containing shoals of these small creatures, and then,

on closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so as to diminish the

cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through the narrow

intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone blades, and

escapes through the lips, leaving the living prey to be swallowed.

Although sometimes divided into two families, _Balaenidae_ and

_Balaenopteridae_, whalebone-whales are best included in a single

family group under the former name. The typical members of this family

are the so-called right-whales, forming the genus _Balaena_, in which

there are no folds on the throat and chest, and no back-fin; while the

cervical vertebrae are fused into a single mass. The flippers are

short and broad, with five digits; the head is very large and the

whalebone very long and narrow, highly elastic and black; while the

scapula is high, with a distinct coracoid and coronoid process. This

genus contains the well-known Greenland right-whale (_B. mysticetus_)

of the Arctic seas, the whalebone and oil of which are so much valued

in commerce, and also other whales, distinguished by having the head

somewhat smaller in proportion to the body, with shorter whalebone and

a larger number of vertebrae. These inhabit the temperate seas of both

northern and southern hemispheres, and have been divided into species

in accordance with their geographical distribution, such as _B.

biscayensis_ of the North Atlantic, _B. japonica_ of the North

Pacific, _B. australis_ of the South Atlantic, and _B. antipodarum_

and _novae-zelandiae_ of the South Pacific; but the differences

between them are so small that they may probably be regarded as races

of a single species, the black whale (_B. australis_). On the head

these whales carry a peculiar structure which is known to whalers as

the "bonnet." This is a large horny excrescence, worn into hollows

like a much-denuded piece of limestone rock, growing probably in the

neighbourhood of the blow-hole. More than one theory has been

suggested to account for its presence. One suggestion is that it

indicates the descent of whales from rhinoceros-like mammals; another

that this species of whale is in the habit of rubbing against rocks in

order to free itself from barnacles, and thus produces a kind of

corn--although why on the nose alone is not stated. Dr W.G. Ridewood,

however, considers that the structure is due to the fact that the

horny layers which are produced all over the skin are not shed on this

particular spot.

The pigmy whale (_Neobalaena marginata_) represents a genus agreeing

with the right-whales in the absence of throat-flutings, and with the

rorquals in the presence of a dorsal fin. The cervical vertebrae are

united, and there are only 43 vertebrae altogether. The flippers are

small, narrow, and with only four digits. The ribs remarkably expanded

and flattened; the scapula low and broad, with completely developed

acromion and coracoid processes. The whalebone is long, slender,

elastic and white. The species which inhabits the South American,

Australian and New Zealand seas is the smallest of the

whalebone-whales, being not more than 20 ft. in length.

In contrast to the preceding is the great grey whale (_Rachianectes

glaucus_) of the North Pacific, which combines the relatively small

head, elongated shape, and narrow flippers of the fin-whales, with the

smooth throat and absence of a back-fin distinctive of the

right-whales. The whalebone is shorter and coarser than in any other

species. In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae are free, and the

first two ribs on each side expanded and united to form a large bony

shield. In the humpback-whale (_Megaptera longimana_ or _boops_) the

head is of moderate size, the whalebone-plates are short and wide, and

the cervical vertebrae free. The skin of the throat is fluted so as to

form an expansible pouch; there is a low back-fin; and the flippers,

which have four digits each, are extremely long, equalling about

one-fourth the total length of the animal. The acromion and coracoid

processes of the scapula are rudimentary. See HUMPBACK-WHALE.

The right-whales are built for cruising slowly about in search of the

shoals of small floating invertebrates which form their food, and are

consequently broad in beam, with a float-shaped body and immovable

neck. The humpback is of somewhat similar build, but with a smaller

head, and probably attains considerable speed owing to the length of

its flippers. The finners, or rorquals (_Balaenoptera_), which prey

largely on fish, are built entirely for speed, and are the ocean

greyhounds of the group. Their bodies are consequently long and

attenuated, and their necks are partially mobile; while they are

furnished with capacious pouches for storing their food. They chiefly

differ from the humpback by the smaller head, long and slender build,

small, narrow, and pointed flippers, each containing four digits, and

the large acromion and coracoid processes to the low and broad

scapula. Rorquals are found in almost every sea. Among them are the

most gigantic of all animals, _B. sibbaldi_, which attains the length

of 80 ft., and the small _B. rostrata_, which does not exceed 30.

There are certainly four distinct modifications of this genus,

represented by the two just mentioned, and by _B. musculus_ and _B.

borealis_, all inhabitants of British seas, but the question whether

almost identical forms found in the Indian, Southern and Pacific

Oceans are to be regarded as specifically identical or as distinct

awaits future researches, although some of these have already received

distinct names. See RORQUAL.

In the report on the zoology of the "Discovery" expedition, published

in 1907 by the British Museum, E.A. Wilson describes a whale

frequenting the fringe of the Antarctic ice which indicates a new

generic type. Mainly black in colour, these whales measure about 20 or

30 ft. in length, and have a tall dorsal fin like that of a killer.

_Toothed Whales._--The second suborder is represented by the toothed

whales, or Odontoceti, in which there is no whalebone, and teeth,

generally numerous, though sometimes reduced to a single pair, and

occasionally wanting, are normally developed. Unlike that of the

whalebone-whales, the upper surface of the skull is more or less

unsymmetrical. The nasal bones are in the form of nodules or flattened

plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming any part of

the roof to the nasal passage, which is directed upwards and

backwards. The olfactory organ is rudimentary or absent. Hinder end of

the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of the orbital

plate of the frontal bone. Lacrymal bone either inseparable from the

jugal, or, if distinct, large, and forming part of the roof of the

orbit. Tympanic bone not welded with the periotic, which is usually

only attached to the rest of the skull by ligament. Two halves of the

lower jaw nearly straight, expanded in height posteriorly, with a wide

funnel-shaped aperture to the dental canal, and coming in contact in

front by a flat surface of variable length, but constituting a

symphysis. Several of the anterior ribs with well-developed capitular

processes, which articulate with the bodies of the vertebrae. Sternum

almost always composed of several pieces, placed one behind the other,

with which several pairs of ribs are connected by well-developed

cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs. External respiratory aperture

single, the two nostrils uniting before they reach the surface,

usually in the form of a transverse sub-crescentic valvular aperture,

situated on the top of the head. Flippers with five digits, though the

first and fifth are usually little developed. No caecum, except in

_Platanista_.

The first family, _Physeteridae_, is typified by the sperm-whale, and

characterized by the absence of functional teeth in the upper jaw; the

lower teeth being various, and often much reduced in number. Bones of

the skull raised so as to form an elevated prominence or crest behind

the nostrils. Pterygoid bones thick, produced backwards, meeting in

the middle line, and not involuted to form the outer wall of the

post-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed on their outer side.

Transverse processes of the arches of the dorsal vertebrae, to which

the tubercles of the ribs are attached, ceasing abruptly near the end

of the series, and replaced by processes on the body at a lower level,

and serially homologous anteriorly with the heads of the ribs, and

posteriorly with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae.

Costal cartilages not ossified.

The first group, or _Physeterinae_, includes the sperm-whale itself

and is characterized by the presence of a full series of lower teeth,

which are set in a groove in place of sockets, the groove being

imperfectly divided by partial septa, and the teeth held in place by

the strong, fibrous gum. No distinct lacrymal bone. Skull strikingly

asymmetrical in the region of the nasal apertures, in consequence of

the left opening greatly exceeding the right in size.

In the sperm-whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_) the upper teeth are

apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary and functionless, being

embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to 25 teeth on each side,

stout, conical, recurved and pointed at the apex until they are worn,

without enamel. Upper surface of the skull concave; its posterior and

lateral edges raised into a very high and greatly compressed

semicircular crest or wall (fig. 2). Zygomatic processes of jugal

bones thick and massive. Muzzle greatly elongated, broad at the base,

and gradually tapering to the apex. Lower jaw exceedingly long and

narrow, the symphysis being more than half the length. Vertebrae: C 7,

D 11, L 8, Ca 24; total 50. Atlas, or first vertebra, free; all the

other cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and spines into a

single mass. Eleventh pair of ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third

the length of the body; very massive, high and truncated, and rather

compressed in front; owing its huge size and form mainly to the

accumulation of a mass of fatty tissue filling the large hollow on the

upper surface of the skull and overlying the long muzzle. The single

blow-hole is longitudinal, slightly S-shaped, and placed at the upper

and anterior extremity of the head to the left side of the middle

line. The opening of the mouth is on the under side of the head,

considerably behind the end of the snout. Flippers short, broad and

truncated. Dorsal fin represented by a low protuberance. See

SPERM-WHALE.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Skull of Sperm-Whale (_Physeter

macrocephalus_).]

In the lesser or pigmy sperm-whale (_Cogia breviceps_) there may be a

pair of rudimentary teeth in the upper jaw, while on each side of the

lower jaw there are from 9 to 12 rather long, slender, pointed and

curved teeth, with a coating of enamel. Upper surface of the skull

concave, with thick, raised, posterior and lateral margins, massive

and rounded at their anterior terminations above the orbits. Muzzle

not longer than the cranial position of the skull, broad at the base,

and rapidly tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal

rod-like. Lower jaw with symphysis less than half its length.

Vertebrae: C 7, D 13 or 14, L and Ca 30; total 50 or 51. All the

cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and arches. The head is

about one-sixth of the length of the body, and obtusely pointed in

front; the mouth small and placed far below the apex of the snout; the

blow-hole crescentic, and placed obliquely on the crown of the head in

advance of the eyes and to the left of the middle line; while the

flippers are bluntly sickle-shaped, and the back-fin triangular. This

species attains a length of from 9 to 13 ft.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Bottle-nose (_Hyperoodon rostratus_). From a

specimen taken off the coast of Scotland, 1882.]

A second subfamily is represented by the bottle-noses and beaked

whales, and known as the _Ziphiinae_. In this group the lower teeth

are rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or rarely two,

pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male. There is

a distinct lacrymal bone. Externally the mouth is produced into a

slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded eminence formed

by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front of the blow-hole

rises somewhat abruptly. The blow-hole is single, crescentic and

median, as in the _Delphinidae_. Flippers small, ovate, with five

digits moderately well developed. A small obtuse dorsal fin situated

considerably behind the middle of the back. Longitudinal grooves on

each side of the skin of the throat, diverging posteriorly, and nearly

meeting in front. In external characters and habits the whales of this

group closely resemble each other. They appear to be almost

exclusively feeders on cuttle-fishes, and occur either singly, in

pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and osteological characters

they are easily separated into four genera.

In the first of these, _Hyperoodon_, or bottle-nose, there is a small

conical pointed tooth at the apex of each half of the lower jaw,

concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the upper ends of the

premaxillae rising suddenly behind the nostrils to the vertex and

expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and their

anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nostrils; the

right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow between

the upper extremities of the premaxillae, strongly concave in the

middle line and in front; their outer edges, especially that of the

right, expanded over the front of the inner border of the maxilla.

Very high longitudinal crests on the maxillae at the base of the beak,

extending backwards almost to the nostrils, approaching each other in

the middle line above; sometimes compressed and sometimes so massive

that their inner edges come almost in contact. Preorbital notch

distinct, and mesethmoid cartilage slightly ossified. Vertebrae: C 7,

D 9, L 10, Ca 19; total 45. All the cervical vertebrae united. Upper

surface of the head in front of the blow-hole very prominent and

rounded, rising abruptly from above the small, distinct snout. Two

species are known. See BOTTLE-NOSE WHALE.

The typical representative of the beaked whales is _Ziphius cuvieri_,

in which there is a single conical tooth of moderate size on each side

close to the anterior extremity of the lower jaw, directed forwards

and upwards. Skull with the premaxillae immediately in front and at

the sides of the nostrils expanded, hollowed, with elevated lateral

margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards,

the right being considerably more developed than the left. The

conjoint nasals form a pronounced symmetrical eminence at the top of

the skull, projecting forwards over the nostrils, flat above,

prominent and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a

notch on each side from the premaxillae. Preorbital notch not

distinct. Rostrum (seen from above) triangular, tapering from the base

to the apex; upper and outer edges of maxillae at base of rostrum

raised into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely

ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of

the rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10, Ca 22; total 49. The three

anterior cervical vertebrae united, the rest free.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Sowerby's Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon bidens_).]

In the numerous species of the allied genus _Mesoplodon_ there is a

much-compressed and pointed tooth in each half of the lower jaw,

variously situated, but generally at some distance behind the apex;

its point directed upwards, and often somewhat backwards, occasionally

developed to a great size. In the skull the region round the nostrils

is as in _Hyperoodon_, except that the nasals are narrow and more sunk

between the upper ends of the premaxillae; like those of _Hyperoodon_,

they are concave in the middle line in front and above. No maxillary

tuberosities. Preorbital notch not very distinct. Rostrum long and

narrow. Mesethmoid in the adult ossified in its entire length, and

coalescing with the surrounding bones. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10 or

11, Ca 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two or three anterior cervicals

united, the rest usually free.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Skull of a Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon

densirostris_).]

Though varying in form, the lower teeth of the different members of

this genus agree in their essential structure, having a small and

pointed enamel-covered crown, composed of dentine, which, instead of

surmounting a root of the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid

mass of osteo-dentine, the continuous growth of which greatly alters

the form and general appearance of the tooth as age advances, as in

the case of _M. layardi_, where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like

teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, meet over the rostrum,

and interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one species (_M.

grayi_) a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like those of

ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, is present even in the adults,

on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but embedded by

their roots only in the gum, and not in bony sockets. This, with the

frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other species of this genus,

indicates that the beaked whales are derived from ancestral forms with

teeth of normal character in both jaws. The species are distributed in

both northern and southern hemispheres, but most frequent in the

latter. Among them are _M. bidens_, _M. europaeas_, _M. densirostris_,

_M. layardi_, _M. grayi_ and _M. hectori_; but there is still much to

be learned with regard to their characters and distribution. This

group was abundant in the Pliocene age, as attested by the frequency

with which the imperishable long, cylindrical rostrum of the skull, of

more than ivory denseness, is found among the rolled and waterworn

animal remains which compose the "bone-bed" at the base of the Red

Crag of Suffolk.

Finally, in Arnoux's beaked whale (_Berardius arnouxi_), of New

Zealand, which grows to a length of 30 ft., there are two

moderate-sized, compressed, pointed teeth, on each side of the

symphysis of the lower jaw, with their summits directed forwards, the

anterior being the larger of the two and close to the front of the

jaw. Upper ends of the premaxillae nearly symmetrical, moderately

elevated, slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nostrils.

Nasals broad, massive and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the

vertex of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle

line. Preorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid

partially ossified. Small rough eminences on the outer edge of the

upper surface of the maxillae at base of rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D

10, L 12, Ca 19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals welded, the

rest free and well developed. Apparently this whale has the power of

thrusting its teeth up and down, exposing them to view when attacked.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Susu, or Ganges Dolphin (_Platanista

gangetica_).]

In a family by themselves--the _Platinistidae_--are placed three

cetaceans which differ from the members of the preceding and the

following groups in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the

vertebrae, as the tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at

the commencement of the series, gradually blend together, as in most

mammals. The cervical vertebrae are all free. The lacrymal bone is not

distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, with numerous

teeth in both; the symphysis of the lower one exceeding half its

length. Externally the head is divided from the body by a slightly

constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and truncated. Dorsal fin small

or obsolete. In habits these dolphins are fluviatile or estuarine. In

the Indian susu, or Ganges dolphin (_Platanista gangetica_), the teeth

number about 30/30 on each side, are set near together, are rather

large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed in the young, but in old animals

acquire a large laterally compressed base, which in the posterior part

of the series becomes irregularly divided into roots. As the conical

enamel-covered crown wears away, the teeth of the young and old

animals have a totally different appearance. The beak and

tooth-bearing portion of the lower jaw are so narrow that the teeth of

the two sides are almost in contact. Maxillae supporting large,

incurved, compressed bony crests, which overarch the nostrils and base

of the rostrum, and almost meet in the middle line above. Orbits very

small and eyes rudimentary, without crystalline lens. Blow-hole

longitudinal, linear. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 8, Ca 25; total 51. A

small caecum. No pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--River Plate Dolphin (_Stenodelphis

blainvillei_).]

The second genus is represented by _Inia geoffroyi_, of the Amazon, in

which the teeth vary from 26 to 33 pairs in each jaw; those at the

posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner side of the base

of the crown. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 3, Ca 18; total 41. Transverse

processes of lumbar vertebrae very broad. Sternum short and broad, and

consisting of a single segment only. Dorsal fin a mere ridge. The long

cylindrical rostrum externally furnished with scattered, stout and

crisp hairs. The third type is _Stenodelphis blainvillei_, the River

Plate dolphin, a small brown species (fig. 7), with from 50 to 60

pairs of teeth in each jaw, furnished with a cingulum at the base of

the crown. Jaws very long and slender. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 5, Ca

19; total 41. Transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae extremely

broad. Sternum elongated, composed of two segments, with four sternal

ribs attached. Dorsal fin rather small, triangular, pointed. Blow-hole

transverse. In several respects this species connects the two

preceding ones with the _Delphinidae_ (see DOLPHIN).

The last family of existing cetaceans is the above-mentioned

_Delphinidae_, which includes the true dolphins, porpoises, grampuses

and their relatives. As a rule there are numerous teeth in both jaws;

and the pterygoid bones of the skull are short, thin and involuted to

form with a process of the palate bone the outer wall of the

post-palatine air-sinus. Symphysis of lower jaw short, or moderate,

never exceeding one-third the length of the jaw. Lacrymal bone not

distinct from the jugal. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae

gradually transferred from the arches to the bodies of the vertebrae

without any sudden break, and becoming posteriorly continuous serially

with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Anterior ribs

attached to the transverse process by the tubercle, and to the body of

the vertebra by the head; the latter attachment lost in the posterior

ribs. Sternal ribs ossified. The blow-hole is transverse, crescentic,

with the horns of the crescent pointing forwards.

First on the long list is the narwhal, _Monodon monoceros_, in which,

apart from some irregular rudimentary teeth, the dentition is reduced

to a single pair of teeth which lie horizontally in the maxilla, and

in the female remain permanently concealed within the socket, so that

this sex is practically toothless, while in the male (fig. 8), the

right tooth usually remains similarly concealed while the left is

immensely developed, attaining a length equal to more than half that

of the entire animal, projecting horizontally from the head in the

form of a cylindrical, or slightly tapering, pointed tusk, without

enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves and ridges,

running in a sinistral direction. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 6, Ca 26;

total 50. Cervical region comparatively long, and all the vertebrae

distinct, or with irregular unions towards the middle of the series,

the atlas and axis being usually free. Flipper small, short and broad,

with the second and third digits nearly equal, the fourth slightly

shorter. No dorsal fin. See NARWHAL.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Upper surface of the Skull of male Narwhal

(_Monodon monoceros_), with the whole of both teeth exposed by removal

of the upper wall of their alveolar cavities.]

Closely allied is the beluga or white-whale (_Delphinapterus leucas_),

of the Arctic seas, in which, however, there are from eight to ten

pairs of teeth in each jaw, occupying the anterior three-fourths of

the rostrum and corresponding portion of the lower jaw, rather small,

conical, and pointed when unworn, but usually become obliquely

truncated, separated by intervals considerably wider than the diameter

of the tooth, and implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining forwards

especially in the upper jaw. Skull rather narrow and elongated,

depressed. Premaxillae convex in front of the nostrils. Rostrum about

equal in length to the cranial portion of the skull, triangular, broad

at the base, and gradually contracting towards the apex, where it is

somewhat curved downwards. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11, L 9, Ca 23; total 50.

Cervical vertebrae free. Flippers broad, short and rounded, all the

digits being tolerably well developed, except the first. Anterior part

of head rounded; no distinct snout. No dorsal fin, but a low ridge in

its place. See BELUGA.

In all the remaining genera of _Delphinidae_ the cervical region of

the vertebral column is very short, and the first two, and usually

more, of the vertebrae are firmly united. The common porpoise

(_Phocaena communis_, or _P. phocaena_) is the typical representative

of the first genus, in which the teeth vary from 18/18 to 25/25, are

small, and occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum, with

compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated from the root by a

constricted neck. Rostrum rather shorter than the cranium proper,

broad at the base and tapering towards the apex. Premaxillae raised

into tuberosities in front of the nostrils. The frontal bones form a

somewhat square elevated protuberance in the middle line of the skull

behind the nostrils, rising above the flattened nasals. Symphysis of

lower jaw very short. Vertebrae: C 7, D 13, L 14, Ca 30; total 64.

First to sixth cervical vertebrae and sometimes the seventh also,

coalesced. Flippers of moderate size, oval, slightly sickle-shaped,

with the second and third digits nearly equal in length, and the

fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Head short, moderately

rounded in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin near the middle of the

back, triangular; its height considerably less than the length of the

base; its anterior edge frequently furnished with one or more rows of

conical horny tubercles.

The porpoise, which is so common in British waters and the Atlantic,

seldom enters the Mediterranean, and apparently never resides there.

There is, however, a porpoise in the Black Sea, which, according to Dr

O. Abel, is entitled to rank as a distinct species, with the name of

_Phocaena relicta_. This Black Sea porpoise is readily distinguished

from the Atlantic species by the contour of the profile of the head,

which, in place of forming a continuous curve from the muzzle to what

represents the neck, has a marked prominence above the angle of the

mouth, followed by an equally marked depression. The teeth are also

different in form and number. The absence of porpoises from the

Mediterranean is explained by Dr Abel on account of the greater

saltness of that sea as compared with the ocean in general; his idea

being that these cetaceans are near akin to fresh-water members of the

group, and therefore unsuited to withstand an excessively saline

medium. From the Taman Peninsula, on the north shore of the Black Sea,

the same writer has described an extinct type of ancestral porpoise,

under the name of _Palaeophocaena andrussowi_. Another species is the

wholly black _P. spinipennis_, typically from South America. Black is

also the hue of the Indian porpoise (_Neophocaena phocaenoides_),

which wants a dorsal fin, and has eighteen pairs of teeth rather

larger than those of the ordinary porpoise. (See PORPOISE.)

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Beluga or White-Whale (_Delphinapterus

leucas_). From a specimen taken in the river St Lawrence and exhibited

in London, 1877.]

Next comes the Indo-Malay genus _Orcella_, in which the 12/12 to

14/14, small, conical teeth are pointed, rather closely set, and

occupy nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull sub-globular,

high. Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial portion of the

skull, tapering. Flippers of moderate size, not elongated, but

somewhat pointed, with all the bones of the digits broader than long,

except the first phalanges of the index and third fingers. Head

globular in front. Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle

of the body. Two species, both of small size--_O. brevirostris_, from

the Bay of Bengal, and _O. fluminalis_, from the Irrawaddy river, from

300 to 900 m. from the sea.

In the grampus, or killer, _Orca gladiator_ (or _O. orca_) the teeth

form about twenty pairs, above and below, occupying nearly the whole

length of the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved

crowns and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather

hollowed, on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about equal

in length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened above,

rounded in front; premaxillae broad and rather concave in front of the

nostrils, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and expanding again

towards the apex. Vertebrae: C 7, D 11-12, L 10, Ca 23; total 51 or

52; bodies of the first and second and sometimes the third cervical

vertebrae united; the rest free. Flippers very large, ovate, nearly as

broad as long, with all the phalanges and metacarpals broader than

long. General form of body robust. Face short and rounded. Dorsal fin

near the middle of the back, very high and pointed. See GRAMPUS.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.--The Grampus or Killer (_Orca gladiator_).]

The lesser killer or black killer, _Pseudorca crassidens_, has its

8-12/8-12 teeth confined to the anterior half of the rostrum and

corresponding part of the lower jaw; they are small, conical, curved

and sharp-pointed when unworn, but sometimes deciduous in old age.

Skull broad and depressed; with the rostrum and cranial portions about

equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. Premaxillae

concave in front of the nostrils, as wide at the middle of the rostrum

as at the base, and nearly or completely concealing the maxillae in

the anterior half of this region. Vertebrae: C 7, D II, L 12-14, Ca

28-29; total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or six cervical

vertebrae united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar and anterior

caudal vertebrae about equal to their width. Flippers very long and

narrow, with the second digit the longest, and having as many as 12 or

13 phalanges, the third shorter (with 9 phalanges), the first, fourth

and fifth very short. Fore part of the head round, in consequence of

the great development of a cushion of fat, placed on the rostrum of

the skull in front of the blow-hole. Dorsal fin low and triangular,

the length of its base considerably exceeding its vertical height.

Next comes the ca'ing whale, or black-fish (_Globicephalus melas_),

with about ten pairs of upper and lower teeth. Cranial and dental

characters generally like those of _Orca_, except that the roots of

the teeth are cylindrical. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 9, Ca 24; total 50;

first to sixth or seventh cervical vertebrae united; bodies of the

lumbar vertebrae distinguished from those of the preceding genera by

being more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2.

Flippers of moderate size, narrow and pointed. Dorsal fin situated

near the middle of the back, of moderate size, and sickle-shaped. Head

in front of the blow-hole high, and compressed anteriorly, the snout

truncated. See CA'ING WHALE.

Risso's dolphin, _Grampus griseus_, represents another genus,

characterized by the absence of teeth in the upper and the small

number of these in the lower jaw (3 to 7 on each side, and confined to

the region of the symphysis). Vertebrae: C 7, D 12, L 19, Ca 30; total

68. General external characters much as in _Globicephalus_, but the

fore part of the head less rounded, and the flippers less elongated.

_G. griseus_ is about 13 ft. long, and remarkable for its great

variability of colour. It has been found, though rarely, in the North

Atlantic and Mediterranean.

The common dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_) is the typical representative

of a large group of relatively small species, some of which are wholly

marine, while others are more or less completely fluviatile. They are

divided into a number of genera, such as _Prodelphinus_, _Steno_,

_Lagenorhynchus_, _Cephalorhynchus_, _Tursiops_, &c., best

distinguished from one another by the number and size of the teeth,

the form and relations of the bones on the hinder part of the palate,

the length of the beak and of the union of the two halves of the lower

jaw, and the number of vertebrae. For the distinctive characters of

these genera the reader may refer to one of the works mentioned below;

and it must suffice to state that, collectively, all these dolphins

are characterized by the following features. The teeth are numerous in

both jaws, and more than 20/20 in number, occupying nearly the whole

length of the rostrum, and small, close-set, conical, pointed and

slightly curved. Rostrum more or less elongated, and pointed in front,

usually considerably longer than the cranial portion of the skull.

Vertebrae: C 7, D 12-14, L and Ca variable; total 51 to 90. Flippers

of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat sickle-shaped, with the

first digit rudimentary, the second longest, third nearly equal, and

the fourth and fifth extremely short. Externally the head shows a

distinct beak or pointed snout, marked off from the antenasal fatty

elevation by a V-shaped groove. Dorsal fin rather large, triangular or

sickle-shaped, rarely wanting. A curiously marked brown and white

species, perhaps referable to _Lagenorhynchus_ is found on the fringe

of the Antarctic ice (see report on the zoology of the "Discovery,"

published in 1907 by the British Museum). See DOLPHIN.

_Extinct Cetacea._

At present we are totally in the dark as to the origin of the

whalebone-whales, not being even assured that they are derived from

the same stock as the toothed whales. It is noteworthy, however, that

some of the fossil representatives of the latter have nasal bones of a

type recalling those of the former. Such fossil whalebone-whales as

are known occur in Pliocene, and Miocene formations are either

referable to existing genera, or to more or less nearly related

extinct ones, such as _Plesiocetus_, _Herpetocetus_ and _Cetotherium_.

The toothed whales, on the other hand, are very largely represented in

a fossil state, reaching as low in the geological series as the upper

Cretaceous. Many of these present much more generalized characters

than their modern representatives, while others indicate apparently a

transition towards the still more primitive zeuglodonts, which, as

will be shown later, are themselves derived from the creodont

Carnivora. In the Pliocene deposits of Belgium and England are

preserved the teeth and other remains of a number of cetaceans, such

as _Physodon_, _Encetus_, _Dinoziphius_, _Hoplocetus_, _Balaenodon_

and _Scaldicetus_, more or less nearly related to the sperm-whale, but

presenting several primitive characters. A complete skull of a member

of this group from the Tertiary deposits of Patagonia, at first

referred to _Physodon_, but subsequently to _Scaldicetus_, has a full

series of enamelled teeth in the upper jaw; and it is probable that

the same was the case in other forms. This entails either a

modification of the definition of the _Physeteridae_ as given above,

or the creation of a separate family for these primitive sperm-whales.

In other cases, however, as in the Miocene _Prophyseter_ and

_Placoziphius_, the anterior portion or the whole of the upper jaw had

already become toothless; and these forms are regarded as indicating

the descent of the sperm-whales from the under-mentioned _Squalodon_.

The beaked whales, again, are believed to be independently descended

from the latter type, _Berardius_ being traced into the Miocene

_Mioziphius_, _Anoplonassa_ and _Palaeoziphius_, the last of which

shows signs in its dentition of approximating to the complicated

tooth-structure of the squalodonts.

Another line of descent from the latter, apparently culminating in the

modern _Platanistidae_, is represented by the family

_Eurhinodelphidae_, typified by the European Miocene

_Eurhinodelphis_, but also including the contemporary Patagonian

_Argyrocetus_ and the nearly allied European _Cyrtodelphis_. All these

were very long-beaked dolphins; and in _Argyrocetus_, at all events,

the occipital condyles, instead of being closely pressed to the skull,

are as prominent as in ordinary mammals, while the nasal bones,

instead of forming mere rudimentary nodules, were squared and roofed

over the hind part of the nasal chamber.

In the Miocene _Squalodon_, representing the family _Squalodontidae_,

the dentition is differentiated into incisors, canines and

cheek-teeth, the hinder ones of the latter series having double roots

and compressed crowns carrying serrations on the hinder edge;

generally the dental formula has been given as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4,

m. 7/7, the single-rooted cheek-teeth being regarded as premolars and

those with double roots as molars. Dr Abel is, however, of opinion

that the formula is better represented as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. (8 or

9)/9, m. 3/2; the teeth reckoned as molars corresponding to those of

the creodont Carnivora. The single-rooted cheek-teeth are regarded as

due, not to the division of double-rooted ones, but to the fusion of

the two roots of teeth of the latter type. In _Squalodon_ the nasal

bones were of the modern nodular type, but in the Miocene Patagonian

_Prosqualodon_ they partially covered the nasal chamber.

At present there is a gap between the most primitive squalodonts and

the Eocene zeuglodonts (_Zeuglodontidae_), which are regarded by

Messrs Max Weber, O. Abel and C.W. Andrews as the direct forerunners

of the modern-toothed whales, forming the suborder _Archaeoceti_. It

is, however, right to mention that some authorities refuse to admit

the relation of the Archaeoceti to the whales.

In the typical zeuglodonts the long and flat skull has large temporal

fossae, a strong sagittal crest, a long beak formed mainly by the

premaxillae (in place of the maxillae, as in modern whales), and long

nasal bones covering over the nasal chamber, so that the nostrils

opened about half-way down the beak. All the cervical vertebrae were

free. Normally the dentition in the typical genus _Zeuglodon_ (which

is common to the Eocene of North America and Egypt) is i. 3/3, c. 1/1,

p. 4/4, m. 3/3; the cheek-teeth being two-rooted, with compressed

pointed crowns, of which the fore-and-aft edges are coarsely serrated.

In the Egyptian _Zeuglodon osiris_ the number of the molars is,

however, reduced to 2/3, while some of the earlier cheek-teeth have

become single-rooted, as in the squalodonts. The probable transitional

form between the latter and the zeuglodonts is the small

_Microzeuglodon caucasicus_ described by the present writer, from the

Caucasus. As regards the origin of the zeuglodonts themselves, remains

discovered in the Eocene formations of Egypt indicate a practically

complete transition, so far at least as dental characters are

concerned, from these whale-like creatures to the creodont Carnivora.

In the earliest type, _Protocetus_, the skull is practically that of a

zeuglodont, the snout being in fact more elongated than in some of the

earliest representatives of the latter, although the nostrils are

placed nearer the tip. The incisors are unknown, but the cheek-teeth

are essentially those of a creodont, none of them having acquired the

serrated edges distinctive of the typical zeuglodonts; and the hinder

premolars and molars retaining the three roots of the creodonts. In

the somewhat later _Prozeuglodon_ the skull is likewise essentially of

the zeuglodont type, although the nostrils have shifted a little more

backwards; as regards the cheek-teeth, which have acquired serrated

crowns, the premolars at any rate retain the inner buttress supported

by a distinct third root, so that they are precisely intermediate

between _Protocetus_ and _Zeuglodon_. Yet another connecting form is

_Eocetus_, a very large animal from nearly the same horizon as

_Prozeuglodon_; its skull approaching that of _Zeuglodon_ as regards

the backward position of the nostrils, although the cheek-teeth are of

the creodont type, having inner, or third, roots. It is noteworthy

that _Zeuglodon_ apparently occurs in the same beds as these

intermediate types.

It follows from the foregoing that if zeuglodonts are the ancestors of

the true Cetacea--and the probability that they are so is very

great--the latter are derived from primitive Carnivora, and not, as

has been suggested, from herbivorous Ungulata. The idea that the

zeuglodonts were provided with a bony armour does not appear to be

supported by recent discoveries.

AUTHORITIES.--The above article is based on that by Sir W.H. Flower in

the 9th edition of this work. See also W.H. Flower, "On the Characters

and Divisions of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London,

1883); F.W. True, "Review of the Family Delphinidae," _Proc. U.S.

Museum_, No. 36 (1889); R. Lydekker, "Cetacean Skulls from Patagonia,"

_Palaeontol. Argentina_, vol. ii: _An. Mus. La Plata_ (1893); W.

Dames, "Uber Zeuglodonten aus Agypten," _Palaontol. Abhandlungen_,

vol. i. (1894); F.E. Beddard, _A Book of Whales_ (London, 1900); O.

Abel, "Untersuchungen uber die fossilen Platanistiden des Wiener

Beckens," _Denks. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien._, vol. lxviii. (1899); "Les

Dauphins longirostres du Bolerien," _Mem. musee d'hist. nat. belgique_

(1901 and 1902); "Die phylogenetische Entwickelung des

Cetaceengebisses und die systematische Stellung der Physeteriden,"

_Verhandl. deutsch. zool. Gesellschaft_ (1905); E. Fraas, "Neue

Zeuglodonten aus dem unteren Mittelocean vom Mokattam bei Cairo,"

_Geol. und palaontol. Abhandl._ ser. 2, vol. vi. (1904); C.W.

Andrews, "Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the

Fayum" (British Museum, 1906). (R. L.*)

CETHEGUS, the name of a Roman patrician family of the Cornelian gens.

Like the younger Cato its members kept up the old Roman fashion of

dispensing with the tunic and leaving the arms bare (Horace, _Ars

Poetica_, 50; Lucan, _Pharsalia_, ii. 543). Two individuals are of some

importance:--

(1) MARCUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, pontifex maximus and curule aedile, 213

B.C. In 211, as praetor, he had charge of Apulia; later, he was sent to

Sicily, where he proved a successful administrator. In 209 he was

censor, and in 204 consul. In 203 he was proconsul in Upper Italy,

where, in conjunction with the praetor P. Quintilius Varus, he gained a

hard-won victory over Mago, Hannibal's brother, in Insubrian territory,

and obliged him to leave Italy. He died in 196. He had a great

reputation as an orator, and is characterized by Ennius as "the

quintessence of persuasiveness" (_suadae medulla_). Horace (_Ars Poet._

50; _Epistles_, ii. 2. 117) calls him an authority on the use of Latin

words.

Livy xxv. 2, 41, xxvii. 11, xxix. 11, xxx. 18.

(2) GAIUS CORNELIUS CETHEGUS, the boldest and most dangerous of

Catiline's associates. Like many other youthful profligates, he joined

the conspiracy in the hope of getting his debts cancelled. When Catiline

left Rome in 63 B.C., after Cicero's first speech, Cethegus remained

behind as leader of the conspirators with P. Lentulus Sura. He himself

undertook to murder Cicero and other prominent men, but was hampered by

the dilatoriness of Sura, whose age and rank entitled him to the chief

consideration. The discovery of arms in Cethegus's house, and of the

letter which he had given to the ambassadors of the Allobroges, who had

been invited to co-operate, led to his arrest. He was condemned to

death, and executed, with Sura and others, on the night of the 5th of

December.

Sallust, _Catilina_, 46-55; Cicero, _In Cat._ iii. 5-7; Appian, _Bell.

Civ._ ii. 2-5; see CATILINE.

CETINA, GUTIERRE DE (1518?-1572?), Spanish poet and soldier, was born at

Seville shortly before 1520. He served under Charles V. in Italy and

Germany, but retired from the army in 1545 to settle in Seville. Soon

afterwards, however, he sailed for Mexico, where he resided for some ten

years; he appears to have visited Seville in 1557, and to have returned

to Mexico, where he died at some date previous to 1575. A follower of

Boscan and Garcilaso de la Vega, a friend of Jeronimo de Urrea and

Baltavar del Alcazar, Cetina adopted the doctrines of the Italian school

and, under the name of Vandalio, wrote an extensive series of poems in

the newly introduced metres; his sonnets are remarkable for elegance of

form and sincerity of sentiment, his other productions being in great

part adaptations from Petrarch, Ariosto and Ludovico Dolce. His patrons

were Antonio de Leyva, prince of Ascoli, Hurtado de Mendoza, and Alva's

grandson, the duke de Sessa, but he seems to have profited little by

their protection. His works have been well edited by Joaquin Hazanas y

la Rua in two volumes published at Seville (1895).

CETTE, a seaport of southern France in the department of Herault, 18 m.

S.W. of Montpellier by the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 32,659. After

Marseilles it is the principal commercial port on the south coast of

France. The older part of Cette occupies the foot and slope of the Mont

St Clair (the ancient _Mons Setius_), a hill 590 ft. in height, situated

on a tongue of land that lies between the Mediterranean and the lagoon

of Thau. This quarter with its wide streets and lofty stone buildings is

bounded on the east by the Canal de Cette, which leads from the lagoon

of Thau to the Old Basin and the outer harbour. Across the canal lie the

newer quarters, which chiefly occupy two islands separated from each

other by a wet dock and limited on the east by the Canal Maritime,

parallel to the Canal de Cette. A lateral canal unites the northern ends

of the two main canals. A breakwater running W.S.W. and E.N.E. protects

the entrance to the harbour, which is one of the safest in France. The

outer port and the Old Basin are enclosed by a mole to the south and by

a jetty to the east. Behind the outer port lies an inner and more recent

basin which communicates with the Canal Maritime. The entire area of the

harbour, including the canals, is 111 acres with a quayage length of

over 8000 yds. The public institutions of Cette include tribunals of

commerce and of maritime commerce, councils of arbitration in commercial

and fishing affairs, an exchange and chamber of commerce, a branch of

the Bank of France and a large hospital. There are also a communal

college, a naval school, and schools of music, commerce and industry,

and navigation. Cette is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The town is

connected with Lyons by the canal from the Rhone to Cette, and with

Bordeaux by the Canal du Midi, and is a junction of the Southern and

Paris-Lyon railways. The shipping trade is carried on with South

America, the chief ports of the Mediterranean, and especially with

Spain. The chief exports are wines and brandy, chemical products, skins

and soap; the chief imports are wine, cereals, coal, timber, petroleum,

sulphur, tar and chemical substances. In the five years 1901-1905 the

average annual value of imports was L3,720,000 (L4,980,000 in years

1896-1900), of exports L1,427,000 (L1,237,000 in 1896-1900). More than

400 small craft are employed in the sardine, tunny, cod and other

fisheries. Large quantities of shell-fish are obtained from the lagoon

of Thau. There are factories for the pickling of sardines, for the

manufacture of liqueurs and casks, and for the treatment of sulphur,

phosphates, and nitrate of soda. The Schneider Company of Creusot also

have metallurgical works at Cette, and the establishments for making

wine give employment to thousands. The port of Cette was created in 1666

by the agency of Colbert, minister of Louis XIV., and according to the

plans of Vauban; toward the end of the 17th century its development was

aided by the opening of the Canal du Midi.

CETTIGNE (Servian, _Tsetinye_; also written _Cettinje_, _Tzetinje_, and

_Tsettinye_), the capital of Montenegro; in a narrow plain deeply sunk

in the heart of the limestone mountains, at a height of 2093 ft. above

the sea. Pop. (1900) about 3200. The surrounding country is bare and

stony, with carefully cultivated patches of rich red soil among the

crevices of the rock. In winter it is often so deeply covered with snow

as to be well-nigh inaccessible, while in spring and autumn it is

frequently flooded by the waters of a small brook which becomes a

torrent after rain or a thaw. Cettigne itself is little more than a

walled village, consisting of a cluster of whitewashed cottages and some

unadorned public buildings. These include a church; a fortified

monastery which was founded in 1478, but so often burned and rebuilt as

to seem quite modern, and which is visited by pilgrims to the tomb of

Peter I. (1782-1830); residences for the archimandrite and the _vladika_

or metropolitan of Cettigne; a palace built in 1863, which accommodates

the ministries; the court of appeal, and a school modelled on the

gymnasia of Germany and Austria; the newer palaces of the prince and his

heir; foreign legations; barracks; a seminary for priests and teachers,

established by the tsar Alexander II. (1855-1881), with a very

successful girls' school founded and endowed by the tsaritsa Marie; a

library and reading-room; a theatre, a museum and a hospital. In an open

space near the old palace stood the celebrated plane tree, beneath which

Prince Nicholas gave audience to his subjects, and administered justice

until the closing years of the 19th century. A zigzag highway, regarded

as a triumph of engineering, winds through the mountain passes between

Cettigne and the Austrian seaport of Cattaro; and other good roads give

access to the richest parts of the interior. There is, however, little

trade, though mineral waters are manufactured.

Cettigne owes its origin to Ivan the Black, who was forced, towards the

end of the 15th century, to withdraw from Zhabliak, his former capital.

It has often been taken and sacked by the Turks, but has seldom been

occupied by them for long.

CETUS ("The Whale"), in astronomy, a constellation of the southern

hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd

century B.C.), and fabled by the Greeks to be the monster sent by

Neptune to devour Andromeda, but which was slain by Perseus. Ptolemy

catalogued 22 stars in this constellation; Tycho Brahe, 21; and

Hevelius, 45. The most remarkable star of this constellation is

_o-(Mira) Ceti_, a long-period variable, discovered by the German

astronomer Fabricius; its magnitude varies between about 3 to 9, and its

period is 331 days. _[tau]-Ceti_ is an irregular variable, its extreme

magnitudes being 5 and 7; _[gamma]-Ceti_ is a beautiful double star,

consisting of a yellow star of magnitude 3 and a blue of magnitude 6.8;

_[nu]-Ceti_ is also a double star.

CETYWAYO ( ?-1884), king of the Zulus, was the eldest son of King

Umpande or Panda, and a nephew of the two previous kings, Dingaan and

Chaka. Cetywayo was a young man when in 1840 his father was placed on

the throne by the aid of the Natal Boers; and three years later Natal

became a British colony. Cetywayo had inherited much of the military

talent of his uncle Chaka, the organizer of the Zulu military system,

and chafed under his father's peaceful policy towards his British and

Boer neighbours. Suspecting Panda of favouring a younger son, Umbulazi,

as his successor, Cetywayo made war on his brother, whom he defeated and

slew at a great battle on the banks of the Tugela in December 1856. In

the following year, at an assembly of the Zulus, it was resolved that

Panda should retire from the management of the affairs of the nation,

which were entrusted to Cetywayo, though the old chief kept the title of

king. Cetywayo was, however, suspicious of the Natal government, which

afforded protection to two of his brothers. The feeling of distrust was

removed in 1861 by a visit from Mr (afterwards Sir) Theophilus

Shepstone, secretary for native affairs in Natal, who induced Panda to

proclaim Cetywayo publicly as the future king. Friendly relations were

then maintained between the Zulus and Natal for many years. In 1872

Panda died, and Cetywayo was declared king, August 1873, in the presence

of Shepstone, to whom he made solemn promises to live at peace with his

neighbours and to govern his people more humanely. These promises were

not kept. Not only were numbers of his own people wantonly slain

(Cetywayo returning defiant messages to the governor of Natal when

remonstrated with), and the military system of Chaka and Dingaan

strengthened, but he had a feud with the Transvaal Boers as to the

possession of the territory between the Buffalo and Pongola rivers, and

encouraged the chief Sikukuni (Secocoeni) in his struggle against the

Boers. This feud with the Boers was inherited by the British government

on the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877. Cetywayo's attitude became

menacing; he allowed a minor chief to make raids into the Transvaal, and

seized natives within the Natal border.

Sir Bartle Frere, who became high commissioner of South Africa in March

1877, found evidence which convinced him that the Kaffir revolt of that

year on the eastern border of Cape Colony was part of a design or desire

"for a general and simultaneous rising of Kaffirdom against white

civilization"; and the Kaffirs undoubtedly looked to Cetywayo and the

Zulus as the most redoubtable of their champions. In December 1878 Frere

sent the Zulu king an ultimatum, which, while awarding him the territory

he claimed from the Boers, required him to make reparation for the

outrages committed within the British borders, to receive a British

resident, to disband his regiments, and to allow his young men to marry

without the necessity of having first "washed their spears." Cetywayo,

who had found a defender in Bishop Colenso, vouchsafed no reply, and

Lord Chelmsford entered Zululand, at the head of 13,000 troops, on the

11th of January 1879 to enforce the British demands. The disaster of

Isandhlwana and the defence of Rorke's Drift signalized the commencement

of the campaign, but on the 4th of July the Zulus were utterly routed at

Ulundi. Cetywayo became a fugitive, but was captured on the 28th of

August. His kingdom was divided among thirteen chiefs and he himself

taken to Cape Town, whence he was brought to London in August 1882. He

remained in England less than a month, during which time the government

(the second Gladstone administration) announced that they had decided

upon his restoration. To his great disappointment, however, restoration

proved to refer only to a portion of his old kingdom. Even there one of

his kinsmen and chief enemies, Usibepu, was allowed to retain the

territory allotted to him in 1879. Cetywayo was reinstalled on the 29th

of January 1883 by Shepstone, but his enemies, headed by Usibepu,

attacked him within a week, and after a struggle of nearly a year's

duration he was defeated and his kraal destroyed. He then took refuge in

the Native Reserve, where he died on the 8th of February 1884. For a

quarter of a century he had been the most conspicuous native figure in

South Africa, and had been the cause of long and bitter political

controversy in Great Britain.

His son DINIZULU afterwards attempted to become king, was exiled (1889)

to St Helena, permitted to return (1898), and granted the position of a

chief. In December 1907 Dinizulu was imprisoned at Maritzburg, being

suspected of complicity in the revolt which had occurred in Zululand the

previous year. He was kept many months waiting trial, there being

considerable friction between the colonial government and the British

government over the incident. He was eventually brought to trial in

November 1908 before a special court, his defence (to the cost of which

the British government contributed L2000) being undertaken by Mr W.P.

Schreiner. The trial was not concluded until March 1909. The charge of

high treason was not proved, but Dinizulu was convicted of harbouring

rebels and was sentenced to four years' imprisonment.

_The Life of Sir Bartle Frere_, by John Martineau, vol. ii. chaps. 18

to 21, contains much information concerning Cetywayo.

CEUTA (Arabic _Sebta_), a Spanish military and convict station and

seaport on the north coast of Morocco, in 35 deg. 54' N., 5 deg. 18' W.

Pop. about 13,000. It is situated on a promontory connected with the

mainland by a narrow isthmus. This promontory marks the south-eastern

end of the straits of Gibraltar, which between Ceuta and Gibraltar have

a width of 14 m. The promontory terminates in a bold headland, the

Montagne des Singes, with seven distinct peaks. Of these the highest is

the Monte del Hacko, the ancient _Abyla_, one of the "Pillars of

Hercules," which faces Gibraltar and rises 636 ft. above the sea. On the

westernmost point--Almina, 476 ft. high--is a lighthouse with a light

visible for 23 m. Ceuta consists of two quarters, the old town, covering

the low ground of the isthmus, and the modern town, built on the hills

forming the north and west faces of the peninsula. Between the old and

new quarters and on the north side of the isthmus lies the port. The

public buildings in the town, thoroughly Spanish in its character, are

not striking: they include the cathedral (formerly a mosque), the

governor's palace, the town hall, barracks, and the convict prison in

the old convent of San Francisco. Ceuta has been fortified seaward, the

works being furnished with modern artillery intended to command the

entrance to the Mediterranean. Landward are three lines of defence, the

inner line stretching completely across the isthmus. These

fortifications, which date from the time of the Portuguese occupation,

have been partly modernized. The citadel, El Hacho, built on the neck of

the isthmus, dates from the 15th century. The garrison consists of

between 3000 and 4000 men, inclusive of a disciplinary corps of military

convicts. Of the rest of the population about 2000 are civilian

convicts; and there are colonies of Jews, negroes and Moors, the last

including descendants of Moors transferred to Ceuta from Oran when Spain

abandoned that city in 1796.

Ceuta occupies in part the site of a Carthaginian colony, which was

succeeded by a Roman colony said to have been called _Ad Septem Fratres_

and also _Exilissa_ or _Lissa Civitas_. From the Romans the town passed

to the Vandals and afterwards to Byzantium, the emperor Justinian

restoring its fortifications in 535. In 618 the town, then known as

_Septon_, fell into the hands of the Visigoths. It was the last

stronghold in North Africa which held out against the Arabs. At that

date (A.D. 711) the governor of the town was the Count Julian who, in

revenge for the betrayal of his daughter by King Roderick of Toledo,

invited the Arabs to cross the straits under Tarik and conquer Spain for

Islam. By the Arabs the town was called _Cibta_ or _Sebta_, hence the

Spanish form _Ceuta_. From the date of its occupation by the Arabs the

town had a stormy history, being repeatedly captured by rival Berber and

Spanish-Moorish dynasties. It became nevertheless an important

commercial and industrial city, being noted for its brass ware, its

trade in ivory, gold and slaves. It is said to have been the first place

in the West where a paper manufactory was established. In 1415 the town

was captured by the Portuguese under John I., among those taking part in

the attack being Prince Henry "the Navigator" and two of his brothers,

who were knighted on the day following in the mosque (hastily dedicated

as a Christian church). Ceuta passed to Spain in 1580 on the subjugation

of Portugal by Philip II., and was definitely assigned to the Spanish

crown by the treaty of Lisbon in 1688. The town has been several times

unsuccessfully besieged by the Moors--one siege, under Mulai Ismail,

lasting twenty-six years (1694-1720). In 1810, with the consent of

Spain, it was occupied by British troops under General Sir J.F. Fraser.

The town was restored to Spain by the British at the close of the

Napoleonic Wars. As the result of the war between Spain and Morocco in

1860 the area of Spanish territory around the town was increased. The

military governor of the town also commands the troops in the other

Spanish stations on the coast of Morocco. For civil purposes Ceuta is

attached to the province of Cadiz. It is a free port, but does little

trade.

See de Prado, _Recuerdos de Africa; historia de la plaza de Ceuta_

(Madrid, 1859-1860); Budgett Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_ (London,

1901), chap, xix., where many works dealing with Spanish Morocco are

cited.

CEVA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 33 m. E. by

rail from the town of Cuneo, 1270 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2703.

In the middle ages it was a strong fortress defending the confines of

Piedmont towards Liguria, but the fortifications on the rock above the

town were demolished in 1800 by the French, to whom it had been ceded in

1796. Its cheese (_caseus cebanus_) was famous in Roman times, but it

does not seem ever to have been a Roman town. It lay on the road between

Augusta Taurinorum and Vada Sabatia. A branch railway runs from Ceva

through Garessio, with its marble quarries, to Ormea (2398 ft.), 22 m.

to the south through the upper valley of the Tanaro, which in Roman

times was under Albingaunum (Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v.

(Berlin, 1877), p. 898). From Ormea a road runs south to (31 m.) Oneglia

on the Ligurian coast.

CEVENNES (Lat. _Cebenna_ or _Gebenna_), a mountain range of southern

France, forming the southern and eastern fringe of the central plateau

and part of the watershed between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins.

It consists of a narrow ridge some 320 m. long, with numerous lofty

plateaus and secondary ranges branching from it. The northern division

of the range, which nowhere exceeds 3320 ft. in height, extends, under

the name of the mountains of Charolais, Beaujolais and Lyonnais, from

the Col de Longpendu (west of Chalon-sur-Saone) in a southerly direction

to the Col de Gier. The central Cevennes, comprising the volcanic chain

of Vivarais, incline south-east and extend as far as the Lozere group.

The northern portion of this chain forms the Boutieres range. Farther

south it includes the Gerbier des Joncs (5089 ft.), the Mont de Mezenc

(5755 ft.), the culminating point of the entire range, and the Tanargue

group. South of the Mont Lozere, where the Pic Finiels reaches 5584 ft.,

lies that portion of the range to which the name Cevennes is most

strictly applied. This region, now embraced in the departments of Lozere

and Gard, stretches south to include the Aigoual and Esperou groups.

Under various local names (the Garrigues, the mountains of Espinouse and

Lacaune) and with numerous offshoots the range extends south-east and

then east to the Montagne Noire, which runs parallel to the Canal du

Midi and comes to an end some 25 m. east of Toulouse. In the south the

Cevennes separate the cold and barren table-lands known as the Causses

from the sunny region of Languedoc, where the olive, vine and mulberry

flourish. Northwards the contrast between the two slopes is less

striking.

The Cevennes proper are formed by a folded belt of Palaeozoic rocks

which lies along the south-east border of the central plateau of France.

Concealed in part by later deposits, this ancient mountain chain extends

from Castelnaudary to the neighbourhood of Valence, where it sinks

suddenly beneath the Tertiary and recent deposits of the valley of the

Rhone. It is in the Montagne Noire rather than in the Cevennes proper

that the structure of the chain has been most fully investigated. All

the geological systems from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous are

included in the folded belt, and J. Bergeron has shown that the gneiss

and schist which form so much of the chain consist, in part at least, of

metamorphosed Cambrian beds. The direction of the folds is about N. 60

deg. E., and the structure is complicated by overthrusting on an

extensive scale. The overthrust came from the south-east, and the

Palaeozoic beds were crushed and crumpled against the ancient massif of

the central plateau. The principal folding took place at the close of

the Carboniferous period, and was contemporaneous with that of the old

Hercynian chain of Belgium, &c. The Permian and later beds lie

unconformably upon the denuded folds, and in the space between the

Montagne Noire and the Cevennes proper the folded belt is buried beneath

the horizontal Jurassic strata of the Causses. Although the chain was

completed in Palaeozoic times, a second folding took place along its

south-east margin at the close of the Eocene period. The Secondary and

Tertiary beds of the Languedoc were crushed against the central plateau

and were frequently overfolded. But by this time the ancient Palaeozoic

chain had become a part of the unyielding massif, and the folding did

not extend beyond its foot.

As the division between the basins of the Loire and the Garonne to the

west and those of the Saone and Rhone to the east, the Cevennes send

many affluents to those rivers. In the south the Orb, the Herault and

the Vidourle are independent rivers flowing to the Golfe du Lion;

farther north, the Gard--formed by the union of several streams named

Gardon--the Ceze and the Ardeche flow to the Rhone. The Vivarais

mountains and the northern Cevennes approach the right banks of the

Rhone and Saone closely, and on that side send their waters by way of

short torrents to those rivers; on the west side the streams are

tributaries of the Loire, which rises at the foot of Mont Mezenc. A

short distance to the south on the same side are the sources of the

Allier and Lot. The waters of the north-western slope of the southern

Cevennes drain into the Tarn either directly or by way of the Aveyron,

which rises in the outlying chain of the Levezou, and, in the extreme

south, the Agout. The Tarn itself rises on the southern slope of the

Mont Lozere.

In the Lozere group and the southern Cevennes generally, good pasturage

is found, and huge flocks spend the summer there. Silkworm-rearing and

the cultivation of peaches, chestnuts and other fruits are also carried

on. In the Vivarais cattle are reared, while on the slopes of the

Beaujolais excellent wines are grown.

The chief historical event in the history of the Cevennes is the revolt

of the Camisards in the early years of the 18th century (see CAMISARDS).

CEYLON, a large island and British colony in the Indian Ocean, separated

on the N.W. from India by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk Strait. It lies

between 5 deg. 55' and 9 deg. 51' N. and between 79 deg. 41' and 81 deg.

54' E. Its extreme length from north to south is 271-1/2 m.; its

greatest width is 137-1/2 m.; and its area amounts to 25,481 sq. m., or

about five-sixths of that of Ireland. In its general outline the island

resembles a pear, the apex of which points towards the north.

Coast.

The coast is beset on the N.W. with numberless sandbanks, rocks and

shoals, and may be said to be almost connected with India by the island

of Rameswaram and Adam's Bridge, a succession of bold rocks reaching

almost across the gulf at its narrowest point. Between the island and

the opposite coast there exist two open channels of varying depth and

width, beset by rocks and shoals. One of these, the Manaar Passage, is

only navigable by very small craft. The other, called the Paumben

Passage, lying between Rameswaram and the mainland, has been deepened at

considerable outlay, and is used by large vessels in passing from the

Malabar to the Coromandel coast, which were formerly compelled in doing

so to make the circuit of the island. The west and south coasts, which

are uniformly low, are fringed their entire length by coco-nut trees,

which grow to the water's edge in great luxuriance, and give the island

a most picturesque appearance. Along these shores there are numerous

inlets and backwaters of the sea, some of which are available as

harbours for small native craft. The east coast from Point de Galle to

Trincomalee is of an entirely opposite character, wanting the ample

vegetation of the other, and being at the same time of a bold

precipitous character. The largest ships may freely approach this side

of the island, provided they take care to avoid a few dangerous rocks,

whose localities, however, are well known to navigators.

Seen from a distance at sea this "utmost Indian isle" of the old

geographers wears a truly beautiful appearance. The remarkable elevation

known as "Adam's Peak," the most prominent, though not the loftiest, of

the hilly ranges of the interior, towers like a mountain monarch amongst

an assemblage of picturesque hills, and is a sure landmark for the

navigator when as yet the Colombo lighthouse is hidden from sight amid

the green groves of palms that seem to be springing from the waters of

the ocean. The low coast-line encircles the mountain zone of the

interior on the east, south and west, forming a belt which extends

inland to a varying distance of from 30 to 80 m.; but on the north the

whole breadth of the island from Kalpitiya to Batticaloa is an almost

unbroken plain, containing magnificent forests of great extent.

Mountains.

The mountain zone is towards the south of the island, and covers an area

of about 4212 sq. m. The uplifting force seems to have been exerted from

south-west to north-east, and although there is much confusion in many

of the intersecting ridges, and spurs of great size and extent are sent

off in many directions, the lower ranges manifest a remarkable tendency

to run in parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to north-west.

Towards the north the offsets of the mountain system radiate to short

distances and speedily sink to the level of the plain. Detached hills

are rare; the most celebrated of these are Mihintale (anc. _Missiaka_),

which overlooks the sacred city of Anuradhapura, and Sigiri. The latter

is the only example in Ceylon of those solitary acclivities which form

so remarkable a feature in the tableland of the Deccan--which, starting

abruptly from the plain, with scarped and perpendicular sides, are

frequently converted into strongholds accessible only by precipitous

pathways or by steps hewn in the solid rock.

For a long period Adam's Peak was supposed to be the highest mountain in

Ceylon, but actual survey makes it only 7353 ft. above sea-level. This

elevation is chiefly remarkable as the resort of pilgrims from all parts

of the East. The hollow in the lofty rock that crowns the summit is said

by the Brahmans to be the footstep of Siva, by the Buddhists of Buddha,

by the Mahommedans of Adam, whilst the Portuguese Christians were

divided between the conflicting claims of St Thomas and the eunuch of

Candace, queen of Ethiopia. The footstep is covered by a handsome roof,

and is guarded by the priests of a rich monastery half-way up the

mountain, who maintain a shrine on the summit of the peak. The highest

mountains in Ceylon are Pidurutalagala, 8296 ft. in altitude;

Kirigalpota, 7836 ft.; and Totapelakanda, 7746 ft.

The summits of the highest ridges are clothed with verdure, and along

their base, in the beautiful valleys which intersect them in every

direction, the slopes were formerly covered with forests of gigantic and

valuable trees, which, however, have disappeared under the axe of the

planter, who felled and burnt the timber on all the finest slopes at an

elevation of 2000 to 4500 ft., and converted the hillsides into highly

cultivated coffee and afterwards tea estates.

The plain of Nuwara Eliya, the sanatorium of the island, is at an

elevation of 6200 ft., and possesses many of the attributes of an alpine

country. The climate of the Horton plains, at an elevation of 7000 ft.,

is still finer than that of Nuwara Eliya, but they are difficult of

access, and are but little known to Europeans. The town of Kandy, in the

Central Province, formerly the capital of the native sovereigns of the

interior, is situated 1727 ft. above sea-level.

Rivers.

The island, though completely within the influence of oceanic

evaporation, and possessing an elevated tableland of considerable

extent, does not boast of any rivers of great volume. The rains which

usher in each monsoon or change of season are indeed heavy, and during

their fall swell the streams to torrents and impetuous rivers. But when

these cease the water-courses fall back to their original state, and

there are few of the rivers which cannot generally be passed on

horseback. The largest river, the Mahaweliganga, has a course of 206 m.,

draining about one-sixth of the area of the island before it reaches the

sea at Trincomalee on the east coast. There are twelve other

considerable rivers, running to the west, east and south, but none of

these exceeds 90 m. in length. The rivers are not favourable for

navigation, except near the sea, where they expand into backwaters,

which were used by the Dutch for the construction of their system of

canals all round the western and southern coasts. Steamers ply between

Colombo and Negombo along this narrow canal and lake. A similar service

on the Kaluganga did not prove a success. There are no inland lakes

except the remains of magnificent artificial lakes in the north and east

of the island, and the backwaters on the coast. The lakes which add to

the beauty of Colombo, Kandy, Lake Gregory, Nuwara Eliya and Kurunegala

are artificial or partly so. Giant's Tank is said to have an area of

6380 acres, and Minneri and Kalawewa each exceed 4000 acres.

The magnificent basin of Trincomalee, situated on the east coast of

Ceylon, is perhaps unsurpassed in extent, security and beauty by any

haven in the world. The admiralty had a dockyard here which was closed

in 1905.

_Geology._--Ceylon may be said to have been for ages slowly rising from

the sea, as appears from the terraces abounding in marine shells, which

occur in situations far above high-water mark, and at some miles

distance from the sea. A great portion of the north of the island may be

regarded as the joint production of the coral polyps and the currents,

which for the greater part of the year set impetuously towards the

south; coming laden with alluvial matter collected along the coast of

Coromandel, and meeting with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they

have deposited their burdens on the coral reefs round Point Pedro; and

these, raised above the sea-level and covered deeply by sand drifts,

have formed the peninsula of Jaffna, and the plains that trend westward

till they unite with the narrow causeway of Adam's Bridge. Tertiary

rocks are almost unknown. The great geological feature of the island is

the profusion of gneiss, overlaid in many places in the interior by

extensive beds of dolomitic limestone. This formation appears to be of

great thickness; and when, as is not often the case, the under-surface

of the gneiss series is exposed, it is invariably found resting on

granite. Veins of pure quartz and felspar of considerable extent have

been frequently met with in the gneiss; while in the elevated lands of

the interior in the Galle districts may be seen copious deposits of

disintegrated felspar, or _kaolin_, commonly known as porcelain clay. At

various elevations the gneiss may be found intersected by veins of trap

rock, upheaved whilst in a state of fusion subsequent to the

consolidation of the former. In some localities on the seashore these

veins assume the character of pitch-stone porphyry highly impregnated

with iron. Hornblende and primitive greenstone are found in the vicinity

of Adam's Peak and in the Pussellava district. Laterite, known in Ceylon

as _kabuk_, a product of disintegrated gneiss, exists in vast quantities

in many parts, and is quarried for building purposes.

_Climate._--The seasons in Ceylon differ very slightly from those

prevailing along the coasts of the Indian peninsula. The two

distinctive monsoons of the year are called, from the winds which

accompany them, the south-west and the north-east. The former is very

regular in its approach, and may be looked for along the south-west

coast between the 10th and 20th of May; the latter reaches the

north-east coast between the end of October and the middle of November.

There is a striking contrast in the influence which the south-west

monsoon exerts on the one side of the island and on the other. The

clouds are driven against the lofty mountains that overhang the western

and southern coasts, and their condensed vapours descend there in

copious showers. But the rains do not reach the opposite side of the

island: while the south-west is deluged, the east and north are

sometimes exhausted with dryness; and it not unfrequently happens that

different sides of the same mountain present at the same moment the

opposite extreme of droughts and moisture. The influence of the

north-east monsoon is more general. The mountains which face the

north-east are lower and more remote from the sea than those on the

south-west; the clouds are carried farther inland, and it rains

simultaneously on both sides of the island.

The length of the day, owing to the proximity of the island to the

equator, does not vary more than an hour at any season. The mean time of

the rising of the sun's centre at Colombo on February 1st is 6^h 23^m

A.M., and of its setting 6^h 5^m P.M. On August 15th its rising is at

5^h 45^m A.M., and its setting at 6^h 7^m P.M. It is mid-day in Colombo

when it is morning in England. Colombo is situated in 79 deg. 50' 45"

E., and the day is further advanced there than at Greenwich by 5^h 19^m

23^s.

_Flora_.--The characteristics of the low-growing plants of Ceylon

approach nearly to those of the coasts of southern India. The

_Rhizophoreae_ are numerous along the low muddy shores of salt lakes

and stagnant pools; and the acacias are equally abundant. The list

comprises _Aegiceras fragrans_, _Epithinia malayana_, _Thespesia

populnea_, _Feronia elephantum_, _Salvadora persica_ (the true mustard

tree of Scripture), _Eugenia bracteata_, _Elaeodendron Roxburghii_,

_Cassia Fistula_, _Cassia Roxburghii_, &c. The herbaceous plants of

the low country belong mostly to the natural orders _Compositae_,

_Leguminosae_, _Rubiaceae_, _Scrophulariaceae_ and _Euphorbiaceae_.

Leaving the plains of the maritime country and ascending a height of

4000 ft. in the central districts, we find both herbage and trees

assume an altered character. The foliage of the latter is larger and

deeper coloured, and they attain a height unknown in the hot low

country. The herbaceous vegetation is there made up of ferns,

_Cyrtandreae_, _Compositae_, _Scitamineae_ and _Urticaceae_. The dense

masses of lofty forest at that altitude are interspersed with large

open tracts of coarse wiry grass, called by the natives _patanas_, and

of value to them as affording pasturage for their cattle.

Between the altitudes of 4000 and 8000 ft., many plants are to be met

with partaking of European forms, yet blended with tropical

characteristics. The guelder rose, St John's wort, the _Nepenthes

distillatoria_ or pitcher plant, violets, geraniums, buttercups,

sundews, ladies' mantles and campanulas thrive by the side of

_Magnoliaceae_, _Ranunculaceae_, _Elaeocarpeae_, &c. The most

beautiful flowering shrub of this truly alpine region is the

rhododendron, which in many instances grows to the height of 70 ft. It

is met with in great abundance in the moist plains of the elevated

land above Nuwara Eliya, flowering abundantly in June and July. There

are two distinct varieties, one similar to the Nilgiri plant, having

its leaves broad and cordate, and of a rusty colour on the under side;

the other, peculiar to Ceylon, is found only in forests at the

loftiest elevations; it has narrow rounded leaves, silvery on the

under side, and grows to enormous heights, frequently measuring 3 ft.

round the stem. At these altitudes English flowers, herbs and

vegetables have been cultivated with perfect success, as also wheat,

oats and barley. English fruit-trees grow, but rarely bear. Grapes are

grown successfully in the north of the island. The vines were

introduced by the Dutch, who overcame the difficulty of perpetual

summer by exposing the roots, and thus giving the plants an artificial

winter.

The timber trees indigenous to Ceylon are met with at every altitude

from the sea-beach to the loftiest mountain peak. They vary much in

their hardiness and durability, from the common cashew-nut tree, which

when felled decays in a month, to the ebony and satinwood, which for

many years resist the attacks of insects and climate. Many of the

woods are valuable for furniture, and house and shipbuilding, and are

capable of standing long exposure to weather. The most beautiful woods

adapted to furniture work are the calamander, ebony, flowered

satinwood, tamarind, nedun, dell, kadomberiya, kitul, coco-nut, &c.;

the sack-yielding tree (_Antiaris saccidora_), for a long time

confounded with the far-famed upas tree of Java (_Antiaris

toxicaria_), grows in the Kurunegala district of the island. The

_Cocos nucifera_, or coco-nut palm, is a native of the island, and may

justly be considered the most valuable of its trees. It grows in vast

abundance alone the entire sea-coast of the west and south sides of

the island, and furnishes almost all that a Sinhalese villager

requires. Its fruit, when green, supplies food and drink; when ripe,

it yields oil. The juice of the unopened flower gives him toddy and

arrack. The fibrous casing of the fruit when woven makes him ropes,

nets, matting. The nut-shells form drinking-vessels, spoons, &c. The

plaited leaves serve as plates and dishes, and as thatch for his

cottage. The dried leaves are used as torches, the large leaf-stalks

as garden fences. The trunk of the tree sawn up is employed for every

possible purpose, from knife-handles to door-posts; hollowed out it

forms a canoe or a coffin. There are four kinds of this palm--the

common, the king, the dwarf and the Maldive. The Palmyra and Areca

palms grow luxuriantly and abundantly, the former in the northern, the

latter in the western and central districts. The one is valuable

chiefly for its timber, of which large quantities are exported to the

Indian coasts; the other supplies the betel-nut in common use amongst

natives of the eastern tropics as a masticatory. The export trade in

the latter to India and eastern ports is very considerable. Next in

importance to the coco-nut palm among the indigenous products of

Ceylon is the cinnamon plant, yielding the well-known spice of that

name.

_Fauna_.--Foremost among the animals of Ceylon is the elephant, which,

though far inferior to those of Africa and the Indian continent, is

nevertheless of considerable value when tamed, on account of its

strength, sagacity and docility. They are to be met with in greater or

less numbers throughout most unfrequented parts of the interior.

Occasionally they make inroads in herds upon the cultivated grounds

and plantations, committing great damage. In order to protect these

lands, and at the same time keep up the government stud of draught

elephants, "kraals" or traps on a large scale are erected in the

forests, into which the wild herds are driven; and once secured they

are soon tamed and fit for service. The oxen are of small size, but

hardy, and capable of drawing heavy loads. Buffaloes exist in great

numbers throughout the interior, where they are employed in a

half-tame state for ploughing rice-fields and treading out the corn.

They feed upon any coarse grass, and can therefore be maintained on

the village pasture-lands where oxen would not find support. Of deer,

Ceylon possesses the spotted kind (_Axis maculata_), the muntjac

(_Stylocerus muntjac_), a red deer (the Sambur of India), popularly

called the Ceylon elk (_Musa Aristotelis_), and the small musk

(_Moschus minima_). There are five species of monkeys, one the small

rilawa (_Macacus pileatus_), and four known in Ceylon by the name of

"wandaru" (_Presbytes ursinus_, _P. Thersites_, _P. cephalopterus_,

_P. Priamus_), and the small quadrumanous animal, the loris (_Loris

gracilis_), known as the "Ceylon sloth." Of the Cheiroptera sixteen

species have been identified; amongst them is the rousette or flying

fox (_Pteropus Edwardsii_). Of the Carnivora the only one dangerous to

man is the small black bear (_Prochilus labiatus_). The tiger is not

known in Ceylon, but the true panther (_Felis pardus_) is common, as

is the jackal (_Canis aureus_) and the mongoose or ichneumon

(_Herpestes vitticollis_). Rats are numerous, as are the squirrel and

the porcupine, and the pig-rat or bandicoot (_Mus bandicota_), while

the scaly ant-eater (_Manis pentedactyla_), locally known by the Malay

name of pangolin, is occasionally found. The dugong (_Halicore

dugong_), is frequently seen on various points of the coast. A game

preservation society and the judicious action of government have done

much to prevent the wanton destruction of Ceylon deer, elephants, &c.,

by establishing a close season. It is estimated that there must be

5000 wild elephants in the Ceylon forests. A licence to shoot or

capture and an export royalty are now levied by government.

Captain V. Legge includes 371 species of birds in Ceylon, and many of

them have splendid plumage, but in this respect they are surpassed by

the birds of South America and Northern India. The eagles are small

and rare, but hawks and owls are numerous; among the latter is a

remarkable brown species, the cry of which has earned for it the name

of the "devil-bird." The esculent swift, which furnishes in its edible

nest the celebrated Chinese dainty, builds in caves in Ceylon. Crows

of various species are numerous, and in the wilder parts pea-fowl are

abundant. There are also to be mentioned king-fishers, sun-birds,

several beautiful fly-catchers and snatchers, the golden oriole,

parroquets and numerous pigeons, of which there are at least a dozen

species. The Ceylon jungle-fowl (_Gallus Lafayetti_) is distinct from

the Indian species. Ceylon is singularly rich in wading and water

birds--ibises, storks, egrets, spoonbills and herons being frequently

seen on the wet sands, while flamingoes line the beach in long files,

and on the deeper waters inland are found teal and a countless variety

of ducks and smaller fowl. Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen

there are partridge, quail and snipe in abundance, and the woodcock

has been seen.

The poisonous snakes of Ceylon are not numerous. Four species have

been enumerated--the ticpolonga (_Daboia elegans_), the cobra di

capello (_Naja tripudians_), the carawilla (_Trigonocephalus

hypnale_), and the _Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus_, which is so rare

that it has no popular name. The largest snake in Ceylon is the "boa,"

or "anaconda" of Eastern story (_Python reticulatus_); it is from 20

to 30 ft. in length, and preys on hog-deer and other smaller animals.

Crocodiles infest the rivers and estuaries, and the large fresh-water

reservoirs which supply the rice-fields; there are two species (_C.

biporcatus_ and _C. palustris_). Of lizards the most noteworthy are

the iguana, several bloodsuckers, the chameleon and the familiar

geckoes, which are furnished with pads to each toe, by which they are

enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to glass and

ceilings.

Insects exist in great numbers. The leaf and stick insects are of

great variety and beauty. Ceylon has four species of the ant-lion,

renowned for the predaceous ingenuity of its larvae; and the white

ants or termites, the ravages of which are most destructive, are at

once ubiquitous and innumerable in every place where the climate is

not too chilly or the soil too sandy for them to construct their domed

dwellings. They make their way through walls and floors, and in a few

hours destroy every vegetable substance within their reach. Of all the

insect pests that beset an unseasoned European the most annoying are

the mosquitoes. Ticks are also an intolerable nuisance; they are

exceedingly minute, and burrow under the skin. In the lower ranges of

the hill country land leeches are found in tormenting profusion. But

insects and reptiles do not trouble European residents so much as in

early years--at any rate in the towns, while in the higher planting

districts there is almost complete exemption from their unwelcome

attentions. Bungalows are more carefully built to resist white ants,

drainage and cleanliness prevent mosquitoes and ticks from

multiplying, while snakes and leeches avoid cultivated, occupied

ground.

Of the fish in ordinary use for the table the finest is the seir, a

species of scomber (_Cybium guttatum_). Mackerel, dories, carp,

whitings, mullet (red and striped), soles and sardines are abundant.

Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and the huge saw fish

(_Pristis antiquorum_) infests the eastern coast of the island, where

it attains a length of 12 to 15 ft. There are also several fishes

remarkable for the brilliancy of their colouring; e.g. the Red Sea

perch (_Holocentrum rubrum_), of the deepest scarlet, and the great

fire fish (_Scorpaena miles_), of a brilliant red. Some are purple,

others yellow, and numbers with scales of a lustrous green are called

"parrots" by the natives; of these one (_Sparus Hardwickii_) is called

the "flower parrot," from its exquisite colouring--irregular bands of

blue, crimson and purple, green, yellow and grey, crossed by

perpendicular stripes of black. The pearl fishery, as indicated below,

is of great importance.

_Population_.--The total population of Ceylon in 1901, inclusive of

military, shipping and 4914 prisoners of war, was 3,578,333, showing

an increase of 18.8% in the decade. The population of Colombo was

158,228.