between the Defenders and the Peep o’ Day Boys, in which the latter were
victorious.
Diamond Necklace.
A scandal of the Court of Louis XVI, in 1785, to which the unpopularity
of Marie Antoinette was largely due. Mme. Lamothe, the mistress of the
Cardinal de Rohan, gave the Cardinal an order, purporting to be signed
by the Queen, for a diamond necklace, which the Cardinal ordered from
the Court jeweller, giving bills for payment by instalments. Madame
Lamothe, by means of another forged document, obtained possession of the
necklace, and turned it to her own uses. The Cardinal being unable to
meet the first bill when it became due, the jeweller applied to the
Queen. The matter came to the ears of the King, who ordered an inquiry,
and Mme. Lamothe was arrested and convicted, and the Cardinal disgraced.
Nothing was proved against the Queen, but the public remained convinced
that she was in some way mixed up in the affair.
Diamond State.
The State of Delaware, U.S.A., is so called.
Diamond Trade Act.
An Act passed by the Cape Parliament in 1882, to suppress illicit
diamond buying, or I.D.B. This Act made it criminal to possess an uncut
diamond without being able to account for its lawful possession. It also
gave the police large powers of search, including the right to open
suspicious parcels in the post. The administration of this Act was the
cause of the Kimberley Riots.
Dictator of a Day.
Pavia, Captain-General of Madrid, who by a _pronunciamiento_ in 1869,
obtained the supreme power, which he at once handed over to Marshal
Serrano.
Dingaan’s Day.
December 16, 1838, on which day the Transvaal Commandos completely
routed the Zulu chief Dingaan, thus avenging the massacre of the Boer
farmers in the early part of the same year.
Directoire.
The Government established in France after the fall of Robespierre, in
July, 1794. The power was vested in five directors, assisted by a
Council of five hundred, and a Council of two hundred and fifty members
known as the Council of Ancients. It lasted until 1799, when the
Consulate was established by the _Coup d’Etat_ of November 9 (18th
Brumaire).
Disarming Act.
One of the Irish Penal Laws, passed in 1695, under which all Papists
were ordered to surrender their arms, under penalty of a heavy fine for
the first offence, and of imprisonment for life for the second.
Disarming the Highlands, Act for.
An Act passed in 1825, forbidding the carrying of arms by the Highland
clansmen.
Disastrous Peace.
The Treaty of Câteau Cambrésis in 1559, whereby Henri renounced his
Italian claims, was so called by the French.
Discipline, Books of.
The two publications embodying the constitution and procedure of the
Church of Scotland. The first was drawn up by John Knox, and four other
ministers, in 1560. The second, a revised version of the first, was
drawn up by Andrew Melville, and sanctioned by the General Assembly in
1578.
Discoverers.
Certain persons in Ireland, circ. 1616, who made it their business to
investigate some of the older titles to land. In the event of their
discovering any flaw in the titles, such lands were confiscated, the
informer receiving a percentage of the value.
Disinherited.
The Barons who continued the Barons’ War after the Battle of Evesham
were so called because a decree of forfeiture had been issued against
all the supporters of Simon de Montfort.
Dissolution of Monasteries.
This was carried out by an Act passed in 1536, supplemented in 1539 by a
further Act, vesting all monastic property in the Crown.
Divine Right.
The doctrine of the inalienable right of the next in succession to
ascend the throne by virtue of inheritance, apart from any
considerations of fitness or Parliamentary sanction. It reached its
apogee in the Stuart times, and was discarded with the adoption of
William III as King of Great Britain and Ireland.
Dix-huit Brumaire.
The _Coup d’Etat_ of November 9, 1799, when Napoleon overthrew the
Directoire, and had himself appointed First Consul.
Dix-huit Fructidor.
The _Coup d’Etat_ of September 4, 1797, whereby the Royalist plot in
which certain members of the Directoire and the Councils were
implicated, was frustrated.
Dixie’s Land.
A popular name for the Southern States of America in the slavery days.
Doctrinaires.
The name given to the philosophic Liberals in France, in the reign of
Louis XVIII.
Domesday Book.
A register of the holders of land compiled by Commissioners appointed by
William the Conqueror.
Dominicans.
An order of mendicant friars, known as the Preaching Friars, and in
England as the Black Friars, founded by St. Dominic and recognized by
Pope Honorius III in 1216. To this Order was entrusted the conduct of
the Inquisition.
Dominus ac Redemptor noster, Bull.
The Bull of Clement XIV, issued in 1773, suppressing the Jesuits.
Don Pacifico.
A British subject, a Jew of Gibraltar, whose house at Athens was burnt
by a mob in 1847. The difficulty and delay in obtaining compensation led
to Lord Palmerston sending a fleet to the Piraeus. Greece appealed to
France and Russia, and a European war was for some time within
measurable distance.
Donation of Charles.
A gift of Charlemagne to Pope Adrian I, in 774. It is uncertain of what
the donation consisted, though it included a confirmation of the
“Donation of Pepin.” It was declared by the Popes, however, to have been
a gift of the whole of the Italian peninsula, and by some even to have
been a renewal of the fabled “Donation of Constantine.”
Donation of Constantine.
A legendary gift to the Pope of the imperial sovereignty over Italy and
the whole of the Western Empire. This document is included amongst the
False Decretals.
Donation of Pepin.
The gift of Pepin, the first king of the Carlovingian dynasty, to the
See of Rome, in 755, of Ravenna and the surrounding country, which he
had recently conquered from the Lombards. This donation may be said to
be the foundation of the temporal power of the Popes, which lasted until
1870.
Donauwörth, Troubles of.
A series of disturbances at Donauwörth, a free Protestant town in
Suabia, in 1606, due to the Catholic minority insisting on holding
religious processions through the streets of the town. The Aulic
Council, supported by the Emperor, placed Donauwörth under the ban of
the Empire, and eventually made it a Catholic town, within the
jurisdiction of Bavaria. The action of the Aulic Council in this case
resulted in the formation of the Protestant League in 1608.
Dongan Charter.
The charter of the City of New York, granted in 1686 by Thomas Dongan,
Governor of New York under James II.
Donis Conditionalibus, Statute De.
A Statute of Edward the First’s reign, which provided that if an estate
were given to a man and his children, he had only a life interest in it,
and in the event of his dying without issue, the estate reverted to the
donor. Prior to this statute, it was sufficient that a child was born to
him, when the estate became his absolute property, and could be
alienated at will. This statute, in fact, established the system of
entails.
Doom-Book.
A codification of the Anglo-Saxon laws and customs, made by Alfred the
Great (871-901).
Doppers.
The members of the Separatist Reformed Church in the Transvaal and
Orange Free State. It was established by Mr. Postma in the Transvaal, in
1859, and is now a very influential body. Its tenets are not unlike
those of the Scottish Covenanters.
Dorr’s Rebellion.
An insurrection in Rhode Island, headed by Thomas W. Dorr, in 1841,
having for its object the extension of the suffrage, which remained as
originally instituted by the Charter of Charles II in 1663. He seized
the State Arsenal, but was overpowered, and later was arrested and
sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was afterwards pardoned. His
movement, however, resulted in the adoption, in 1842, of a constitution
to supersede the Charter of 1663.
Dort, Synod of.
A synod held in 1618, to which all the Protestant Churches were invited
to send representatives. It was specially convened for the purpose of
considering the Arminian heresy, and resulted in the condemnation of
Arminianism, and the expulsion of its followers from Holland.
Douglas Larder.
When Sir James Douglas (The Good) recovered his castle from the English
in 1306, he massacred the garrison, and threw their bodies, together
with all the stores and provisions found in the castle, into a cellar.
This was called by the English the “Douglas Larder.”
Douglas Wars.
The Civil War in Scotland between the King’s men and Queen’s men from
1568 to 1573, was so called from the family name of the Earl of Morton,
who was Regent during the later period of the war.
Dover, Treaty of.
A treaty between Charles II and Louis XIV, signed in 1670, by which
Charles was to re-establish Roman Catholicism, receiving from Louis
£200,000 a year, and the use of 6,000 French troops. He was to aid Louis
in his designs against Holland, receiving as a reward the Province of
Zeeland, and further to support Louis in his claim to the Spanish
succession, for which service he was to receive as payment Minorca and
Ostend.
Dózsa Revolt.
A revolt of peasants under George Dózsa, in Hungary, in the reign of
Ladislas (1490-1516) which was suppressed with considerable difficulty
and great cruelty, and led to the peasants being reduced to a condition
little removed from serfdom.
Draft Riots.
An outbreak in New York in 1863, to resist the drafting of New Yorkers
into the Union Army. The mob held possession of the city for four days,
the absence of the militia at the front having left only the police
available for the protection of the city. It is calculated that over
1,000 persons were killed, and damage done to the extent of two million
dollars during the riots.
Dragonnades.
The persecution of the Huguenots in Poitou and other parts of France by
the dragoons of Louvois and Marillac in 1685.
Dred Scott Case.
A case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1855. Dred
Scott, a negro, claimed that having lived with his owner in a free
labour state, he could not be sold back into slavery on his master’s
death. The Supreme Court decided against him, and further laid it down
that he had no _locus standi_ before the Court, as the rights of
citizenship could not be claimed by any person who had been a slave or
was the descendant of a slave.
Dreikaiserbund.
An alliance, more or less formal, between the three Emperors of Austria,
Germany, and Russia, dating from a personal meeting in 1872. It had
ceased to exist in any form prior to 1879, when the foundation of the
existing Triple Alliance was laid.
Dreyfus Case.
In December, 1894, Captain Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery officer, employed
at the General Staff in Paris, was found guilty of supplying
confidential documents to foreign Powers, and sentenced to degradation
and transportation for life. His friends were convinced of his
innocence, and began an agitation which by degrees attracted the
attention of many eminent Frenchmen, among others Emile Zola, who took
up his cause with great warmth. Eventually the Government were forced to
submit the case to the Cour de Cassation, which quashed the conviction
and ordered a new trial. Dreyfus was brought back to France in 1899, and
tried by court-martial at Rennes. Though his innocence was generally
believed in outside France, he was again found guilty, but was almost
immediately pardoned by the President. The Case was the occasion of a
wild outburst of anti-semitism in France. In February, 1903, it was
rumoured that the case was to be re-opened by the Dreyfusites, evidence
having come to light of the methods adopted by the General Staff to
secure the second conviction.
Drifts, Closing the.
In 1895 the Transvaal Government raised the rates on merchandise on the
railway between the Vaal and Johannesburg, in order to force importers
to use the newly-opened Delagoa Bay Railway. The Cape importers
thereupon unloaded their merchandise at the frontier, and sent it on to
Johannesburg by waggon. President Kruger then closed the drifts, or
fords, on the Vaal on October 1. He was reminded that this action was a
breach of the London Convention, but he remained obdurate, and it was
found necessary to resort to a display of force, before which he gave
way.
Drogheda, Statute of.
Generally known as Poyning’s Act.
Drunken Parliament.
A Scottish Parliament which assembled in 1661. It passed the Episcopal
Ordination and the Mile Acts, and it is said that at the passing of the
first-named Act, the whole assembly, with one exception, was
intoxicated.
Dual Alliance.
The alliance at present existing (1903) between France and Russia. Its
earliest form was a military convention, signed in 1891, whereby it was
stipulated that either nation should, with a specified force, assist in
repelling an attack on the other by Germany. This convention was
extended in 1894, and in 1897 became a definite alliance, for defensive
purposes only, wherein all special reference to Germany is dropped.
Dual Control.
The control by England and France of the Egyptian finances established
by a decree of September 4, 1879, which provided that the
Comptrollers-General of the two Powers should have the rank of Egyptian
Ministers, and the right to attend, but not to vote at, meetings of the
Council, together with full powers of inquiry into all questions of
finance. The Dual Control ceased to exist when France declined to
co-operate with England in the suppression of the Arabi revolt.
Duclair Incident.
This name is given to the seizure and destruction of six English vessels
at Duclair, on the Seine, by the Germans during their occupation of
France in 1870. Full apologies and compensation were given.
Duel, Trial by.
Among the Norsemen a claimant was allowed, under certain conditions, to
make good his claim by an appeal to arms. If victorious his claim was
considered established. This system was abolished among the Danes and
Norsemen by King Knut.
Dukhobors.
A Russian sect, claiming to live without submitting themselves to human
laws, and without reference to any other authority than that of God. The
refusal to undergo military service led to their expulsion from Russia,
and they are now domiciled in Canada, where, in 1902, they caused the
authorities no little trouble by their refusal to submit to the law of
the land.
Dulcigno Arrangement.
The final settlement of the Montenegro boundary question, long pending
between the Great Powers and Turkey, replacing the Corti Compromise
which was not carried out. The transfer of territory fixed by this
arrangement was completed in 1881.
Dumb Captain.
The Prince de Condé, the leader of the conspiracy of Amboise, was so
called by his confederates.
Dunces, Parliament of.
The Parliament of Henry IV, which met at Coventry in 1404. _See_
Unlearned Parliament.
Dungannon Convention.
A convention of Ulster volunteer corps, held in 1781, at which
resolutions were passed protesting against Irish legislative dependence
on England and against a perpetual Mutiny Act. The meeting further
demanded freedom of commerce for Ireland, and proclaimed its belief in
the right of private judgment in religious matters.
Dupes, Journée des.
November 11, 1603, on which day Marie de’ Medici, Anne of Austria, and
the Duke of Orleans, were outwitted by Richelieu, whom they had
persuaded Louis XIII to dismiss from his service. The Cardinal returned
to office more powerful than ever.
Durham, County Palatine of.
Durham was made a County Palatine in the reign of William I, and
Palatine privileges were enjoyed by the Bishops of Durham until 1836.
The administrative authority is now exercised on behalf of the Crown.
Dutch East India Company.
A company with trading and political rights, to which a charter was
granted in 1602. Its affairs were controlled by a board of directors in
Holland, and a governor-general in the Indies. It founded a colony at
the Cape of Good Hope in 1652. In 1795 the Company ceased to exist,
having become insolvent.
Dutch Plot.
A rising in New York in 1690 under Jacob Leisler, declaring for William
III.
Dysiefald.
The catastrophe of Dysieaa, where the revolting peasants were defeated
by Waldemar I of Denmark in 1181.
E
Eadgar’s Law.
The constitution of England during the reign of Eadgar (959-975) when,
under the virtual rule of Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, the various
tribes of Saxons and Danes were united under one administration. Knut
re-established Eadgar’s Law on his accession in 1016.
Eagle of Brittany.
Bertrand Duguesclin, Constable of France (died 1380), was so called.
Ealdorman.
In Saxon times, a national officer, appointed by the king and council to
control military affairs in the shire. He sat with the sheriff in the
Shire Court.
Earthquake, Council of the.
The name given to the Synod of the English Church at which the
Wycliffite doctrines were declared heretical. It was so called from a
shock of earthquake which was felt during the sitting of the Synod.
East India Company.
The first charter to the Indian merchants was granted in 1600, and made
perpetual in 1609, a company being constituted under the title of the
India Company, with the monopoly of the Eastern trade. During the
Revolution a rival company was formed whose competition threatened to
extinguish the older Company, but eventually the two were amalgamated in
1708. As the field of operations in India was extended, political
questions became increasingly important, and such was the
maladministration of the Company, that the Government was constantly
forced to interfere. In 1773 a Regulating Act was passed, by which a new
council was appointed and other administrative reforms introduced, but
the consequent improvement was not marked, and in 1784 Pitt’s India Bill
withdrew all political power from the hands of the Company, while
leaving their trading rights intact, and established a Board of Control,
to be appointed by the British Government. In 1813 the trading monopoly
of the Company was broken, so far as India was concerned, by the
admission of independent traders to the Company’s territories, but they
still retained the China trade. In 1834, however, the restrictions on
trade still afforded by the Company’s charter were felt to be out of
harmony with modern commercial ideas, and the whole of the Company’s
trading rights were swept away, in return for an annuity, payable for
forty years, of £630,000, redeemable at the end of that period, at the
Government’s option, for a sum of £12,000,000. Before that period was
ended, however, the Indian Mutiny broke out, and on its suppression, in
1858, the Company was finally dissolved, and India passed under the
direct rule of the United Kingdom.
Ecclesiastical Reservation.
A clause in the Religious Peace of Augsburg, of 1555, providing that any
spiritual prince who changed his religion was to forfeit his office and
the revenues of his see.
Ecclesiastical Titles Act.
An Act passed in 1851 in response to the agitation caused by the action
of the Pope in appointing Cardinal Wiseman to the Roman Catholic
Archbishopric of Westminster. The Act declared the assumption of such
titles to be illegal, but provided no penalties for a breach of the law,
and hence was never enforced. It was repealed in 1871.
Economists.
A philosophical school, or sect, founded in France about 1761 by a
physician of Mantes, named Quesnay. He maintained that there was a
natural order of human institutions, divinely ordained, and that, if
this were adhered to, prosperity must ensue. He further argued that
agriculture was the only true source of wealth. These doctrines largely
influenced Turgot, the finance minister of Louis XVI.
Ecorcheurs.
Bands of brigands who harried France during the Hundred Years’ War.
Edict of Nantes.
An edict issued in 1598 by Henri IV of France (Henry of Navarre)
granting toleration to the Huguenots. It was revoked by Louis XIV in
1685, as a preliminary to a cruel persecution of the Protestants, one
result of which was their wholesale emigration to England, Holland, and
other Protestant countries.
Edicts.
_See_ Capitularies, Châteaubriand, Emancipation, Fraternity, Hatti
Humayun, Majestäts Brief, Moulins, Nemours, Orléans, Pavia, Perpetual,
Quarantaine, Reformation, Restitution, Reunion, Romorantin, Six,
Soissons, Tours, Villers-Cotterets, Worms.
Edinburgh, Treaties of.
Two treaties, signed in 1560, between France and Scotland and France and
England respectively. By the first France undertook to withdraw her
troops from Scotland, leaving the Government in the hands of the Council
of the Lords. By the second she acknowledged Elizabeth’s sovereignty
over England and Ireland, and undertook to maintain her pledges to the
Scots.
Edmunds Law.
A stringent law against polygamy, passed by the United States Congress
in 1882. It was specially directed against the practice prevailing in
the Mormon settlements of Utah.
Education Act, 1870.
An Act passed in 1870, establishing a system of national elementary
education in England and Wales, controlled by popularly elected bodies
known as School Boards. Its introducer was Mr. W. E. Forster. The system
lasted till 1902, when it was abolished by the Act passed in that year.
Education Act, 1902.
An Act for the regulation and co-ordination of primary and secondary
education in England and Wales, excepting London. It abolishes the
School Boards established by the Act of 1870, and makes the County
Council or Borough Council the education authority, subject in certain
respects to the Board of Education. It further provides for the
inclusion in the scheme of denominational schools, which prior to the
passing of the Act received no support from the rates, but are now
maintained from the same sources as the old board schools for all
purposes of secular education.
Egalité.
The sobriquet of Philippe, Duc d’Orléans, assumed by him to show his
sympathy with the Revolutionary party in France in 1789.
Eight Cantons, League of the.
The confederation formed in 1351-1353 by the admission of Zurich,
Glarus, Zug and Berne into the Perpetual League of the four Forest
Cantons.
Eikon Basilike.
A book published in 1649, shortly after the execution of Charles I,
purporting to be his own account of his reign. In 1660, however, the
authorship of it was claimed by Dr. Gauden, Bishop of Exeter. The point
in dispute is still unsettled, though most authorities oppose the theory
that it is the work of Charles.
El Dorado.
_See_ Manoa.
Elephant, Order of the.
A Danish order of knighthood, said to date from the first Crusade, but
reorganized in 1693 by Christian V. It is confined to thirty members,
exclusive of royal knights.
Eleven Articles.
A short profession of the Protestant faith, issued on the accession of
Queen Elizabeth, pending the revision of the forty-two Articles of 1552.
Eltchi, The Great.
The sobriquet of Sir Stratford Canning (Lord Stratford de Redcliffe),
British Ambassador to the Porte from 1825 to 1828, and again from 1842
to 1858.
Emancipation Act.
An Act passed in 1833 for the abolition of slavery in the British
dominions. It provided that all children under six, and all born after
the passing of the Act, should be free. All other slaves were, for a
period of twelve years, to serve their masters for three-fourths of
their time, the remaining fourth being their own. This period was
subsequently reduced to seven years, and after being tried for four
years the system was abandoned, and all slaves completely freed. Twenty
million pounds was voted as compensation to the planters for the loss of
their slave property.
Emancipation, Edict of.
An edict issued by Freiherr von Stein, Prussian Minister in 1807,
abolishing every form of villeinage then existing in Prussia, and
declaring that from 1810 there should be none but freemen in the
Prussian dominions.
Emancipation Proclamation.
A proclamation, issued by President Lincoln in January 1, 1863,
declaring that all persons held in slavery in the States in arms against
the Union were henceforth free. This proclamation did not apply to those
States which had not seceded from the Union, whose slaves were liberated
by an amendment to the Constitution.
Embargo Act, First.
An Act of Congress, passed in 1807, as a reply to the English Orders in
Council, prohibiting English vessels from making use of American ports.
The Act was repealed in 1809.
Embargo Act, Second.
An Act passed by the United States Congress in 1810, by which vessels
flying the United States flag were forbidden to trade between France and
England, while French and English vessels were, at the same time,
forbidden to touch at American ports. The American shipowners very soon
found means to evade this law.
Embassy, The.
A deputation from the Victorian Government, under Graham Berry, to the
Colonial Office, in 1878, arising out of the Victorian Deadlock. The
Colonial Secretary declined to interfere, and the “Embassy” became the
laughing-stock of the Colony.
Emigrés.
The nobles and other Royalists, to the number of 123,000, who left
France during the Revolution. Their estates were forfeited, and owing to
the terms of the “Charte” of Louis XVIII were not, as a rule, recovered
at the Restoration. It was said of them that they returned from exile
“having learnt nothing and forgotten nothing.”
Eminence Grise, L’.
A nickname of François du Tremblay, the familiar of Cardinal Richelieu.
Emmett’s Rebellion.
An Irish rising under Robert Emmett in 1803. It was fomented by
Napoleon, who had despatched numerous emissaries to Ireland during the
currency of the Peace of Amiens. The rising was easily suppressed, and
Emmett was hanged.
Empire State.
The State of New York is so called as being the richest and most
influential of the States of the Union.
Empire State of the South.
The State of Georgia is so-called.
Employers’ Liability Bill, 1893.
A bill rendering employers liable for compensation to their workmen for
injuries received while at work. The bill was not passed, being wrecked
by the question of “contracting out.” Many large employers of labour had
arrangements with their men, by which the latter contributed to an
assurance fund, maintained in the main by the employer, for the purpose
of providing compensation for injury, the men being bound, under these
conditions, not to take legal action for compensation. The House of
Commons passed a clause rendering such contracts illegal, but the Lords
inserted an amendment rendering them legal under certain safeguards as
to the amount of the employers’ contribution to the fund, etc. Neither
party would give way, and the bill was withdrawn.
Employers’ Liability Act, 1897.
An Act providing compensation for death or injury, to workmen or their
representatives, to be paid by the employer. The Act permits
“contracting out,” but in cases where the insurance fund is not
sufficient to provide the compensation required by the Act, the employer
is bound to make up the amount.
Encomiendas.
Concessions granted to the colonists in South America under Spanish
rule, whereby they were permitted to hold as slaves, for a certain
number of years, such Indians as they might require, for agricultural or
mining purposes.
Encumbered Estates Act.
An Act to facilitate the sale of encumbered estates in Ireland, and to
give certain powers to sell, in cases otherwise restricted under
entail.
Encyclopædia.
The famous work of Diderot Voltaire, d’Alembert and others, which was
declared to be irreligious, and was undoubtedly hostile to the Church
and to superstition. It was produced between 1751 and 1765, and was
proscribed in 1757, but continued to circulate notwithstanding.
Enfant de la Fortune.
The nickname of “The Child of Fortune” was given to Masséna by Napoleon,
after the battle of Rivoli in 1797.
Enfants de Dieu.
The Camissards called themselves by this title.
Engagement.
An agreement between Charles I and the two Scottish commissioners at
Carisbrooke, in 1647, by which the Scotch agreed to support the king
with an armed force, in return for which he undertook to accept the
Covenant and establish Presbyterianism. The supporters of this agreement
in Scotland were known as Engagers.
Englishry, Law of.
This arose from an edict of William I, inflicting a heavy fine for the
murder of one of his soldiers. It was always assumed that any dead body
discovered was that of a Norman, and to escape the fine it was necessary
to prove that the corpse was that of an Englishman. This was called
“Presentment of Englishry.”
Enragés, Club des.
The Club of the Duc d’Orléans, Philippe Egalité, circ. 1789.
Entail.
A system of land tenure, introduced by the statute “De Donis” in 1285,
wherein the holder has only a life interest in the land, which passes at
his death to his heirs male, and is precluded from alienation, or from
any act which may diminish the capital value of the estate.
Eperons d’Or, Journée des.
_See_ Spurs.
Episcopal Ordination Act (Scotland).
An Act passed by the Drunken Parliament in 1662, enacting that all
holders of livings should be episcopally ordained. It is said that under
this act some 350 ministers were deprived of their livings.
Equador, Confederação do.
A revolutionary society, formed at Pernambuco in 1824, with the object
of seceding from the Empire of Brazil and forming a republic. Its leader
was Paes de Andrade. The revolt was suppressed in the same year.
Era of Good Feeling.
The period of Monroe’s presidentship of the United States (1816-1820),
during which there was a truce between the two great political parties.
Erastians.
The followers of Thomas Liebler, known as Erastus, a Swiss theologian
(1524-1583). He held that the Church was a civil institution, and
subject to the State, and that consequently the Church _per se_ had no
right to punish by excommunication or otherwise any offences against the
Church, its doctrine or government, such right belonging to the State
alone.
Eric.
Under the Brehon Law in Ireland, the only punishment recognized for all
classes of offences, namely a money compensation.
Erie Ring.
A confederation of speculators who obtained control of the Erie Railway,
and, working in with the Tammany Ring in New York, succeeded in amassing
large fortunes, at the expense of the shareholders. The various
transactions between the two rings were exposed in 1871, and the Erie
Ring was ousted from the management of the railway.
Escheat.
The reversion to the crown of an estate held in vassalage, on the
failure of heirs to the vassal.
Escuage.
_See_ Scutage.
Essex Junto.
The name given to a party of extreme Federalists in the United States
about 1800. The name is taken from Essex County, Massachusetts, which
was the centre of their influence.
Est-it-possible.
The nickname of George of Denmark, the husband of Queen Anne. It was his
invariable remark when any startling news was told him.
Estates of Scotland.
The Scottish Parliament was so called, as being an assembly of the three
estates of the kingdom, namely the Clergy, the Barons, and the
Burgesses. All the three Estates sat in one chamber.
Estatuto Real.
The new constitution promulgated by Bermudez, the Minister of the
Queen-Regent, Christina of Spain, in 1834, to replace the despotic
system of Ferdinand.
Etablissements de St. Louis.
The code of laws issued by Louis IX of France, directed against the
abuses of seignorial jurisdiction, and providing for the regular
administration of justice by state functionaries. It also settled the
principles of procedure in the courts thus established.
Etas.
The outcasts in old Japan. They exercised all the most degrading trades,
acting as scavengers, butchers, tanners, executioners, etc. They are
supposed by some authorities to be descendants of Korean prisoners of
war.
Etcetera Oath.
An oath imposed upon the English clergy by the Canons of 1640, to the
effect that they would never consent to any alteration in the government
of the Church of England, by Archbishops, Deans, Archdeacons, etcetera.
Ethel.
In early Anglo-Saxon times land held on the original allotment made at
the time of the Saxon invasion, as opposed to Bocland, land held by
grant or charter.
Etruria, Kingdom of.
The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was thus re-named, on passing to the Duke of
Parma under the provisions of the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801.
Eureka Stockade.
A stockade erected and defended by the Ballarat miners under Peter Lalor
in 1854. The stockade was taken by the Government troops, and the
outbreak quickly suppressed, but it resulted in the appointment of a
commission to inquire into the miners’ grievances, which reported
largely in their favour in the course of the following year.
European Association.
A society of foreign political refugees, formed in London in 1855 to
promote the Republican movement on the Continent. Its founders were
Mazzini, Kossuth, and Ledru-Rollin.
Ever Victorious Army.
The name given to the army which finally overpowered the Taeping rebels
in 1865 under General Gordon.
Evil May-day.
May 1, 1517, the date of a serious outbreak of the London apprentices,
when grave outrages were perpetrated on foreigners and others.
Evora, Convention of.
A convention putting an end to the civil war in Portugal, signed in
1834, by which the Pretender, Don Miguel, renounced the throne, and
agreed to leave Portugal.
Excelsior State.
A name given to the State of New York, from its motto, “Excelsior.”
Exchequer.
A court formed out of the _Curia Regis_ to deal with questions of
finance. It was established by Roger of Salisbury, in the reign of Henry
I.
Exclusion Bill.
A Bill introduced into Parliament in 1679, providing for the exclusion
of James, Duke of York, from the succession. The bill failed to pass,
but was reintroduced in 1681. After it had been read a first time
Charles II dissolved Parliament, and did not summon another during his
reign.
Executors.
_See_ Sixteen, Council of.
Exsurge Domine, Bull.
The Bull issued by Leo X in 1520, “against the errors of Martin Luther.”
It was publicly burnt by Luther in the market place of Wittemburg.
F
F. F. V’s.
The First Families of Virginia. The name given to the descendants of the
adventurers who colonized Virginia under the Charter of 1606.
Fabius, The American.
George Washington was so called.
Factory Acts.
A series of Acts providing for the inspection and regulation of
factories in Great Britain. The first Act dealing with this question was
the Cotton Industry Act of 1831, and further legislation took place in
1834, 1844, 1850, 1864, 1867, 1870, and 1874, some of these Acts
relating to factories as a whole, and others to particular trades. The
most important enactment, however, is that of 1878, which deals with
factories and workshops of all kinds, as well as with domestic
workshops. Regulations are made limiting the hours of employment of
women, young persons, and children, forbidding the carrying on of
certain trades by women, and providing for systematic inspection by
Government officials.
Faggot Votes.
Votes manufactured, chiefly in country districts, by the creation of
small freeholders. The sale of land to accomplish this was often merely
nominal, no money passing, and the vendor lending the purchase money
under mortgage.
Fair Maid of Kent.
The sobriquet of Joan, Countess of Salisbury, the wife of Edward the
Black Prince.
Fair Quakeress.
Hannah Lightfoot, whom George III married in 1759, the year before he
ascended the throne. The marriage was, of course, not recognized.
Fair Rosamond.
The daughter of Lord Clifford and mistress of Henry II of England.
Falaise, Treaty of.
A treaty between Henry II of England and William the Lyon of Scotland,
signed in 1174. William, who had been captured by the English and
carried off to Normandy, agreed, as the price of his liberty, to
acknowledge Henry’s suzerainty and do homage for his crown. The right
was, however, surrendered by Richard Cœur de Lion in 1189, in exchange
for a payment of 10,000 marks.
Falczi, Treaty of.
_See_ Pruth.
Falieri, Conspiracy of Marino.
A plot, headed by Falieri, the Doge of Venice, to overthrow the
Government of the Republic. The conspiracy was discovered, and Falieri
was beheaded within the walls of the Ducal Palace in 1355.
Falk Laws.
A series of laws introduced by Dr. Falk, Prussian Minister of Public
Worship, between 1872 and 1879, in pursuance of the Kulturkampf. They
were exceedingly oppressive to the Catholic population. The more
important of them were passed in the month of May, 1873, whence they are
also known as the May laws.
Family Compact.
A secret agreement, made in 1733, between Louis XV of France and Philip
V of Spain, the object of which was the harassing of English commerce in
the South Seas, and the recovery by Spain of Gibraltar and Minorca. It
culminated in 1761 in a close alliance between the two Powers, to which
the Bourbon Princes of Parma and Naples were also admitted.
Family Convention.
An agreement between Giovanni de’ Medici and Philip V of Spain, in 1731,
by which the former recognized Don Carlos as his heir to the Grand Duchy
of Tuscany.
Farines, Journée des.
The day of the Cornsacks was January 3, 1591, when some of the
followers of Henri IV of France disguised themselves as millers, and
attempted to seize the barrier of St. Honoré, with the object of making
themselves masters of Paris.
Farmer George.
A nickname of George III.
Farmers’ Alliance.
A political organization formed in the United States in 1873 to promote
the interests of the agricultural classes. It was absorbed by the
Populists in 1891.
Farquharsons, Massacre of the.
The Farquharsons of Deeside were practically exterminated in the reign
of James VI by the Gordons under the Marquis of Huntly, in revenge for
the murder of Gordon of Brackley. Two hundred children who survived the
massacre were kept by Huntly as wild beasts, and fed from a pig trough.
They were rescued from their inhuman captor by the Laird of Grant, who
distributed them among his clansmen. It is said that their descendants
are still known as the Race of the Trough.
Farthings, War of.
_See_ Rappenkrieg.
Fashoda Question.
This question brought France and England to the verge of war in 1898. In
that year, Captain Marchand, after an adventurous journey from the
French Soudan, reached Fashoda on the Nile, and hoisted the French flag
there and at certain points on the Sobat river. Sir Herbert Kitchener,
who had just captured Khartoum, invited Marchand to withdraw, and
hoisted the English and Egyptian flags. Marchand refusing, the matter
was referred to London and Paris. The French were at first inclined to
hold that, the Anglo-Egyptian occupation of the Soudan having been
suspended by the Mahdist domination, it was open to them to make a
settlement on the Nile. It was clearly proved, however, that they had
been warned on several occasions that this would not be permitted, and
after some hesitation, due probably to the doubt as to whether they
would have the support of Russia if they stood firm, they yielded, and
the Marchand expedition was withdrawn.
Father of America.
The sobriquet of Samuel Adams, the American revolutionary leader
(1722-1803.)
Father of his Country.
This title has been bestowed upon several patriots in ancient and modern
history, among others Cosmo de’ Medici of Florence (1389-1464), Andrea
Doria, the Genoese Admiral (1468-1560), and George Washington
(1732-1799).
Father of his People.
A title bestowed on Louis XII of France (1498-1515), and on Christian
III of Denmark (1533-1559).
Featherheads.
_See_ Half-breeds.
Federal Council of the Australian Colonies.
A Council formed in accordance with the provisions of the Imperial
Federation Enabling Act of 1855, by delegates from Victoria,
Queensland, South and Western Australia, and Tasmania, which met at
Hobart in January, 1886, under the presidency of James Service. The
non-adhesion of New South Wales, however, was fatal to the scheme.
Federal Pact.
A Swiss Constitution, evolved by the “Long Diet” of Zurich, and approved
by the Powers at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
Federalistas.
The party in Mexico who favour a large measure of autonomy in the
separate states, and oppose excessive centralization of authority in the
central government.
Federalists.
A party, in the early days of American independence, who favoured the
concentration of power in the hands of the central government, while
their opponents, known as Anti-federalists, and later as Democrats, were
supporters of the rights of individual states.
Fédérés.
A band of young Marseillais, who, under the leadership of Barbaroux,
marched to Paris in 1792 to aid the Revolution.
Fehden.
In mediaeval Germany, the private wars between the semi-independent
barons and knights were known by this name.
Fellaheen.
The peasants of Egypt. The word signifies “tillers.”
Fenian Association.
An Irish revolutionary society, established about 1858. During the
American Civil War, it became an organized institution, with
headquarters in New York, with the avowed object of fomenting
disturbances in Ireland, and making the Government of that country by
England impossible. Its leader was James Stephens. In 1866 the Fenians
attempted a raid into Canada, which was entirely unsuccessful. In 1867 a
general rising in Ireland was planned, which also failed. Two further
unsuccessful attempts upon Canada took place in 1870 and 1871, from
which point its activity was confined to a few isolated outrages of
small importance. The name Fenian is taken from the old Irish Militia,
which was known as Fionna Eirinn.
Feormfultum.
In Anglo-Saxon times a tax levied on the land for the support of the
royal household. It was paid in kind.
Ferdinand, Treaty of.
_See_ Christian Alliance.
Ferm.
In Anglo-Saxon and early feudal times, a rent paid by the shires on
public lands and royal domains.
Fermiers Généraux.
Persons, generally royal favourites, who obtained the right of
collecting the taxes, by payment of a fixed sum. This system was
initiated in France in 1546 by Francis I, who farmed out the Gabelle,
and continued until the Revolution.
Feudal System.
A system of land tenure general on the continent of Europe, becoming
universal in France in the tenth century, while it was introduced into
England at the time of the Norman Conquest. The king as lord paramount
was the owner of the whole country, which was held in fief, or
vassalage, by the great territorial lords, who owed him homage and
service, military or other. They in turn had vassals of lesser degree,
bound to them by similar ties, but, subject to the due discharge of such
service, perfectly free. By the growth of “subinfeudation” this system
became indefinitely extended.
Feuillants.
A club formed in 1791, during the French Revolution, by the monarchical
majority of the Jacobin Club, who objected to the principles and
language of the minority. Their impolitic action in seceding from the
Jacobins rendered the extreme revolutionists masters of the situation,
owing to the enormous influence of the name Jacobin throughout France.
Fief.
In feudal times land held by a vassal by military service or other
feudal tenure.
Field Cornet.
An officer charged, under the Landdrost, with the superintendence of
military matters in the South African States. See Commando.
Field of Lies.
_See_ Lügenfeld.
Field of Mourning.
The battlefield of Fraga, in Spain, where fell, in 1134, Alfonso I of
Aragon, surnamed the Warrior, and famed for his successes against the
Moors, whom he expelled from the valley of the Ebro.
Field of the Cloth of Gold.
The meeting place of Henry VIII and Francis I, between Guines and
Ardres. This meeting, which took place in 1520, was arranged by Francis
with the object of securing the friendship of Henry, and detaching him
from the Spanish alliance. A marriage was agreed upon between the
Dauphin and Princess Mary of England, but within a very few weeks Henry
went back on his word, and gave Charles V an undertaking that he would
proceed no further in the matter.
Fieschi Conspiracy.
An unsuccessful conspiracy to overthrow the Doge, Doria, and the French
party in Genoa in 1547.
Fieschi’s Plot.
A plot to assassinate Louis Philippe in July, 1835. A machine composed
of twenty-four gun-barrels was fired from an upper window at the Royal
_cortége_, as the king was on his way to a review. The king was unhurt,
but several prominent persons, including Marshal Mortier, were killed.
Fieschi and his accomplices were caught red-handed.
Fifteen, Council of.
A council of state appointed by the Barons of the Mad Parliament in 1258
to carry on the Government. The Fifteen produced the Provisions of
Oxford, under which the kingdom was governed until the Mise of Amiens in
1264.
Fifteen, Rebellion of the.
The Jacobite rebellion in Scotland in 1815, under the Earl of Mar. The
rebels succeeded in penetrating into England, but were defeated at
Preston, and shortly afterwards Mar was defeated at Sheriffmuir. With
little further fighting the rebel army was broken up, and the Pretender
retired to France. Lords Derwentwater and Kenmure and many other less
important personages were executed for complicity in the rebellion.
Fifth Monarchy Men.
A sect of fanatics who formed an important element in the Cromwellian
armies. They considered the Protectorate to be the Fifth Monarchy
prophesied in the Apocalypse, during which the millennium would come
upon the earth.
Fiftieth Ordinance.
An ordinance of the Cape Government in 1828, by which Hottentots and
other free natives were relieved from all the restrictions of the pass
law, and put upon a political equality with the whites. This was very
distasteful to the Dutch settlers.
Fifty-one, Committee of.
A committee of merchants and gentry in New York, formed in 1774. They
were in favour of a General Congress, but opposed to the non-intercourse
policy advocated by some other colonies, and especially in
Massachusetts.
Fighting Prelate.
Henry Spencer, Bishop of Norwich, who led the troops against Wat Tyler
in 1381, was so called.
Financial Relations Committee.
A committee appointed in 1895 to report on the financial relations
between England and Ireland. In the following year, a majority report
was issued in which it was stated that the Act of Union had laid too
heavy a financial burden on Ireland; that the increase in the Irish
contribution sanctioned in 1853 and in 1860 was unjustifiable; and that
Ireland’s tax revenue was one-eleventh, whereas it should only be
one-twentieth of that of England.
Fines, Statute of.
A statute passed in the 4th year of Henry VII, re-enacted almost
verbatim from a statute of Richard III, the object of which was to
prevent the multiplication in the courts of suits for the recovery of
lands. The method adopted was to fix at five years the period of
occupation giving prescriptive rights.
Fire of London.
A fire which broke out on September 2, 1660, at a house in Fish Street
Hill. It burnt for four days and destroyed eighty-nine churches,
including St. Paul’s, and over 13,000 houses.
Firebrand of France.
The sobriquet of John, Duke of Bedford, Regent of France (1390-1435).
Firebrand of the Universe.
Tamerlane, the great Tartar conqueror, was so called.
Fire-Eaters.
The extreme supporters of Slavery and States’ Rights in the Southern
States of America were so called by their political opponents before
the Civil War.
Firman.
An official edict of the Porte, issued in the Sultan’s name, though not
necessarily bearing his signature.
First Charter.
A charter issued by Henry I, in 1100, by which he re-established the law
of King Edward, that is to say the old institutions of the country prior
to the Conquest. He further undertook to make only such claims upon his
feudatories as were in accordance with feudal law, and made the same
course obligatory on them in relation to their vassals. He also
recognized the right of bequeathing property by will.
First Gentleman of Europe.
George IV, when Prince Regent, was so called.
Fisheries Treaty, 1888.
A treaty between Great Britain and the United States, signed in 1888,
providing for reciprocal fishing rights for the Canadian and American
fishermen. Pending ratification a _modus vivendi_ was established, by
which American fishermen could fish in Canadian and Newfoundland waters
on payment of a license of $1.50 per ton. The Senate, however, declined
to ratify the treaty.
Five Articles of Perth.
A document embodying certain changes in ritual, in the direction of
Episcopalianism, forced upon the Scotch Presbyterians by James I in
1621. They excited great discontent, but remained in force until 1638.
Five Boroughs.
A confederation, under Danish law, of the five tribes which occupied the
ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia. The five boroughs were Derby,
Lincoln, Leicester, Stamford and Nottingham. The confederacy was broken
up in 910 by Æthelflaed, the Lady of the Mercians.
Five Hundred, Council of.
The name given to the Lower House of Assembly under the Directoire in
France (1795-1799).
Five Kings of France.
The name applied to the five men composing the French Directoire
(1795-1799).
Five Members.
Pym, Hampden, Haselrig, Strode and Holles, five members of the Long
Parliament, who were specially active in their opposition to the king’s
illegal actions. Charles attempted to arrest them in the House of
Commons in 1642, but they escaped to the City, and Charles was unable to
seize them, in the face of the support accorded to them by the citizens.
Five Mile Act.
An Act passed in 1665, forbidding any clergyman who had not subscribed
to the Act of Uniformity to teach, or to come within five miles of a
borough or corporate town. A similar Act, known as the Mile Act, had
been passed in Scotland three years earlier.
Five Nations.
The five tribes of Red Indians who formerly ranged the east coast of
America, along the Hudson, and as far south as the Delaware. They were
always on the English side in the wars with France. They were the
Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas. The remnants of these
tribes are now domiciled in Canada.
Flagellants.
A sect which appeared in Hungary during the Great Plague of 1348. They
looked upon scourging as the only means of avoiding the divine
punishment for sin.
Flammock’s Rebellion.
A rising in Cornwall, headed by Thomas Flammock in 1497, in opposition
to the tax levied for the maintenance of the war against Scotland. The
rebels were defeated at Blackheath, and Flammock and others executed.
Fleet Marriages.
Marriages celebrated within the precincts of the Fleet Prison by
clergymen of indifferent character. They were rendered impossible by
Lord Hardwicke’s Act in 1753.
Flibustiers.
_See_ Buccaneers.
Flood’s Reform Bill.
A sweeping measure of reform introduced into the Irish Parliament by
Flood in 1784. It gave rise to scenes of the wildest disorder, both in
the House and throughout the country.
Flower of Chivalry.
Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) was so called.
Flowery Land, Mutiny of the.
A mutiny on board an English vessel on a voyage to Singapore in 1684,
the crew, composed of various nationalities, murdering the captain and
first mate. The second mate, who was spared to navigate the vessel, was
able to give information which led to the arrest of most of the crew,
five of whom were hanged in due course.
Folcland.
In early Saxon times all the land which was not partitioned off into
homesteads, or specially granted, remained the property of the nation,
and was known as folcland. In the times of the later Saxon kings, the
folcland became royal demesne, and after the Conquest William seized it
as crown property.
Folenbray.
A treaty between Henri IV of France and the Duc de Mayenne, by which the
League came to an end.
Folkething.
_See_ Rigsdag.
Folkmote.
In early Saxon times the gathering of the tribe in arms was so called.
Fommanah, Treaty of.
A treaty between Great Britain and the King of Ashanti, signed after the
first Ashanti War in 1874. The king renounced the right to exact tribute
from the kings of Denkera and Adansi, other native chiefs, and also his
supremacy over Elmira. He agreed to offer no obstacle to British trade,
to maintain an open road to Kumasi, and to abolish human sacrifices.
Prempeh’s failure to adhere to the terms of this treaty led to the
second Ashanti expedition in 1900.
Fontainebleau, Decree of.
A decree issued by Napoleon in October, 1810, ordering all British
merchandise found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and other places in
the occupation of the French troops to be destroyed.
Fontainebleau, Treaty of, 1807.
A treaty, disclosed in the autumn of 1807, between Napoleon and Godoy,
the Minister of Charles IV, and the _de facto_ ruler of Spain. It
provided for the joint occupation of Portugal by France and Spain, and
the dismemberment of that country, Godoy receiving as his reward the
provinces of Alemtejo and the Algarves to be erected into a
principality, and the northern province to be given to the King of
Etruria, in exchange for Tuscany, which would pass to Napoleon.
Fontainebleau, Treaty of, 1814.
A treaty between Napoleon and the Allied Powers, signed April 14, 1814,
after the occupation of Paris. Napoleon surrendered all claims to the
thrones of France and Italy, and received in return the sovereignty of
Elba for himself, and Parma and Piacenza for the Empress and the King of
Rome.
Foraker Act.
An Act of Congress, passed in 1900, establishing local self-government
in Porto Rico, and creating a tariff. In 1901 the tariff provisions were
repealed, and free trade with the United States instituted.
Force Act.
An Act of Congress passed in 1870, giving the Federal authorities the
right to intervene in certain contingencies in the police and other
internal arrangements of individual States. This Act was rendered
necessary by the covert support given by the authorities of the Southern
States to such organizations as the Ku-Klux Klan. A similar Act was
passed in 1871.
Force Bill.
The popular name for the bill introduced by Mr. Lodge in Congress, in
1890, for the reform of the electoral law of the United States. The bill
did not pass the Senate.
Foreign Enlistment Act.
An Act passed in 1819, making it a misdemeanour for a British subject to
enlist in the service of a foreign power at war with a nation friendly
to Great Britain, or to build or equip any ship for the service of such
power.
Forests, Charter of.
A charter granted by Henry III in 1217, when renewing Magna Charta,
mitigating the severity of the Forest laws of the Anglo-Norman kings.
Formosan Expedition.
An expedition sent to Formosa by Japan in 1873-4, to exact reparation
for the murder of a ship’s crew from the Loo Choo Islands. China was
highly incensed, and war between the two nations was imminent, but Sir
Thomas Wade persuaded the Chinese to pay an indemnity and recognize
Japanese sovereignty over the Loo Choo Islands.
Forty-five, Rebellion of the.
The second Jacobite rebellion, in 1845, under the Young Pretender,
Prince Charles Edward. Joined by many of the Highland clans, he
succeeded in defeating the English under Cope at Preston Pans, and
penetrated into England as far as Derby, but was forced to retreat, and
was finally disastrously defeated by the Duke of Cumberland at Culloden.
Charles Edward escaped to France, but many of his leading supporters
were captured and executed.
Forty-niners.
_See_ Argonauts.
Forty-two Articles.
The articles of the Reformed Church of England, as issued originally in
1552, were forty-two in number. They were afterwards reduced, by the
omission of three, to thirty-nine, which remain binding to-day.
Forwards, Marshal.
A nickname given to Blucher during the campaign of 1813.
Fouage.
A tax on chimneys imposed by the Black Prince in Gascony.
Four Burghs, Court of the.
In early Scottish history a court established for the purpose of dealing
with all cases in which the Scottish Burghs were concerned.
Fourierism.
A system of communism devised by Charles Fourier, the French Socialist,
in 1832. The proposal was to form communities of 1,800 persons each,
known as _phalanges_, to be united under a central government. The gains
of each _phalange_ were to be held in common. An attempt to establish
the system near Versailles was completely unsuccessful.
Fourth Party.
A small but active body of free-lances of the Conservative party, which
was formed under Lord Randolph Churchill during the session of 1880.
Though various Conservative members acted with it from time to time, the
party is generally considered to have consisted of four persons. Lord
Randolph Churchill, Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Gorst, Sir H. Drummond
Wolff and Mr. Arthur Balfour.
Francfief.
A tax on commoners who became possessed of fiefs, to compensate for
their inability to render military service. It was imposed by Louis IX
of France in 1260, and abolished by his successor, Philip III.
Franchise Act.
An Act passed in 1884, assimilating the county to the borough franchise,
and giving the vote to residents in a house who are neither occupiers
nor lodgers (known as the Service Franchise) under certain restrictions.
In the House of Lords, Lord Cairns carried an amendment that the Act
should not become operative until a Redistribution Bill had been passed.
Franciscans.
An order of mendicant friars, founded by St. Francis d’Assisi, and
authorized by Innocent II in 1215. They were not confined to
monasteries, like the earlier orders, but worked amongst the poor, and
took themselves a vow of poverty in addition to the ordinary monastic
vows.
Franco-American Treaty, 1778.
A treaty by which France recognized the independence of the United
States. Both parties agreed to give each other most-favoured-nation
treatment in tariff matters, while America accepted the French
interpretation of the treaties of Utrecht and Paris with respect to the
Newfoundland fishery question, thus admitting the right of France not
only to the fishing, but to the use of one half of the shore for drying
stations. France further agreed to recognize any conquests made by the
United States from England in the course of the war.
Franco-Annamese Treaty, 1874.
A treaty between France and Annam, by which Annam recognized the French
sovereignty of Lower Cochin China, and granted free navigation of the
Red River.
Franco-Siamese Treaty, 1893.
By this instrument Siam ceded to France all her territory on the east of
the Mekong, and agreed to keep no fortified place within fifteen miles
of the river on the west bank. France was to occupy Chantaboon until the
conditions were fulfilled.
Franco-Siamese Treaty, 1902.
By this treaty Siam made further territorial concessions to France,
ceding practically all the territory ever held by Annam or Tonquin. She
also conceded to France the right to protect Siamese subjects of
Annamese or Tonquinese extraction, and undertook to open a certain
number of official posts to Frenchmen. France agreed to evacuate
Chantaboon.
Francs-Archers.
A militia raised for the first time by Charles VII of France in 1448.
Each parish was ordered to provide and equip one man, who, in return for
his military service, was freed from all taxation.
Francs-Tireurs.
French peasants who took up arms during the Franco-German war of 1870,
and carried on a species of guerilla warfare against the German troops.
In the early part of the war they were treated as brigands, and shot
when captured. Later they were organized by the French authorities, and
were then treated as belligerents.
Frankfort, Confederacy of.
A league composed of the Emperor, the Kings of Prussia and Sweden, the
Elector Palatine and the Landgrave of Hesse, formed in 1744 with the
object of forcing Maria Theresa to acknowledge Charles VII as Emperor.
Frankfort, General Treaty of.
A treaty signed by Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia,
confirming the various territorial changes effected by the Treaties of
Paris and Vienna of 1815.
Frankfort, Treaty of.
The treaty embodying the terms agreed upon at Versailles by Prince
Bismarck and M. Thiers, after the surrender of Paris in 1871. It
provided for the cession to Germany of Alsace, including Strasburg, but
not including Belfort, and of a part of Lorraine, including Metz,
together with the payment of a war indemnity of five milliards of
francs, or two hundred millions sterling.
Frankfurter Attentat.
A rising of students and others at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1833,
occasioned by the oppressive measures adopted by the Bundesrath towards
the Press. The outbreak was promptly quelled.
Frankpledge.
A system existing in the early Norman, and probably the later Saxon
period, by which the whole of the free population of England was divided
into groups of ten men, mutually responsible for the other members of
the group. It was by this means that the policing of the country was
carried out, under the supervision of the Hundred Court. It was also
called Frithbohr.
Fraternity, Edict of.
An edict issued by the French Convention in 1792, offering fraternity to
all nations ready to welcome liberal institutions.
Frédéric, Code.
_See_ Landrecht.
Frederickshamm, Treaty of.
A treaty between Russia and Sweden, signed in 1809, shortly after the
death of Gustavus IV, by which Russia acquired Finland as far as the
Tornea.
Free Church of Scotland.
A secession from the Established Church of Scotland, which took place
under Dr. Chalmers in 1843. About 500 ministers seceded with him. The
points at issue were State Control and Lay Patronage, to which Dr.
Chalmers and his followers objected.
Free Companies.
The Mercenaries employed by both French and English during the Hundred
Years’ War. After the Peace of Brétigny they were disbanded, and being
without employment, formed bands under their own leaders, and committed
frightful ravages in France, and, later, in Italy.
Free Imperial Cities.
Certain towns in Germany, owing allegiance to no sovereign prince,
excepting only to the Emperor. They exercised sovereign powers within
their own limits, and sent representatives to the Diet. In 1790 they
were fifty-one in number. The three last cities to retain their
privileges were Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg, which in 1871 became an
integral part of the German Empire.
Free Selection.
A scheme for settling small farmers on portions of the large holdings of
the Squatters, or Pastoralists, in Australia. This system was first
introduced in New South Wales, in 1861, and was adopted in Victoria in
the following year. Intending settlers could take up, in the districts
set apart for the purpose, from 40 to 240 acres, paying £1 per acre, or
if they preferred, 10s. down and the balance by annual instalments of
2s. 6d. Many of those who took advantage of this offer, proved however
to be mere dummies, put up by the squatters, who thus obtained land
more cheaply than they could purchase from the Government. Amending
bills were consequently introduced to prevent these evasions.
Freesoilers.
A party formed in the United States in 1848 to resist the extension of
slavery to the Territories. They were absorbed into the Republican party
in 1856.
Freestone State.
A popular name for the State of Connecticut, owing to the large number
of freestone quarries within its borders.
Free Trade, Apostle of.
The name given to Richard Cobden, the leader of the Manchester School.
It is also occasionally applied to John Bright.
Free Trade.
The principle of the free interchange of commodities was first advocated
by Adam Smith in his _Wealth of Nations_, in 1776. It may be said to
have first become a question of practical politics in 1846, thanks to
the advocacy of Richard Cobden and the Manchester School.
Freischöffe.
The initiated members of the Vehmgerichte.
Freigraffen.
The officers of the Vehmgerichte.
Freisinnige.
A party in the German Reichstag, formed under Richter in 1884, by a
coalition of the advanced Radicals with seceders from the National
Liberals. Their programme was distinctly Radical.
French Fury.
A treacherous attempt to sack Antwerp by the French under the Duc
d’Anjou in 1583. Though taken by surprise, the citizens promptly obeyed
the call to arms, and the French, after severe fighting, were driven out
with heavy loss.
French Shore.
A question still (1903) pending between Great Britain and France. By the
Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, Newfoundland was declared English, but the
French were suffered to retain their fishery rights and the use of a
certain portion of the coast for drying stations. France has for many
years sought to give a very wide interpretation to this use of the
Newfoundland coast, claiming almost sovereign rights, which seriously
interfere with the railway and mining development of the colony. A
_modus vivendi_ has been arrived at, pending final settlement, but the
long delay in coming to an agreement has caused much irritation in
Newfoundland.
Frèrage.
The system by which in French feudal times provision was made for the
younger members of a family. The land passed to the eldest son, who
retained a portion of it, and passed the rest on to his brothers, who
did homage for it. Frèrage was similar in its form and in its results to
subinfeudation.
Friends of Ireland.
The title under which the Catholic Association was reconstituted by
O’Connell in 1830. It was declared illegal, whereupon it reappeared in
a new form as the Society of Irish Volunteers.
Friends of the People.
A society formed in 1792 to agitate for the removal of the existing
inequalities in representation. It numbered among its members many
leading Whig politicians, amongst others Russell, Sheridan, Erskine and
Grey.
Frithbohr.
_See_ Frankpledge.
Frith-guilds.
Societies formed in the towns, on conditions of mutual responsibility
somewhat analogous to the Frankpledge, in the early Plantagenet times.
They afterwards combined, forming the powerful merchant guilds which
eventually came to control not only the conditions of labour, but the
selling price of the commodities in which they dealt.
Fronde.
A revolt of the Parlement and citizens of Paris, under the leadership of
the Cardinal de Retz, against the unrestrained autocracy of Louis XIV.
The court was forced to leave Paris in 1648, but the first outbreak was
ended during the year following by an arrangement called the Treaty of
Ruel. It was finally suppressed in 1652. The contention of the Fronde
was that the king’s prerogative should only be exercised within the
limits of the law, and should not be above the law, as was claimed by
the king.
Frostathing’s Law.
One of the codes of law of the Norsemen. It was codified by Hakon the
Good, King of Denmark (934-960) but was probably in existence at a much
earlier date.
Fudai.
The vassal Daimios or nobles of the Shôgun, in old Japan.
Fuero.
The charter granted to a Spanish town in the Middle Ages. The earliest
known Fuero is that of Leon, granted by Alfonso V in 1020.
Fuero Juzgo.
The code of laws of the Gothic kings of Spain.
Fugitive Slave Circular.
A circular issued by the Admiralty in 1876, which gave instructions to
the captains of H.M. ships as to the treatment of slaves who took refuge
on board in the territorial waters of slave-holding states. These
instructions were held to be inconsistent with the principle that there
could be no slavery under the British Flag, and a strong feeling was
aroused in the matter. Eventually a committee was appointed to examine
the legal aspects of the question, with the result that a modified
circular was issued.
Fugitive Slave Law.
A law forming part of the Compromise Act, passed by Congress in 1850,
under which fugitive slaves could be arrested in the free-labour states,
while it was made a felony under certain conditions to harbour or aid in
the escape of such slaves.
Fum the Fourth.
A nickname of George IV.
Furies de la Guillotine.
_See_ Tricoteuses.
Fürstenbund.
A league of the German Princes, formed under the auspices of Frederick
the Great in 1785, to uphold the Peace of Teschen. The cause of its
formation was an attempt of the Emperor, Joseph II, to obtain possession
of Bavaria, by exchanging for it the Austrian Netherlands.
Fusillades.
The wholesale massacres in Lyons, after the surrender of that city to
the Revolutionary troops in 1792 were so called.
G