Alumbrados.
A sect of mystics, founded in Spain about 1520, the forerunners of the
better known Illuminati of Germany. They were finally suppressed by the
Inquisition.
Amalfitan Code.
A code of maritime law, drawn up during the First Crusade by the
mercantile community of Amalfi. It is the oldest known maritime code.
Amboise, Conspiracy of.
A plot on the part of Condé and the Bourbons, in 1560, to seize the
Guises, and the King, Francis II, who was a mere puppet in their hands.
The plot was discovered, and several of the leaders were executed.
Amboise, Convention of.
An agreement between Catherine de’ Medici and the Huguenots in 1563,
after the first civil war, by which the Huguenots were allowed the free
exercise of their religion.
Amboyna, Massacre of.
The murder of ten Englishmen, in the employment of the India Company, at
the Dutch factory of Amboyna in 1623.
America Act.
An Act passed in 1775, consolidating all the previous penal acts
relating to the American Colonies. It declared that all American vessels
were lawful prizes, and that all Americans captured in them, or
elsewhere, could be forced to take service against America.
Commissioners were appointed to receive the submission of the revolted
colonies, but no provisions were made for the redress of grievances.
America, Discovery of.
According to the Norse Sagas, the discovery of America should be placed
to the credit of the Vikings, who made five expeditions to the coast
between 985 and 1011, the first being that of Eric the Red, who settled
in Greenland in 986, and the most famous that of Thorfinn Karlsefne,
about 1007. The rediscovery by Columbus took place in 1492.
American Customs Act.
An Act passed in 1764, levying customs duties on goods imported into the
American Colonies. These duties were to be levied for the benefit of
England, and the proceeds thereof paid into the English Treasury. The
assertion of this right to tax the Colonies for the benefit of the
Mother Country may be considered the cause of the loss of the American
Colonies.
American-Japanese Treaty.
A treaty negotiated between the Shôgun and Commodore Perry on behalf of
the United States in 1854, by which Japan opened the ports of Yokohama,
Kobe, Nagasaki, and Hakodaté to foreign commerce. Foreigners had been
excluded from Japan for 216 years before this date, with the exception
of the Dutch, who however were strictly confined to their factory at
Deshima.
American-Spanish Treaty.
A treaty signed in 1898, at the close of the war, by which Spain
surrendered her sovereign rights over Cuba, and ceded Porto Rico and her
other West Indian possessions. The United States undertook to pay twenty
million dollars for the Philippines and Sulu Islands, but did not assume
any responsibility for the Cuban debt.
Ami des Hommes.
A sobriquet of the Marquis de Mirabeau (1715-1789).
Ami du Peuple.
Jean Paul Marat, the French revolutionary leader, was known as the
Friend of the People. It was also the title of the journal which he
edited.
Amiens, Award of.
The award of Louis IX of France, in 1264, in the dispute between Henry
III of England and his Barons, which had been referred to the
arbitration of the French King. He pronounced entirely in favour of the
Crown, annulling the Provisions of Oxford, especially with regard to
the King’s right to employ aliens as governors of his castles. Also
known as the Mise of Amiens.
Amiens, Peace of.
A treaty signed by France and England, in 1801, after the defeat of the
French army in Egypt. England restored all her conquests from France,
Spain and Holland, excepting Ceylon and Trinidad. Both parties agreed to
the evacuation of Egypt, and the independence of Portugal was
guaranteed. This peace was of very short duration, England and France
being at war again in 1803.
Amistad Case.
The case of a Spanish slaver in 1839, in which the slaves had broken out
and seized the ship. She was afterwards captured by a U.S. cruiser, and
the Supreme Court declared that the seizure of the vessel by the slaves
was not an act of piracy.
Amour, Loi d’.
The name ironically applied to a severely repressive measure against the
Press, introduced in the French Chamber by Peyronnet in 1827.
Amoureux, Guerre des.
The name given to the war between Henry III and Henry of Navarre in
1580. It arose purely out of a court intrigue, and its only event of
importance was the capture of Cahors by the Huguenots.
Ampoule, La Sainte.
The Holy Vase, containing the consecrated oil with which the French
kings were anointed at their coronation at Reims. It was preserved in
the Church of Saint Remi in that city.
Anabaptists.
A fanatical sect which had its rise in Westphalia, early in the
sixteenth century. In 1535 the Anabaptists seized the city of Münster,
and under their leader Boccold, otherwise John of Leyden, who had
arrogated to himself royal prerogatives, they held out for some time
against the forces of the Bishop of Münster. They were, however,
eventually overpowered, and their leaders put to death. Among other
extreme doctrines, they advocated communism and polygamy.
Anarchist Riots, Chicago.
Riots arising out of the Labour agitation in Chicago in the spring of
1886. The Anarchists took advantage of the disturbed condition of the
city, and in the course of a meeting which they summoned, a bomb was
thrown at the police, which was followed by shooting. Sixty police were
wounded. Seven of the rioters, mostly Germans, were convicted of murder.
Ancients, Council of.
The second chamber of the French Directory (1794-1799). It was composed
of 250 members.
Ancon, Treaty of.
A treaty of peace between Chile and Peru, putting an end to the War of
the Pacific, signed in 1883. Chile obtained by this treaty and one
concluded shortly afterwards with Bolivia, the coast region of the
latter state, and the district of Tarapaca in Peru. She further secured
important concessions with regard to the guano deposits.
Andrassy Note.
A note of remonstrance prepared by Count Andrassy, the Austrian Foreign
Minister, and addressed to the Porte in 1876 by the Powers signatory of
the Treaty of Paris, insisting on Turkey fulfilling her engagements.
Anes, Journée des.
The name given by the French to the defeat of the Papal Army, under the
Duke of Urbino, near Bologna, on May 22, 1571, by the Bolognese and the
French men-at-arms. The name was given to this battle on account of the
enormous number of baggage animals captured.
Anglo-Chinese Agreement, 1902.
An agreement between Great Britain and China providing for the abolition
of _Likin_, and an increase of duties at the port of entry, to
compensate for the loss of revenue thus incurred. This agreement,
however, can only come into operation if the other nations having
commercial treaties with China agree to the increase of the import
duties.
Anglo-Dutch Treaty, 1872.
A treaty by which Holland surrendered to Great Britain all her
possessions on the Gold Coast.
Anglo-French Agreement, 1896.
An agreement with respect to Siam, by which Great Britain agreed to the
cession to France of Mongain, and a strip of territory, twenty-five
kilometres wide, on the right bank of the Mekong. Both parties agreed
not to invade the territory left to Siam by this arrangement, and it was
further stipulated that any commercial privileges in Yunnan and
Sze-Chuan accorded by China to either nation should be common to both.
Anglo-German Agreement, 1890.
An agreement, fixing the limits of the spheres of influence of the two
Powers in East, West, and South-West Africa, with the exception of the
southern limit of Walfisch Bay, left open for further inquiry. The
agreement further provided for the cession of Heligoland to Germany, and
the recognition by the latter of Great Britain’s protectorate over
Zanzibar.
Anglo-German Agreement, 1900.
An agreement, also known as the Yang-tse Agreement, signed May 16, 1900,
defining the policy of the two Powers in China. It was agreed to support
the policy of the “Open Door,” and to permit free access for all nations
to the ports, rivers and littorals where the signatories have influence;
to refrain from seeking special territorial advantages, and to oppose
the grant of such to other Powers, the right being reserved to concert
measures in the event of such advantages being sought. Germany has since
declared that she does not consider this agreement to have any bearing
on the Russian occupation of Manchuria.
Anglo-Italian Agreement, 1885.
An agreement by which Great Britain recognizes Italy’s rights to the
East Coast of Africa between Massowah and Obock, and further agrees to
give her her moral support in Tripoli. Italy in return undertakes the
same friendly offices for Great Britain in Egypt.
Anglo-Japanese Agreement, 1902.
An agreement signed in London, January 30, 1902, by which the relations
of the two Powers in the China seas are defined. It is provided that if
one of the signatories be involved in war, in defence of her interests
in these regions, the other shall maintain a strict neutrality, but that
if the belligerent be attacked by a second Power, the other signatory
shall join her ally, and that the war shall thenceforward be conducted
in common, and peace made only by mutual agreement. It is further
stipulated that neither party shall enter into a separate agreement with
another Power, to the prejudice of the joint interests of the allies,
these interests being defined as the maintenance of the territorial
integrity of China and Korea, and the securing therein equal
opportunities for the commerce of all nations.
Anglo-Japanese Treaty, 1895.
A treaty between Great Britain and Japan, signed in 1895, abolishing
extra-territorial jurisdiction in Japan for British subjects. Great
Britain was thus the first European nation to acknowledge the entry of
Japan into the comity of nations. The treaty became operative in 1899.
Anglo-Portuguese Treaty, 1891.
Following the disturbances on the Mashonaland border, where a collision
had taken place between Portuguese troops and British South African
Police, an ultimatum was despatched to Portugal, demanding the
withdrawal of her troops from the disputed territory. A treaty was
subsequently signed delimiting the spheres of influence of the two
Powers and declaring the navigation of the Shiré and the Zambesi open to
all nations, while Portugal agreed to facilitate communication by these
and other river and land routes.
Anglo-Russian Convention, 1825.
A convention by which it was agreed that both Powers should enjoy equal
fishing rights in the Pacific Ocean. A line of demarcation was also
drawn between Alaska and British Columbia, but it was never properly
demarcated, and the vagueness of the boundary has been a fruitful source
of dissension between England and the United States, probably to be
ended by the Alaska Treaty of 1903.
Ankarström’s Conspiracy.
A conspiracy of Swedish nobles, headed by Counts Ribbing and Horn and
Captain Ankarström, to assassinate Gustavus III of Sweden. Captain
Ankarström, who had a personal grievance against the king, shot him at a
masquerade in the Opera House at Stockholm on March 16, 1792.
Annates.
The first year’s income of a benefice, claimed as tribute by the Popes.
This and all other tributes to the Roman See were abolished in England
in the reign of Henry VIII. by the Annates Act, passed in 1534.
Annunziata.
An Italian order of knighthood, holding the third place (after the
Garter and the Golden Fleece) among the orders of chivalry. It was
founded by Amadeus V of Savoy in 1362, and has been twice remodelled,
namely, by Charles III in 1518, and by Victor Emmanuel in 1869. It is
restricted to twenty members, exclusive of royal knights.
Annus Mirabilis.
The year 1666, famous in English history for two decisive victories over
the Dutch fleet, and for the Great Fire of London. Dryden’s poem of this
name commemorates these events.
Anti-Corn Law League.
An association founded in Manchester in 1838, to work for the repeal of
the Corn Laws, which imposed heavy duties on imported corn. Its leaders
were Richard Cobden and Charles Villiers. The agitation bore fruit in
1846, in which year the Act repealing the Corn Laws was passed.
Anti-federalists.
_See_ Federalists.
Antigone, The Modern.
Marie Thérèse, the daughter of Louis XVI, was so called.
Anti-Parnellites.
The majority of the Irish Parliamentary Party, who deposed Mr. Parnell
from the leadership, after the O’Shea divorce case, at the bidding of
Mr. Gladstone and the Irish Bishops.
Anti-Remonstrants.
A party among the Irish Catholics, who declined to sign the Petition of
Remonstrance, drawn up by Peter Walsh, in 1666, protesting against the
belief prevalent in England that toleration of Catholicism was
incompatible with the safety of the State.
Anti-Semitism.
An anti-Jewish crusade which broke out in Eastern Europe in the latter
part of the nineteenth century. It was especially virulent in Russia and
Austria, while in Germany an Anti-Semitic League was formed in Berlin in
1880, to “prevent the Judification of Germany.” The Judenhetze, as it
was called, was carried to such lengths as to call for the interference
of the Emperor. Still later the crusade against the Jews extended to
France, where the anti-Semitic party is strong. As a consequence of this
persecution, thousands of Jews have emigrated from the Continent to
England and to the United States.
Anti-Slavery Society.
A society formed at Philadelphia in 1833, under the presidency of
William Lloyd Garrison, to work for the abolition of slavery in the
United States. It was dissolved in 1870, having accomplished its object.
Anziani.
The Council of the Ancients of Florence, established about the middle of
the thirteenth century, to control all matters relating to the
government the State. It consisted of fourteen leading citizens.
Apologie of William of Orange.
A justification of his actions, presented by William of Orange to the
States-General of Holland in 1580, in reply to the proscription edict of
Philip II. The States declared Philip’s charges against the Prince to be
without foundation.
Appanages (France).
The provision made for the younger sons of the French Kings. It
consisted of feudal lands held by the Crown.
Appanages (Russia).
The Russian Imperial estates are so called.
Apparel, Statutes of.
A series of sumptuary laws, passed about 1540, regulating the dress of
the labouring and farming classes.
Appeals, Act of.
An Act passed in 1533, under Henry VIII, declaring the Church of England
capable of dealing with its own spiritual questions, and forbidding
appeals to any dignitary higher than the Archbishop.
Apprentices, Statute of.
A statute of Elizabeth, passed in 1563, by which no person was permitted
to exercise a trade in England unless he had previously served an
apprenticeship to it of seven years.
Apprenticeship (Transvaal).
This question was much debated in England in the early seventies, some
people alleging that the apprenticeship of black children was a covert
form of slavery, especially as indentures were transferable before a
landdrost. On the annexation of the country in 1877, however, it was
found that the charge was quite groundless.
Arabi’s Rebellion.
This revolt arose originally from a quarrel between the Circassian and
the Arab officers of the Egyptian Army in 1881. Three Arab colonels, one
of them Arabi, headed a successful mutiny, demanding a change at the
Ministry of War, which was controlled entirely by the Circassians. Later
in the year further trouble arose, and Arabi, supported by the whole
army, obtained the appointment of Under Secretary, and subsequently that
of War Minister. By June, 1882, he was practically a military dictator,
and commenced fortifying Alexandria. An ultimatum from the British
Government was without effect, and Alexandria was bombarded by the
British fleet. The defeat of Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir put an end to the
rebellion.
Aragon, Privilege of.
A charter granted to the nobles of Aragon by Alfonso III in 1287. It
gave them a constitutional right to federate against the king, if he
infringed their immunities, and at need to depose him and elect a
successor. The Privilege was withdrawn by Pedro IV in 1348.
Arbitration Court.
_See_ Hague Congress.
Arbitrations.
_See_ Alabama, Amiens, Behring Sea, Caroline Islands, Keate, San Juan,
Venezuela.
Argonauts of Forty-nine.
The name given to the early settlers in California after the discovery
of gold in 1849. They are also called Fortyniners.
Arima, Rebellion of.
A rising of his dependents against the Daimio of Arima, which was joined
by a large number of Japanese Christians. The rebels were finally
subdued in 1658, the Shôgun having had recourse to the Dutch for help,
and the result was the complete suppression of Christianity in Japan.
Arkansas Civil War.
A dispute, in 1874, between the factions of Brooks and Baxter, each of
whom claimed to be the duly elected Governor of Arkansas and was backed
by an armed force, dignified by the name of the State Militia. It was
found necessary to call out United States troops, whereupon Baxter
relieved the situation by withdrawing.
Armagh, Synod of.
A Synod of the Irish Prelates, held in 1170, at which, in view of the
threatened English invasion, it was resolved to release all English
captives held in slavery.
Armagnac War.
The war between Frederick III of Germany and the Swiss in 1444, so
called because Frederick’s forces were principally composed of
mercenaries who had been engaged in the French civil war on the Armagnac
side.
Armagnacs.
The party of the Orleans Princes in the French civil war, which broke
out in 1410, during the reign of the imbecile Charles VI. Their
opponents, the Burgundians, succeeded in obtaining possession of Paris
by treachery in 1418, and the Armagnac leaders were captured and thrown
into prison. The Paris mob, always hostile to this party, broke into the
prisons and murdered all the prisoners. In this affair, which is known
as the Massacre of the Armagnacs, it is said that 3,500 persons
perished, including the Comte d’Armagnac, the Chancellor, and many
nobles and members of the Parlement.
Armatoli.
A body of Greek mercenaries in the service of the Sultans of Turkey from
the fifteenth to the early nineteenth centuries.
Armed Neutrality.
A league of the northern nations of Europe, formed under the leadership
of Prussia and Russia in 1870, to contest the right of search exercised
by British ships of war over neutrals. The contentions of the league
were that the flag covers the merchandise, except in the case of
contraband of war, and that a blockade must be effective to be
respected.
Armenian Massacres.
In 1895 and 1896 terrible massacres of the Armenians took place in
Anatolia, at the hands of the Kurds, who were probably aided, and
certainly not hindered, by the regular Turkish garrison. In 1896, on the
ground that a dangerous conspiracy was on foot, the authorities connived
at a massacre of Armenians in Constantinople, in which over two thousand
are believed to have perished. This produced a strong joint protest from
the Powers, followed by the re-establishment of some semblance of order
in the disturbed districts.
Arminians.
The followers of Arminius, a Leyden professor, in the early part of the
seventeenth century, who dissented from the strict Calvinism of the
Dutch Protestants, and endeavoured to introduce a milder system. By a
decree of the Synod of Dort, in 1618, the Arminian preachers were
banished, while the Great Pensioner, Barneveldt, the chief lay supporter
of the sect, was executed. The English High Church party in the reign of
Charles I were sometimes called Arminians.
Army Plot.
An abortive conspiracy in the army, in 1641, under Wilmot, the
Commissary-General, formed, with the connivance of Charles I, to overawe
the Parliament. Goring, one of the ringleaders, becoming dissatisfied,
betrayed the plot to Pym, but by that time the conspirators had already
decided against active measures.
Army Purchase.
The system of purchase of commissions in the army was abolished by an
Act of Parliament introduced by Mr. Cardwell in 1871.
Arrabiati.
The party of the Medici, during the existence of the Florentine
Republic, established in 1493.
Arras, Congress of.
The first instance of a congress of the European Powers, held at Arras
in 1435. All the leading States were represented, and an attempt was
made to settle the peace of Europe, but the rival claims of France and
England, the two countries most immediately concerned, proved
irreconcilable, and no solution was arrived at.
Arras, Treaty of.
During the Congress of Arras, in 1435, France succeeded in detaching
Burgundy from the English alliance, and a treaty was signed by which the
Duke of Burgundy acknowledged the sovereignty of Charles VII, but
stipulated that he himself should be freed from personal homage during
his own and Charles’ lifetime. In return his claim was admitted to the
Boulonnais, and he received Mâcon, Arcis-sur-Aube and Auxerre. Burgundy
renounced the English alliance, and France that of the Emperor.
Arrière Fief.
Land held by the vassal of a vassal is an arrière fief of the overlord.
Artels.
Associations of workmen in Russia, living and working together, and
dividing the profits of each job. They are sometimes of a temporary
nature and sometimes more nearly resembling a guild, as in the case of
the bank porters, where the association is responsible to the employers
for the acts of its members.
Articles.
_See_ Eleven, Five, Forty-two, Henry, Lambeth, Louvain, Nine,
Schmalkald, Six, Ten, Thirty-nine, Thirty-three.
Articles, Lords of the.
The Committee which prepared measures to be submitted to the Scottish
Parliament was so called.
Articles of Henry.
_See_ Pacta Conventa.
Articles of Prague.
The confession of faith of the Hussites, issued by John Zisca in 1420.
Articuli super Cartas.
Twenty clauses added to Magna Charta, when it was confirmed by Edward I
during the Parliament of 1300. The most important are those dealing with
purveyance, the jurisdiction of the officers of the Crown, and the jury
system.
Arya Somaj.
A Hindu sect founded by Dayânandu Sarasvati (died 1882). While reforming
many of the grosser superstitions of the Brahminical faith, its
followers still hold by the doctrinal teachings of the Vedas.
Aschaffenburg, Concordat of.
An agreement between the Emperor Ferdinand III and Pope Nicholas V, in
1448, regulating the Papal rights in ecclesiastical matters in Germany.
The Pope surrendered the right of appointing arbitrarily to all
benefices, but retained it for those falling in during each alternate
six months. He retained the annates, and gave the chapters the right of
electing to bishoprics, except in the case of translations, or of the
appointment of some notoriously unfit person.
Ashbourne’s Act, Lord.
_See_ Irish Land Act, 1885.
Ashburton Treaty.
A treaty between England and the United States, signed in 1842, finally
settling the boundary line between Canada and the States. This treaty is
also known as the Treaty of Washington.
Asiento.
The right to trade in slaves with the American Colonies was claimed by
Spain, and was at different periods granted by treaty to France or to
England. The permission thus granted was known as the Asiento.
Assassination Plot.
A Jacobite plot in 1696, to assassinate William III. He was to be shot
while returning from hunting in Richmond Forest. It is probable that
James was privy to it, but the actual ringleader was Sir George Barclay.
The plot was discovered, and several of the leaders convicted and
executed.
Assassins.
The followers of the Old Man of the Mountain, Hassan ben Sabah, who
founded the sect on the borders of the Caspian Sea about 1090. The motto
of the Society was “To the faithful nothing is forbidden,” and its
adherents were guilty of the foulest murders. Among its other well-known
victims was Conrad of Montferrat, in 1192.
Assertion of the Seven Sacraments.
The book written by Henry VIII against Luther, which procured for him
from Leo X the title of Defender of the Faith.
Assignats.
An issue of paper money authorized by the French National Assembly in
December, 1789, secured on the lands and buildings of the church, which
were to be confiscated and sold. They were largely forged by Royalists
and others, and went to an extraordinary discount; thus in February,
1796, a gold louis of 20 francs was worth on the Paris Bourse 5,300
francs in assignats.
Assize of Arms.
A reorganization of the old Militia of England, carried out by Henry II
in 1181.
Assize of Bread.
An ordinance of Henry III of England in 1266, regulating the prices to
be charged by bakers, in accordance with the fluctuations in the value
of corn.
Assize of Clarendon.
An ordinance issued by Henry II in 1166, to provide for the trial of
criminal cases in the Shire Courts. It was ordained that twelve men
should be selected from each hundred, and four from each township, to
determine whether there were any criminals in their district, and if so
to present them for trial. This is the origin of the Grand Jury system.
This Assize also abolished trial by compurgation.
Assize of Northampton.
An ordinance issued by Henry II in 1176, confirming and strengthening
the Assize of Clarendon.
Assize of Woodstock.
An ordinance issued by Henry II in 1184, containing regulations for the
government of the royal forests. Many of the rules were very oppressive,
and were considerably modified by the Charter of Forests, in 1217.
Association, The.
A bond drawn up by the Council and nobles of England in 1584, whereby
the signatories bound themselves to take arms against all who should
attempt to harm the person of Queen Elizabeth. It was signed by
Catholics and Protestants alike, and Parliament was speedily summoned to
endorse it.
Association, The.
A union of the Eastern counties, formed in 1643, with the object of
keeping the civil war beyond its borders.
Association Treaty.
A treaty, signed in 1682, between Holland, Sweden, the Emperor and
certain German Princes, pledging the signatories to defend the treaties
of Utrecht and Nimeguen. It provided that any of the contracting parties
accused of violating the provisions of these treaties should submit the
matter to the arbitration of the other signatories, who, in the event of
his refusal, agreed to unite against him in arms. Similar provisions
were agreed to to meet the case of a non-signatory power violating the
peace of Europe and refusing to submit to arbitration.
Associations Act, Ireland.
An Act passed in 1826, directed mainly against the Catholic Association.
It restricted the right of meeting of political associations, and
forbade the levying of subscriptions or the administration of oaths.
Associations Law, 1833.
A law passed by the French Government in 1833, forbidding any
association, even literary or religious, to exist without Government
authorization.
Associations Law, 1901.
A law passed by the French Assembly in 1901, requiring all religious
associations engaged in teaching or charitable work to apply to the
Government for authorization. It was specially aimed at associations
like the Assumptionist Fathers, who had taken an active part in politics
in opposition to the Government. In 1902 the law was strenuously
enforced by M. Combes, the French Premier, against many harmless
communities of nuns and others engaged in teaching, causing serious
disturbances in Brittany and other Catholic centres.
Assurance, The.
A form of oath exacted in Scotland after the accession of William III
from all persons holding positions of trust. It set forth that William
was King not only _de facto_ but _de jure_ and by just title, and was
intended to discriminate, in the Church, between those Episcopalians who
were at heart Jacobites, and those who were honestly ready to accept the
new régime. About a hundred Episcopalian divines took the oath, and were
permitted to retain their benefices.
Assured Lords.
The Scottish lords captured at Solway Moss, and allowed to return to
Scotland under the obligation to further the interests of Henry VIII, in
1542. Among them were the Earl of Angus, Lords Cassilis, Glencairn, and
Maxwell.
Assysthement.
The ancient Scottish law of the assessment of the value of a life, to be
paid by the murderer.
Astor Place Riot.
A serious riot in New York in 1849, arising out of a dispute between
Macready, the English actor, and Edwin Forest, the American actor. A mob
of 20,000 men attacked the Astor Place Opera House, where Macready was
playing in “Macbeth,” and it was found necessary to call out the troops
in order to quell the disturbance.
Ataman.
The chief of a community of Cossacks. The office was elective.
Ateliers Nationaux.
Government workshops established in Paris in 1848 to provide work for
the unemployed. Within the year the workers rose against the Government,
and erected barricades in the streets of Paris. They were, however,
promptly suppressed by General Cavaignac, and their leaders arrested and
condemned to transportation.
Attainder, Act of.
An Act passed by the Irish Parliament, summoned by James after the
landing of William III in England in 1689. The Act contained a list of
between two and three thousand names, and was made the vehicle of many
private vengeances.
Attalik Ghazi.
The title bestowed on Yakoub Beg, the leader of the revolt against China
in Kashgar in 1870. The revolt was suppressed in 1877, after the death
of Yakoub Beg.
Atterbury’s Plot.
A Jacobite plot to depose George I in 1722, and to place the old
Pretender, James Edward, on the throne. The ringleaders were Lord
Orrery, Lord North, Lord Gower, and Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester. The
plot included a plan for an expedition under James and Lord Ormonde, to
sail from Spain. The scheme, however, was disclosed to the British
Minister in Paris, and the leaders, including Atterbury, were arrested.
Audiencias.
The final courts of appeal in South America, under Spanish rule. They
were eleven in number, and in addition to their judicial functions,
acted as advisory boards to the Viceroys and Captains-General.
Augmentations, Court of.
A Court appointed by Henry VIII, after the dissolution of the
monasteries, to deal with all questions arising out of the confiscation
of the Church Lands.
Augsburg, Confession of.
A statement of the Protestant doctrine drawn up by Melancthon at the
Diet of Augsburg, in 1529.
Augsburg, League of.
A league between the Emperor, Spain, the Netherlands, Sweden, Bavaria,
and the circles of Suabia and Franconia, formed in 1682, to preserve the
peace of Europe against the encroachments of Louis XIV. The war, which
began in 1688 and was ended by the Peace of Ryswick in 1697, is known as
the War of the League of Augsburg.
Augsburg, Peace of.
_See_ Religious Peace.
Aulic Council.
A tribunal established by the Emperor Maximilian I in 1501. It was
reorganized by Rudolf II, to deal with questions arising out of the
interpretation of the Peace of Augsburg, during the counter-reformation
in Germany. The Council accompanied the Emperor, having no fixed place
of meeting, and was almost entirely under the domination of the Court,
and thoroughly Catholic in its tendencies.
Aurum Reginae.
_See_ Queen’s Gold.
Ausculta Fili, Bull.
A bull, also known as the Greater Bull, issued by Pope Boniface VIII
against Philip IV of France in 1302. It calls on Philip to cease his
opposition to the claims of the Church, and reminds him that he holds
his throne only by the goodwill of the Pope. The bull was publicly burnt
in Philip’s presence.
Ausgleich.
The agreement settling the economic relations between Austria and
Hungary. The first Ausgleich was signed in 1867, for a period of ten
years, and was renewed with slight variations in 1877 and 1887. The
Austrian Reichsrath refused to sanction the Ausgleich of 1897, and it
was promulgated by what is known as the Dictatorship paragraph of the
Austrian Constitution, in other words by Imperial decree. In 1899 it was
amended by the Szell formula, by which M. Szell, the Hungarian premier,
stipulated that if the Ausgleich were not formally renewed before the
end of 1902, the economic union between the two countries should come to
an end in 1907. On New Year’s Eve, 1902, a new Ausgleich, to run for ten
years, was agreed to by the Austrian and Hungarian Premiers.
Austin Riots.
An outbreak of the Coloured League against the White League, at Austin,
Mississippi, in 1874. Several sanguinary engagements took place, in
which the blacks were worsted, and many killed.
Austrägal Court.
A court consisting of several members of the Germanic Confederation,
convened to decide whether questions pending between one of the
Confederated States and a foreign power could be taken up by the
Confederation as a whole.
Australasian League.
A society established in Melbourne in 1851, under the auspices of the
Rev. John West, to secure “by moral means only” the abolition of the
transportation of convicts to any part of the Australasian continent.
Australian Colonies Act.
An Act passed in 1849, separating Victoria from New South Wales, and
providing a constitution for the new colony, as well as for Tasmania,
South Australia, and (subject to the fulfilment of certain conditions)
Western Australia.
Australian Commonwealth Act.
An Act to give force to the Constitution drafted by Australian statesmen
for the union into a Commonwealth of the Colonies of New South Wales,
Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Western Australia, and Tasmania,
power being reserved to New Zealand to enter the union if she so desire.
The Act provides for the establishment of a central Government, with the
control of the customs, postage, and certain other matters, each colony
retaining its own Parliament, with power to manage its internal affairs
as before. Considerable difference of opinion arose as to the right of
appeal from the Supreme Court of the Commonwealth to the Privy Council,
and it was finally enacted that in the case of constitutional questions
affecting the rights of the Commonwealth or individual States no appeal
should lie, unless the Supreme Court certified that the matter was one
which should be determined by the Privy Council.
Austrian Succession, War of the.
The war which broke out in 1741, in connexion with the Pragmatic
Sanction of Charles VI. It was ended by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in
1748.
Auto de fe.
The Act of Faith, the name given to the ceremony which accompanied the
execution of persons condemned for heresy by the Inquisition in Spain
and Portugal. The last Auto de Fe took place at Valencia, in 1826.
Avignon Captivity.
The period of seventy years during which the Popes resided at Avignon,
practically in a condition of vassalage to the French Crown. It lasted
from 1305 to 1377, or from the Papacy of Clement V to that of Gregory
XI. It is also known as the Babylonish Captivity.
Avignon, Reunion of.
From the time of the return of the Popes to Rome in 1377, until 1791,
Avignon was, with certain short intervals, governed by Papal Legates. In
the latter year, by a decree of the National Assembly, it was reunited
to France, and this reunion was acknowledged by the Pope, by the Treaty
of Tolentino in 1797.
Ayankeeados.
The name given by the Mexicans to the sympathizers with America during
the Mexican War of 1846.
B
Babington Plot.
A plot set on foot by Babington and a Jesuit, named Ballard, in 1585, to
assassinate Queen Elizabeth. Letters secured by Walsingham were said to
have proved the complicity of Mary Queen of Scots, and led to her
imprisonment at Fotheringay, and subsequent trial and execution.
Babylonish Captivity.
_See_ Avignon.
Back Lane Parliament.
An assembly of Delegates from the whole of Ireland, which met in Dublin
in 1792. They prepared an address expressing their loyalty to the
throne, and asking for the franchise.
Baconists.
The Liberal Party in Virginia in 1676, who rose in rebellion under
Nathaniel Bacon. The name was afterwards adopted by the Maryland
Liberals in 1678.
Badger State.
The popular name of the State of Wisconsin, U.S.A., from the badger in
its coat of arms.
Badinguet.
A nickname of Napoleon III. It was the name of the workman in whose
clothes he escaped from the Château of Ham, in 1846.
Bag and Baggage Policy.
The policy advocated in speech and pamphlet by Mr. Gladstone in 1876
(while in opposition), at the time of the Bulgarian Atrocities. It was
to the effect that if Turkey would not reform the administration of her
Christian provinces, she must be turned out of Europe “bag and baggage.”
Bagimont’s Roll.
A valuation of the ecclesiastical benefices of Scotland, compiled by
Bagimont of Vicci in 1274. On this valuation the tithes payable to the
Roman See were computed, up to the time of the Reformation.
Bailli.
In French feudal times the bailli was the representative of the king in
the territories of the great feudal lords. He held a court which took
cognizance of matters concerning the rights of the Crown, and outside
the jurisdiction of the feudal courts.
Baiser de Lamourette.
A reconciliation between the extreme parties in the French Legislative
Assembly in 1792, effected by the persuasive eloquence of Lamourette,
Bishop of Lyons. It was purely emotional and irrational, and only lasted
a few days. It is also called the Norman Reconciliation.
Balafré, Le.
The sobriquet of Henry de Guise (1550-1589).
Balkan Agreement.
An agreement between Austria and Russia, officially communicated to the
Balkan States in 1897, by which the parties announced their intention of
maintaining the _status quo_ in the Balkan Peninsula.
Ballarat Reform League.
An association of miners, formed at Ballarat (Victoria) in 1854, to
agitate for reforms in the administration of the goldfields, as well as
for certain political reforms, including manhood suffrage, payment of
members, and short Parliaments. The more militant members eventually
took up arms against the Government.
Ballot Act.
The Act to substitute secret for open voting at Parliamentary elections
was passed in 1871.
Banbury Man.
A term applied to the Puritans during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.
Banda Oriental.
The old name of the Republic of Uruguay.
Bandes d’Ordonnance.
A body of 3,000 cavalry which formed the only standing army of the
Netherlands, circ. 1550.
Bank Charter Act, 1833.
An Act renewing the charter of the Bank of England, originally granted
in 1694. It made the notes of the bank legal tender, and provided that
the notes issued should bear to the specie in hand a ratio not exceeding
three to one.
Bank Charter Act, 1844.
By this Act it was provided that the Bank of England should not issue
notes in excess of £14,000,000, unless a corresponding reserve of specie
were held. It also restricted the note issue of other banks, and
provided that no banks established after the passing of the Act should
have the right to issue notes.
Bar, Confederation of.
A league of Polish nobles, formed in 1876, with the object of dethroning
Stanislas Augustus (Poniatowski), and freeing the country from foreign
influence.
Barbarossa.
Frederick II, Emperor of Germany (1152-1190), so called from his red
beard.
Barbons.
The name given to Sillery, Jeannin, and Villeroy, the veteran
councillors of Louis XIII, circ. 1612.
Barcelona, Treaty of, 1493.
A treaty between Charles VIII of France and Ferdinand and Isabella of
Spain, by which Roussillon and Cerdagne were restored to the Crown of
Arragon.
Barcelona, Treaty of, 1529.
A treaty between Charles V and Pope Clement VII, by which the Emperor
undertook to proceed to Rome to receive the crown at the Pope’s hands,
and to take all the steps in his power to check the spread of the
reformed religion.
Bardo, Treaty of.
A treaty between France and Tunis, signed in 1861. The Bey recognized
the French right to occupy military positions securing the frontier and
the sea coast. France in return guaranteed to the Bey his personal
security, and that of his dynasty and dominions. She also undertook the
due execution of all treaty obligations to foreign powers, but for the
future reserved the right to control all the international relations of
the Bey.
Barebone’s Parliament.
A Parliament summoned by Cromwell on July 4, 1653, which lasted only
till December 12 of the same year. It took its name from one of its
members, a leather merchant named Praise-God Barebone, and it was also
known as the Little Parliament.
Bari, Council of.
At this council, summoned by Pope Urban II in 1098, the orthodox
doctrine of the Holy Ghost was established.
Barmecides.
A celebrated Persian family, who rose to the highest offices of state
under the Abbaside Khalifs. One of their number, Jaafar, was the
favourite Vizier of Haroun-al-Raschid. For some reason not sufficiently
explained by the Arab historians, Haroun, without warning, caused the
whole family, numbering over a thousand, to be massacred in 802.
Barnburners.
Bands of agricultural labourers who, from 1830 to 1833, endeavoured, by
burning ricks and farm buildings, to terrorize the landlords into the
concession of improved conditions. The threatening letters written to
their employers were generally signed “Captain Swing.”
Barnburners.
A name given to the Radical wing of the Democratic party in New York in
1844. The Barnburners joined the Freesoilers in 1848.
Baroda Commission.
A commission appointed in 1875, composed of three Europeans and three
natives, to investigate the charge against the Gaekwar of Baroda of
attempting to poison Colonel Phayre, the English Resident. The
commission disagreed, the Englishmen considering the charge proved,
while the natives were of the contrary opinion. Lord Northbrook,
however, decided on deposing him.
Barons, League of the.
A league of the Barons of Northern France, under Peter, Count of
Brittany, during the regency of Blanche of Castile, in support of the
rights of their order against the usurpations of the Crown.
Barons’ War.
The war which broke out under Simon de Montfort in 1263, in consequence
of the failure of Henry III to fulfil his various engagements to his
Barons. The war lasted till 1267, though only desultory fighting took
place after the death of de Montfort at the battle of Evesham in 1265.
Barrackpur Mutiny.
A mutiny of the 42nd Native Infantry Regiment in 1826, the reason
assigned being the harsh treatment to which they were subjected by their
officers. The mutiny was promptly suppressed.
Barricades, Journée des.
May 12, 1588, on which date Henri III sent his Swiss Guards to oppose
the return to Paris of Henri de Guise. The Parisian mob formed
barricades of paving stones, from behind which they shot down the Swiss.
The same name has been given to other days on which the Parisians have
erected barricades against the constituted authorities.
Barrier Treaty, First.
A treaty between England and Holland, signed in 1709, by which Holland
agreed to recognize the Protestant succession in England, and to make
the expulsion of the Pretender a _sine qua non_ of peace with France. In
return England guaranteed to Holland a barrier line of strong places,
including Nieuport, Lille, Ryssel, Tournay, Maubeuge, Charleroi and
Namur.
Barrier Treaty, Second.
A treaty between England and the Netherlands signed in 1713, by which
the line of fortresses, as set out in the Barrier Treaty of 1709, was
altered, somewhat to the disadvantage of the Dutch. The Treaty of
Utrecht in the same year confirmed the principle of the Barrier.
Barwalde, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1631 between Louis XIII. and Gustavus Adolphus,
providing for the security of the Ocean and the Baltic, with liberty of
commerce to the ships of both nations. It was also provided that the
forts on both seas and in the Canton of the Grisons should be
demolished.
Bashi-Bazouks.
Turkish irregular troops, generally recruited amongst the Kurds and
other Asiatic tribes in the Ottoman Empire. They became notorious during
the Bulgarian atrocities of 1875.
Basilikon Doron.
A book written in 1599 by James VI of Scotland (afterwards James I of
England), containing advice on the art of government, and intended for
the instruction of his eldest son, Henry.
Basle, Council of.
A council summoned by Martin V, but held under Eugenius IV, in 1433. The
council abolished many of the privileges claimed by the Popes,
including annates and the reservation of benefices. Finding the Pope
obdurate in his refusal to accept their decrees, they suspended and
finally deposed him.
Basle Treaties.
Two treaties made by Napoleon with Prussia and Spain respectively in
1795, by which he detached these two powers from the European coalition.
His bribe to Prussia was the withdrawal of the French troops from the
right bank of the Rhine, while the inducement offered to Spain was the
return to her of the Spanish half of the island of San Domingo.
Basle, Treaty of.
A treaty between Austria and the Swiss Cantons in 1499, whereby the
virtual independence of the thirteen cantons was recognized.
Bassein, Treaty of.
A treaty between the British and Baji Rao II, Peshwa of Poonah, signed
in 1802. The Peshwa agreed to receive a subsidiary force, and to pay for
its maintenance; to admit into the Mahratta States no European hostile
to England; to surrender all claims to Surat, and to remain the faithful
ally of the English. This treaty practically put an end to the Mahratta
independence.
Bastard of Orleans.
Jean Dunois (natural son of Louis of Orleans), the famous French general
(1402-1468), was so called.
Bastille.
The famous state prison of Paris, built in 1370 by Charles V, and
destroyed by the mob in 1789, at the beginning of the French Revolution.
Bates’ Case.
A case decided in 1606, in the reign of James I, in which the judges
held that it was lawful for the King to raise the customs duties without
the consent of Parliament.
Bath, Order of the.
An order of knighthood, founded by Henry IV in 1399. From the time of
Charles I it lapsed, until revived by George I in 1725 as a military
order, which it remained until 1845, when it was established on its
present basis with a military and a civil division.
Bats, Parliament of.
_See_ Club Parliament.
Battles.
_See_ Brothers, Chapter of Mitton, Clan Chattan, Clouds, Death Ride,
Dingaan, Dysiefald, Eperons, Field of Mourning, Giants, Glorious,
Herrings, Last, Loose Coat, Nations, Seven Days, Soldiers, Spurs,
Standard, Thirty, Three Emperors.
Bavarian Succession, War of the.
A war between Austria and Prussia, arising out of the failure of the
male line of the Bavarian princely house. No fighting took place, and
the pending questions were settled by the Peace of Teschen in 1779.
Bay State.
A name given to the State of Massachusetts, U.S.A., from the old name of
the Colony, namely “Massachusetts Bay.”
Bayonne Decree.
A decree issued by Napoleon in 1808, ordering that all foreign vessels
then in French ports should be seized.
Bayou State.
The State of Mississippi, U.S.A., is so called from the number of creeks
or bayous along its shores.
Bear State.
Arkansas, U.S.A., is so called from the bears that in former days
infested its forests.
Béarnais, Le.
Henri IV of France was so called from Béarn, his native province.
Beau Sabreur, Le.
The sobriquet of Joachim Murat, Napoleon’s best cavalry leader, created
by him King of Naples.
Beauclerc.
The sobriquet of Henry I of England, in allusion to his scholarship,
which was superior to that of most mediæval monarchs.
Bec, Compromise of.
An arrangement between Henry I and Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, in
1106, by which the long standing dispute as to the King’s right of
investiture was settled. By this arrangement the King retained the right
of exacting from the Bishops the oath of fealty and homage, surrendering
the purely formal right of bestowing the ring and crozier.
Bedchamber Question.
The difficulty that arose between Queen Victoria and Sir Robert Peel, on
the resignation of the Melbourne Ministry in 1839. Through some
misunderstanding the Queen thought that Peel wished her to change all
the ladies holding Court appointments, a step she refused to take. It
ended in Peel refusing to take office, and Lord Melbourne coming back.
Bedford Protest.
A protest signed by a hastily summoned meeting of the minority of the
House of Lords in March, 1766, on the night that the repeal of the Stamp
Act, imposing stamp duties on the American Colonies, passed that House.
The signatories to the protest were headed by the Duke of Bedford.
Beggars, The.
_See_ Gueux.
Beggars of the Sea.
A company of Dutch privateersmen, commissioned by the Prince of Orange,
circ. 1570, to prey upon Spanish commerce. Their chief was William de la
Marck.
Beggars, The Wild.
A brotherhood of freebooters, who, under the guise of a revolutionary
faction, infested the Netherlands about 1568.
Behring Sea Fisheries.
The question as to the right of Canadian sealers to capture seals in
Behring Sea (known as Pelagic Sealing), after being long in dispute, was
submitted to arbitration in 1892. The United States claimed to have
acquired from Russia, by the purchase of Alaska, the exclusive right to
the seal fisheries of the Behring Sea, alleging that this right had
always been claimed by Russia, without protest from Great Britain, and
that their interest in the seal herd justified them in putting a stop
to pelagic sealing. In 1893 the arbitrators decided that the United
States had not acquired any such exclusive right. Further, as authorized
by the terms of the reference, they made the following regulations: all
sealing within sixty maritime miles of the Probyloff Islands to be
forbidden; a close time for seals to be established, and all sealing
vessels to be licensed.
Bekcagsog, Convention of.
A treaty between Great Britain and Sweden, by which Great Britain
undertook to pay 12,000 men to be employed in Pomerania in aid of the
coalition against Napoleon in 1805.
Bel Anglais, Le.
A name given by the French to John Churchill, the great Duke of
Marlborough.
Belgian Neutrality Treaty.
The neutrality of Belgium being threatened by the Franco-German War in
1870, treaties were signed by Great Britain with France and Germany
respectively, by which the belligerents agreed to respect the neutrality
of Belgium during the war and for one year after its close, from which
date the Treaty of London of 1839 was again to become operative.
Belgrade, Treaty of.
A treaty between Austria and Russia on the one hand, and Turkey on the
other, by which Austria surrendered Wallachia and Servia, while Russia
withdrew from her conquests in Moldavia and Bessarabia, and renounced
her rights of navigation in the Black Sea. This treaty was signed in
1739, after the capture of Belgrade by the Turks.
Bell the Cat.
The sobriquet of Archibald Douglas, the “great” Earl of Angus, which he
earned by undertaking to take the lead in removing James III of Scotland
from the pernicious influence of Cochrane, Earl of Mar, in 1481.
Belski.
One of the two factions of nobles who between them ruled Russia during
the minority of Ivan IV (The Terrible), circ. 1533. The other faction
was that of the Chouiski.
Belted Will.
Lord William Howard (1563-1640), Warden of the Marches, was so called.
Benares, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1773 between Warren Hastings and the Vizier of Oude,
by which it was stipulated that an English force should be lent to Oude
for service against the Rohillas, the Vizier paying forty lacs down and
two lacs per month for their services. Further, Hastings agreed to cede
Oorah and Allahabad to Oude, in return for an annual tribute of fifty
lacs of rupees.
Benedictines.
The first regular monastic order, founded by St. Benedict in 527.
Benefit of Clergy.
The right claimed by the Church to withdraw its members from the
jurisdiction of the secular courts, to be dealt with by the
ecclesiastical courts. In the dark ages “clerk” was held to cover all
who could read, but with the spread of education after the Renaissance,
the abuse of this definition became intolerable, and in 1532, an act was
passed limiting the right of pleading benefit of clergy, in cases of
felony, to those of the rank of sub-deacon and above.
Benevolences.
An arbitrary method of taxation without the consent of Parliament,
introduced by Edward IV of England. Benevolences were declared illegal
by the Parliament of Richard III.
Bengal Land Law.
An Indian Act passed in 1859, by which the proprietary rights of the
cultivators under the Zemindari system in Bengal were recognized with
certain restrictions.
Bengal Mutiny.
An agitation in the East India Company’s regiments in 1795-6 for the
assimilation of the conditions of pay and pensions to those established
by Lord Cornwallis in the Civil Service. The Company handled the matter
with very little discretion, promoting one of the leading malcontents to
an important post, but Lord Wellesley on his arrival took stern
measures, and the embryo mutiny quickly subsided.
Bergara, Convention of.
The surrender of the Carlists under General Maroto in 1839, which ended
the great Carlist war.
Berlin Congress.
A congress held at Berlin in 1878, after the conclusion of the
Russo-Turkish war. The outcome of the Congress was a Treaty, which
modified the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano. By its provisions
Roumania, Servia and Montenegro were made independent States, the latter
also obtaining a port on the Adriatic. The northern portion of Bulgaria
was made a self-governing State, under the suzerainty of the Porte, and
the southern portion, known as Eastern Roumelia, remained Turkish
territory, but under a Christian governor. Austria was to administer
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Roumania returned a portion of Bessarabia to
Russia, while in Asia Turkey ceded Ardalian, Kars, and Batoum to Russia.
It is of this treaty that Lord Beaconsfield used the famous phrase “We
have brought back Peace with Honour.”
Berlin Decree.
A decree issued by Napoleon in 1806, proclaiming the Continental
Blockade.
Berserker.
The bravest champions of the Vikings were so called, perhaps because
they fought in their shirts, without coats of mail. They seem in battle
to have worked themselves into a kind of frenzy, known as the Berserk
rage, somewhat resembling that of the Mohammedan “Ghazi.”
Berwick, Treaty of.
A treaty between Charles I and the Scotch in 1639, following Charles’
abortive attempt to invade Scotland, by which it was agreed that a free
Scottish Parliament should be held, in return for which concession the
royal castles were to be returned, and the army of the Covenanters
disbanded.
Bessborough Commission.
A commission, under the chairmanship of the Earl of Bessborough,
appointed to report on the Irish Land Laws. Following on its report, Mr.
Gladstone introduced the Irish Land Bill of 1891.
Betterment.
The increase in the value of property in a certain limited area, owing
to municipal improvements, such as roads and bridges. Certain municipal
reformers advocate the levying of a special rate from persons thus
benefiting, instead of throwing the whole cost of the improvements upon
the ratepayers as a body.
Betting Act.
_See_ Cockburn’s Act.
Bezaaygeld.
A tax levied in Holland about the middle of the eighteenth century on
seed put into the ground.
Bianchi.
A sect of fanatics who appeared in Italy in 1399. They dressed always in
long white garments, and lived entirely on bread and water. They are
said to have brought about a remarkable improvement in the morals of the
time, but they were nevertheless opposed by the Pope.
Bianchi and Neri.
The two factions of the Guelf party in Florence, circ. 1300. Modern
Italian society is divided into sections, also bearing these two names,
of which the former are supporters of the House of Savoy, while the
latter uphold the temporal claims of the Vatican.
Biatagh.
A tenant in Ireland, in the Celtic times, who held his land on the
tenure of providing hospitality for travellers.
Bien Aimé, Le.
The sobriquet of Louis XV of France (1715-1774).
Bien Public, Guerre du.
An insurrection against Louis XI of certain malcontent nobles, aided by
the Dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon. It was ended by the Treaty
of Conflans, in 1465.
Big Beggarman.
Daniel O’Connell was so called by the Irish landlords.
Bill of Right.
The Act passed by the Convention Parliament in 1689, embodying as a
statute the Declaration of Rights accepted by William III.
Bills of Exchange Act.
An Act passed in 1882, codifying the various acts and decisions relating
to Bills of Exchange. It is practically the only codification in the law
of Great Britain.
Bimetallists.
The advocates of a monetary system which would place gold and silver on
the same basis for coinage purposes, by making silver legal tender to
any amount, and establishing a fixed ratio of value between the two
metals.
Birkenhead, Wreck of the.
The Birkenhead, a troopship, was wrecked near the Cape of Good Hope in
1852. There were not sufficient boats to save all on board, and while
the women and children were all saved, the troops stood to attention on
the main deck, and went down with the ship.
Birmingham Riots.
An outbreak in Birmingham in 1791, directed against Dr. Priestley, who
had organized a dinner of sympathizers with the French Revolution, to
celebrate the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille. Dr. Priestley’s
house and library were wrecked.
Biron’s Plot.
An attempt by the Baron de Biron, one of the King’s most trusted
generals, to unite the Catholic and Huguenot malcontents against Henri
IV, in conjunction with a league of Spain and Savoy against the French
king. The plot was betrayed by a subordinate, named La Fin, and Biron
was condemned and executed in 1602.
Bishop Usher’s Model.
A compromise between the Episcopalians and Presbyterians, proposed by
Bishop Usher after the Restoration. He suggested that while the bishops
were restored, a number of suffragan bishops should be appointed, each
of whom was to be president of a council of Presbyters. Charles II
declared himself in favour of this form of union, but when a bill was
prepared to carry it into effect, the whole power of the Court was
utilized to secure its rejection.
Bishops in Partibus Infidelium.
In the Roman Catholic Church, Bishops holding imaginary sees, in
countries where there is no Catholic community, were formerly so called.
Since 1882 they have been styled Titular Bishops.
Bismarck of Asia.
Li Hung Chang, the Chinese statesman, was so called.
Black Act.
An Act passed in 1722 to put a stop to the depredations of certain
persons who frequented Epping Forest in disguise and killed the deer.
The Act was repealed in 1827.
Black Agnes.
Agnes, wife of the Earl of March, who was distinguished for her gallant
defence of Dunbar against the English in 1339.
Black Assize.
The assize held at Oxford in July, 1577, when an outbreak of typhus
fever carried off three hundred persons, including many of the officials
and jurors attending the court.
Black Bands.
A body of German soldiers enlisted by Louis XII of France, and employed
in the Italian wars of the sixteenth century.
Black Bartholomew.
St. Bartholomew’s Day, 1662, is so called. On this day all beneficed
clergy had to declare their assent to the Book of Common Prayer, in
accordance with the provisions of the Act of Uniformity, and those who
refused were deprived of their livings. Over two thousand Presbyterians
were ejected from their parishes on this day.
Black Book.
The name given to the report of the committee appointed by Henry VIII
in 1535 to investigate the condition of the monasteries.
Black Box.
A box said to have contained the marriage certificate of Charles II and
Lucy Waters, the mother of the Duke of Monmouth, and to have been stolen
from her. Had the documents it purported to contain been forthcoming,
they would, of course, have established the Duke’s right to the throne
in the place of James II.
Black Brunswickers.
A regiment of horse raised by the Duke of Brunswick in 1809, to avenge
the death of his father who was killed at Auerstadt. They wore black
uniforms, and their badge was the skull and crossbones.
Black Circuit.
A circuit held in Cape Colony in 1812 to investigate the charges brought
by the London Missionary Society against the Dutch settlers of
ill-treating their native slaves. The results showed that the charges
were grossly exaggerated, but a great deal of illfeeling was engendered
amongst the Dutch by the thoroughness with which the English Government
went into the matter.
Black Clergy.
The members of the regular monastic orders in Russia. They alone take
any part in the ecclesiastical administration.
Black Death.
A pestilence which passed over Europe, and finally reached England in
1349. Its ravages were terrible, amounting, according to some
chroniclers, to a third of the population. It probably had its origin in
the East, and is thought by some to have been the disease now known as
the Bubonic Plague.
Black Eagle, Order of the.
The most coveted of the Prussian orders of knighthood. It was founded by
Frederick I in 1701, to commemorate his assumption of the royal title.
It is limited to thirty members, who must be of noble descent for four
generations.
Black Flags.
Rebel Chinese in the service of the King of Annam, who were the most
dangerous opponents of the French during the Tong-King war.
Black Friday.
May 11, 1866, on which day the failure of Overend and Gurney was
announced. There was a terrible panic in financial circles, and, among
other extraordinary measures, it was found necessary to suspend the Bank
Charter.
Black Hole of Calcutta.
The dungeon in which some 200 English prisoners were confined when
Calcutta was taken by Surabjah Dowlah, the Subahdar of Bengal, in 1756.
Only twenty-three survived the night.
Black Monday.
The name given to an Irish rising in County Dublin in 1209, which nearly
exterminated the newly-established English Colony.
Black Popes.
The chiefs of the Society of Jesus, during the Papacy of Pius IX, were
known by this name, their power in Rome being almost as great as that
of the Pope himself.
Black Prince.
The sobriquet of Edward, Prince of Wales, son of Edward III, from the
black armour which he habitually wore.
Black Rent.
An annual stipend paid by the English settlers within the Pale to the
Irish chieftains on their borders, in consideration of their restraining
their followers from raiding the English settlements. Black Rent was
first paid about 1410.
Black Sea Treaty.
A treaty signed in London in 1871 by the signatories of the Treaty of
Paris of 1856. In 1870, Russia, taking advantage of the Franco-German
war, issued a note, declaring herself no longer bound by the clause of
that treaty neutralising the Black Sea. A conference was called in
London to consider the situation, and by the resulting treaty the clause
in question was abrogated. The conference also took the opportunity to
prolong the existence of the Danubian Commission for a further period of
twelve years.
Black Thursday.
Thursday, February 6, 1851, is so called in Victoria. A very dry summer
was followed by the simultaneous outbreak on that day of numerous bush
fires, which did enormous damage, and even threatened Melbourne, coming
within a few miles of the town.
Black Watch.
A body of Highlanders, enrolled in 1725 for the purpose of maintaining
order in the Highlands. They were made a regular line regiment in 1739,
and numbered the 43rd. They later became the 42nd, and are now the Royal
Highlanders (Black Watch).
Black Wednesday.
_See_ Victorian Deadlocks.
Blackbirders.
The name given to the vessels engaged in the Kanaka labour traffic in
the Southern Seas.
Blackburn Riots.
A series of disturbances by the Lancashire weavers, in 1826, as a
protest against the introduction of machinery. A large amount of damage
was done before the rioters were dispersed by the troops.
Blanche Nef.
The White Ship, in which Prince William, son of Henry I, was returning
to England, after the close of Henry’s second French war. The vessel
struck coming out of Barfleur harbour, and only one of the crew escaped.
Blancs d’Espagne.
The name given to the ultra-royalist party in France who support the
claim of the Spanish Bourbons, represented by General de Bourbon, to the
throne of France.
Bland Act.
An Act of Congress passed in 1878, at the instance of Mr. Bland,
providing for the coinage of silver dollars of 412½ grains Troy, which
should be legal tender in payment of all debts and dues. The State was
bound to purchase not more than four or less than two million dollars
worth of silver per annum, to be so coined, and the profit in the
operation was to belong to the State.
Blanketeers.
The name given to a party of Lancashire operatives, who, in the famine
year of 1817, started to march to London, to demand assistance from
Parliament. Each man carried provisions and a blanket, hence the name.
Blanquillos.
The supporters of Oribe in Uruguay, in 1835. Their opponents, who
followed Rivera, were called Colorados.
Bloc, Le.
The name given to the general body of Republicans, of various shades of
opinion, in the French Chamber, who supported the Ministry of M. Combes
in 1902-3.
Bloemfontein Conference.
A conference of delegates from Cape Colony, Natal, and the Orange Free
State, which met in 1895 to discuss the question of a Customs Union.
Natal could not come to terms, and withdrew, but an arrangement was
arrived at by the other two parties, and a convention tariff, with five
per cent. ad valorem duties, was accepted by both Governments.
Bloemfontein Convention.
A convention signed in 1854, by which the British Government abolished
the Orange River Sovereignty, and recognized the independence of the
Orange Free State. Among the provisions of the treaty were clauses
binding the British Government to make no treaties with native chiefs
likely to be detrimental to the interests of the Republic, forbidding
slavery, and providing for extradition.
Blood and Iron, The Man of.
A nickname of Prince Bismarck, taken from a phrase in a speech delivered
by him in 1862.
Blood Bath of Stockholm.
The execution, by Christian II, the last king of United Scandinavia, of
many of the leaders of the Swedish National party, in 1520, after the
capture of Stockholm. In the same year Gustavus Vasa raised the standard
of revolt, and the war which followed led to the final expulsion of the
Danes, and the crowning of Gustavus as King of Sweden.
Blood Council.
A tribunal established in 1567 by Alva in the Netherlands, to deal with
the crime of treason. It had no charter, or official authority of any
kind, but it practically usurped the functions of the Council of State,
and exercised jurisdiction over all municipal bodies and provincial
parliaments. It was abolished in 1576. It was also known as the Council
of Troubles.
Blood, Man of.
Charles I was so called by the Puritan party, because he waged war on
the Parliament.
Blood Tax.
The sixteenth section of the Crimes Act of 1882, by which it was
proposed to levy compensation for murder or maiming on the ratepayers of
the district where the crime was committed, was so called by the Irish
members.
Blood-red Wedding.
_See_ Noces Vermeilles.
Blood-wite.
Another name for _Were-gild_.
Bloods, The Five.
The five chief septs or clans in Ireland in the middle ages. They were
the O’Neills of Ulster, the O’Briens of Thomond, the O’Connors of
Connaught, the O’Lachlans of Meath, and the M’Murroughs of Leinster.
Bloody Assize of Eperies.
A tribunal established by Leopold I of Austria after the defeat of the
Turks at Vienna and their expulsion from Hungary. It was intended to
remove those who had been concerned in Tököli’s rising, and many nobles
and magnates were brought before this tribunal on the charge of being in
correspondence with Tököli. Most of those accused were condemned, and so
numerous were the victims that thirty executioners were employed.
Bloody Assizes.
The Assizes held by Jeffreys on the Western Circuit, shortly after the
suppression of Monmouth’s rebellion in 1686. Hundreds of Monmouth’s
adherents were sent to the scaffold, or transported as slaves to the
West Indies.
Bloody Statute.
The Act of the Six Articles, passed in the reign of Henry VIII, was so
called.
Blue-Grass State.
A name sometimes given to the State of Kentucky, U.S.A., which contains
the famous blue grass region, celebrated for the raising of horses.
Blue Laws of Connecticut.
A series of enactments said to have existed in Connecticut, circ. 1640,
by which the death penalty was inflicted for idolatry, blasphemy,
witchcraft, theft, perjury, adultery and disobedience to parents. It is,
however, generally believed that they are apocryphal.
Bluff King Hal.
The nickname of Henry VIII.
Board of Control.
The board established by Pitt’s India Act in 1784 to supervise the
Government of India by the East India Company.
Bobbing John.
The sobriquet of the Earl of Mar, the Jacobite leader in the rebellion
of 1815. He was a notorious trimmer.
Bocca di Leone.
The name given to the opening in the wall of the antechamber in the
Doge’s Palace at Venice, into which anonymous accusations were dropped.
Bocland.
In Saxon times, land held by grant or by charter from the public lands.
Body of Liberties.
The first constitution of Massachusetts, prepared by Nathaniel Ward. It
provided that all public officials should be chosen annually by the
freemen of the plantation. Each town also elected deputies to a general
assembly, to serve for one year. Each town had the right to make its
own by bye-laws. It further provided for the annual election of judges,
and for equal justice to all, including foreigners, while severe
penalties were enacted for witchcraft and blasphemy.
Bomba.
The sobriquet of Ferdinand II, King of the Two Sicilies (1759-1825).
Bombay, Cession of.
Bombay was ceded to Charles II by Portugal in 1662, as part of the dowry
of the Infanta of Portugal. In 1668 it was surrendered by the Crown to
the East India Company.
Bonaght.
_See_ Coyne and Livery.
Bond.
_See_ Afrikander.
Bond-Blaine Convention.
An agreement between Newfoundland and the United States, signed in 1890,
providing for the continuance of the _modus vivendi_ affording
reciprocal fishing rights to the two countries.
Bondevenner.
The Peasants’ Friends, a political party formed in Denmark in 1845, in
the interests of the rural population.
Bondi.
In Norse times, the freeholders or owners of Odal land.
Book of Rates.
A table of unauthorized import duties issued by Cecil, Earl of
Salisbury, in 1608, after the decision in the Crown’s favour in Bates’
case. In 1610 the Commons declared these impositions illegal.
Book of Sports.
A declaration of James I in 1618, as to the sports which might lawfully
be indulged in on Sundays after Divine Service. Dancing, archery,
maypoles, leaping were permitted; bear-baiting was forbidden. None,
however, might take part unless they had been to church.
Booth’s Conspiracy.
A conspiracy headed by John Wilkes Booth, at the end of the American
Civil War, having for its object the assassination of the President,
Vice-President, and some others. President Lincoln was shot by Booth on
April 14, 1865, and on the same date Seward, the Secretary of State, was
wounded by Payne, another of the conspirators. The conspirators were
brought to trial, and four of them hanged, the others being sentenced to
various terms of imprisonment.
Border Laws.
A code of laws framed in 1249 by a commission composed of twelve English
and twelve Scottish knights. They dealt with the surrender of fugitives
crossing the border, and provided for the trial of border raiders by
special courts, held under the joint authority of the two nations.
Border States.
Before the American Civil War, this name was applied to the States
bordering on the free states, namely, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
Kentucky, and Missouri.
Borough English, Custom of.
An old system of land tenure, still existing in certain ancient
boroughs, whereby real estate passes to the youngest son.
Boston Massacre.
A small affray in Boston in 1770, in which the troops fired on the
rioters, and a few persons were killed. Captain Preston, who commanded
the troops, was tried and acquitted.
Boston Port Act.
An Act passed in 1774, closing the Custom House and Port of Boston. It
was passed as a measure of retaliation for the action of the inhabitants
in preventing the importation of tea by the East India Company free of
the English duty.
Boston Tea Riots.
In December, 1773, on the arrival of the tea-ships of the East India
Company, bringing duty-free tea, the ships were boarded by a party of
men disguised as Red Indians, who threw the tea into the harbour. The
result of this action was the passing of the Boston Port Act.
Botany Bay.
A small inlet in the coast of New South Wales, where the first convict
establishment was formed in 1787. The penal settlement was removed to
Port Jackson in the following year, but the name was constantly used,
generically, for the convict settlements in Australia.
Boulangists.
The supporters of General Boulanger, who obtained a brief popularity in
France in 1886, largely owing to the army reforms he introduced while
Minister of War. He gradually, however, attracted to his standard the
reactionary parties, who hoped that he would destroy Parliamentary
Government. He quickly obtained a large following in the country, rather
by denunciation of Parliamentary abuses than by the advocacy of any
definite policy, and in 1888 he was elected for three Departments. At
this period he might have overturned the Government, but shrank from the
decisive step, and from that time his influence began to wane. He left
France to escape prosecution, and his following quickly dwindled away,
until in 1890, it was found desirable to dissolve the Boulangist
committee. Boulanger committed suicide in Brussels in 1891.
Bounty, Mutiny of the.
A mutiny on board H.M.S. Bounty, Captain Bligh, headed by a master’s
mate named Christian, in 1790. The mutineers made first for Tahiti, but
eventually settled on Pitcairn Island, where they founded a community
whose descendants still inhabit the island. Pitcairn Island was taken
under British protection in 1839.
Boustrapa.
A nickname of Napoleon III, compounded of the first syllables of
Boulogne, Strasbourg, and Paris, the scenes of his two unsuccessful and
one successful _coups d’état_, in 1840, 1836, and 1851 respectively.
Bow Street Runners.
Eight famous police officers, attached to Bow Street Police Court, who
were appointed about 1805. The most famous of them was Townsend. They
were also known as the “Robin Redbreasts” from their red waistcoats.
Boxers.
A Chinese Secret Society, whose principal object is the expulsion from
China of Europeans, and especially of missionaries. They have met with
considerable sympathy in Court circles, and their outrages in 1900 led
to a joint European expedition. Their rising was suppressed for a time,
but the agitation is seething, and may break out again at any time.
Boy Popes.
This title is given to John XII, who was elected Pope in 956, at the age
of eighteen, and Benedict IX, who was Pope from 1033 to 1044, having
been chosen at the age of ten.
Boyars.
In early Russian history, the large landowners, under the authority of
the great princes who ruled the various Principalities into which Russia
was divided.
Boycotting.
One of the weapons employed by the Irish Land League, in its campaign
against the landlords. It consists in ostracizing the person aimed at,
and forbidding any one to deal with or work for him, or supply his
wants. Its first victim was Captain Boycott, the agent of the Earl of
Erne in 1880, and from his name the word is derived.
Boys.
The name given by Walpole to the party of young Whigs, under William
Pitt, who acted with the “Patriots” in 1733.
Braemar Gathering.
_See_ Hunting of Braemar.
Brahmins.
The highest or priestly caste among the Hindus.
Brahmo Somaj.
A Hindu sect, founded in 1830 by Rammohun Roy. Its tenets are
monotheistic, rejecting the numerous gods of the Hindu Pantheon, and
adoring Brahma as the supreme deity. Its adherents ignore all caste
distinctions.
Brandy Nan.
Queen Anne was so called by the Londoners.
Bras de Fer.
The sobriquet of Baldwin, first Count of Flanders.
Bras Droit du Cardinal.
A nickname of François du Tremblay, the familiar of Cardinal Richelieu.
He was also called the _Alter Ego_ of Richelieu, and _l’Eminence Grise_.
Brass Band, The Pope’s.
A band of agitators in Ireland, under the leadership of John Sadleir,
who stumped the country in opposition to the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill
in 1851.
Brave des Braves, Le Plus.
The sobriquet of Marshal Ney, conferred on him by Napoleon during the
Russian campaign of 1812.
Bread and Cheese War.
A peasant revolt in Kemmerland and Friesland in 1491, caused by the
exaction of the Ruytergeld, notwithstanding the enormous price of bread.
Bread Riots.
A series of disturbances in various parts of England, in 1816, caused
by the high prices of food-stuffs, due to the bad harvest and the
cessation of the Great War. In many places it was necessary to call out
the military to disperse the rioters.
Breda, Compromise of.
The agreement between the Catholic and Protestant nobles of the
Netherlands to agitate for the exclusion of the Inquisition. It was
signed at Breda in 1566, and from it originated the Society of the
_Gueux_.
Breda, Declaration of.
A manifesto issued by Charles II, in 1660, after the retirement of
Richard Cromwell. By this instrument he promised a general amnesty,
liberty of conscience, the settlement by Parliament of the various
claims to forfeited estates, and payment of all arrears due to the army,
subject always to such advice as might subsequently be tendered him by
Parliament.
Breda, Peace of.
Three treaties signed by England with Holland, France and Denmark
respectively in 1667, after the naval war with Holland, in which de
Witte had succeeded in penetrating to Sheerness. By the treaty with
Holland, each country retained her conquests, England thus securing New
York and New Jersey, and Holland, Surinam. By the treaty with France,
England acquired St. Kitts, Antigua and Montserrat, and restored to
France Nova Scotia and Cayenne. By that with Denmark, the latter power
reserved her right to the Orkneys.
Brehon Law.
The Irish Law which prevailed throughout Ireland after the conquest by
Henry II, excepting within the Pale. It was abolished in the reign of
James I.
Breslau, Treaty of.
A treaty between Prussia and Austria, signed in 1742, after Frederick’s
victory at Chotusitz. Austria ceded Silesia to Prussia.
Brétigny, Peace of.
A treaty, signed in 1360, four years after the battle of Poitiers,
between Edward III and the Dauphin Charles. By it France surrendered to
England, Gascony, Guienne, and Poitou, Saintonge, Périgord, Limoges and
other counties in the south, Montreuil, Ponthieu and Calais in the
north, freed from all feudal claims. England surrendered her claim to
the French crown, and to all sovereignty in Normandy, Touraine, Anjou,
Maine, Brittany and Flanders, and agreed to release King John on payment
of a ransom of three million gold pieces.
Breton Club.
A revolutionary club formed in Paris in the early days of the
Revolution. Its founders were certain Breton deputies, and among its
members were many who were afterwards prominent Jacobins, amongst others
Robespierre.
Bretts and Scots, Laws of the.
The code of laws under which the Celtic inhabitants of Scotland were
governed, up to the thirteenth century. This code was abolished by an
edict of Edward I, when he conquered Scotland in 1305.
Bretwalda.
Under the Saxon Heptarchy, the sovereign of one of the seven kingdoms
was often acknowledged as the leader of the Federation, under the title
of Bretwalda.
Brewer of Ghent.
James van Arteveldt, the leader of the Burgher party in Flanders in
1338, was so called.
Bridal of Norwich.
A conspiracy against William I, entered into at the bridal feast of
Ralph of Gwader, Earl of Norfolk, and Emma, sister of the Earl of
Hereford. The two earls, with Waltheof, Earl of Nottingham, designed to
depose William and divide the kingdom between them. Waltheof seems to
have repented, and confessed the plot to Lanfranc. The conspiracy was at
once suppressed, Waltheof executed, and Hereford imprisoned for life,
while Ralph escaped to Brittany.
Bride of the Sea.
Venice was so called, in allusion to the annual ceremony of the Marriage
of the Adriatic.
Brig-bot.
In Anglo-Saxon times, a tax levied on freemen for the repair of bridges.
Brigham, Treaty of.
A treaty between England and Scotland signed in 1290, by which a
marriage was arranged between the Maid of Norway, heiress to the
Scottish throne, and the son of Edward I. It was agreed that the two
kingdoms, though under one crown, should remain separate, each under its
own laws. England was not to call on Scotland for military aid, and no
appeal was to lie from the Scotch to the English courts. The death of
the Maid of Norway, however, rendered the stipulations of this treaty
null and void.
Bright Clauses.
The clauses in the Irish Land Act of 1870, dealing with the sale of land
to tenants are so called, John Bright having for many years advocated
State aid in the creation of a peasant proprietary in Ireland.
Brilliant Madman.
Charles XII of Sweden is so called.
Brissotins.
The followers of Brissot, one of the leaders of the Gironde, during the
French Revolution. The name fell into disuse, as the party became merged
in the Girondins.
Bristol Riots.
A riot in Bristol in 1831, consequent upon the rejection of the Reform
Bill by the House of Lords. The Recorder of Bristol, Sir Charles
Wetherell, was mobbed on his entrance into the city, and the rioters
seized the town hall. The weakness of the authorities left the disorder
unchecked for two days, but at the last the military were called out and
the disturbance suppressed.
British Empire League.
An association formed in 1896 to carry on the work of the Imperial
Federation League, in educating the nation to an understanding of the
needs of the Empire. The Duke of Devonshire was the first president.
Broad-bottomed Administration.
Pelham’s Ministry as reconstructed in 1744 was so called, because it
contained members representing every shade of Whig opinion, and even a
certain admixture of Toryism.
Brömsebro, Treaty of.
A treaty between Sweden and Denmark, signed in 1645, by which Denmark
surrendered Jämtland, Hejealand and Halland, and granted to Swedish
vessels exemption from the payment of Sound Dues.
Brother Jonathan.
The nickname of the American nation.
Brothers, Battle of the.
The name given to the battle of Fontenay, June 25, 841, at which Charles
the Bald and Louis the German, sons of Louis le Debonaire, totally
defeated their brother Lothair.
Brownists.
A dissenting sect, who seceded from the Church in 1582. They objected to
general church government, and claimed for each congregation the right
to regulate its own worship. They may be considered the forerunners of
the Independents.
Brunnen, League of.
_See_ Perpetual League.
Brussels Conference, 1874.
A conference of the Powers held in Brussels in 1874, at the suggestion
of the Russian Government, to consider the usages of war. Great Britain
entered the conference with many reservations, declining to send a
plenipotentiary, and no changes of any importance were agreed to.
Brussels Conference, 1876.
A conference of the Powers held at Brussels in 1876, at which an
International Association was formed for the purpose of exploring and
civilizing Central Africa. This association was the germ of the Congo
Free State.
Brussels Convention.
A convention signed by the sugar-producing countries in 1902, by which
the contracting parties undertook that in the event of any
sugar-producing country declining to abolish bounties, they would
prohibit the importation of sugar from such country, or impose
countervailing duties.
Brussels, Union of.
An agreement, signed in 1517 by certain Catholic noblemen of the
Netherlands, to unite for the purpose of expelling the Spanish garrison,
while at the same time maintaining the Catholic religion, and the
sovereignty of the king.
Buccaneers.
An association of sea-rovers formed about 1525, to harry the Spanish
possessions in South America, and prey upon their commerce. They were of
various nationalities, but chiefly English and French, and their most
famous leaders were Montbars, known as the Exterminator, and Henry
Morgan, afterwards Sir Henry, and Deputy-Governor of Jamaica. Under the
latter leader they crossed the Isthmus and sacked the city of Panama in
1671, and for years they paralyzed the Spanish trade, both in the
Caribbean Sea and in the Pacific. They ceased to exist as an
association early in the eighteenth century, but some of them continued
a career of indiscriminate piracy for many years longer. They were
called by the French Flibustiers.
Bucharest, Treaty of.
A treaty, signed by Russia and Turkey in 1812, after the war which began
in 1806, and ended in the defeat of the Turks by Kutusoff in the later
year. Turkey by this treaty surrendered all her territory north of the
Pruth.
Buckeye State.
The popular name of the State of Ohio, U.S.A., from the number of
buckeye-trees found within its borders.
Budchaz, Treaty of.
A treaty between Poland and Turkey, signed in 1670, by which Poland
surrendered the Ukraine, and agreed to pay an annual tribute of 20,000
ducats.
Bulgarian Atrocities.
A rising of the Mohammedan inhabitants of Bulgaria, assisted by the
Bashi-Bazouks, or Turkish Irregulars, against the Christians in 1876.
Thousands of Christians were massacred, and horrible cruelties
perpetrated, though it is held by some authorities that the stories told
were grossly exaggerated. Turkey refused redress, and Russia
consequently declared war in the following year.
Bulls, Papal.
_See_ Adrian, Ausculta Fili, Clericis Laicos, Cum ex Apostolatus, Decet
Romanum, Demarcation, Deposition, Dominus ac Redemptor, Exsurge Domine.
Golden, Greater, In Coena Domini, In Eminenti, Ineffabilis Deus, Inter
Gravissimas, Lesser, Regimen Militantis, Unam Sanctam, Unigenitus, Vox
in Excelso.
Bundesrath.
The assembly of representatives of the twenty-two states forming the
North German Confederation.
Bundschuh.
A peasant revolt in Germany in 1502.
Burgage.
The tenure by which burgesses of towns held their lands. It was similar
to socage.
Burgfrieden.
A confederation of the cities of the Rhine, formed for commercial
purposes, circ. 1255.
Burgher Senate.
A council of six members, established at the Cape in 1796, after the
capture of that Colony by the English. Its duties were to advise the
Governor in matters of internal administration. It was abolished in
1828.
Burgos, Laws of.
A code of laws regulating the employment of Indian labour in the
Spanish-American Colonies, promulgated at Burgos in 1572.
Burgundians.
_See_ Armagnacs.
Burlaw.
_See_ Jedburgh Justice.
Burning of Frendraught.
A feud between the Crichtons of Frendraught and the Gordons of Huntly
having been temporarily adjusted, the Gordons escorted the Crichtons
home. The Gordon party, including Lord Aboyne, Huntly’s heir, were
entertained for the night by the Crichtons, and during the night the
tower in which they were sleeping was burnt to the ground. The fire was
believed to be incendiary, but the crime was not brought home to the
Crichtons.
Burnt Candlemas.
The name given to the march of Edward III into Scotland in 1355. He
burnt every building, and laid waste the country for a distance of
twenty miles from the coast.
Burr’s Conspiracy.
A plot initiated by Aaron Burr and Harman Blennerhassett in 1805, to
free Mexico from Spanish rule, and unite it into an independent empire
with some of the Western American States. Burr was arrested and tried
for treason in Kentucky, and again in Virginia in 1807, but was on both
occasions acquitted.
Burschenschaft.
A club of German students who had fought in the Napoleonic wars, founded
at Jena in 1815. It was suspected of revolutionary tendencies, and was
dissolved by the Prussian Government in 1819.
Butcher, The.
The Duke of Cumberland was so called by the Scots, on account of his
cruelties after the battle of Culloden in 1746.
Bye Plot.
A conspiracy in 1603, under the leadership of George Brooke and Markham,
to unite the Roman Catholics and Puritans in an attempt to secure
toleration for the extremists of both classes. Their idea was to seize
James I, and hold him to ransom. At the same period a plot to overthrow
Cecil was entered into by Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord Cobham, the Duke of
Northumberland and others, known as the Main Plot. These plots were
betrayed to Cecil by the Jesuits, one of whom named Watson had been
concerned in them, and the ringleaders were arrested. Watson and another
were executed, Raleigh imprisoned, and the others pardoned.
Bywoners.
Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State who had no land of their
own, and lived by working on the farms of others, or sometimes as small
tenant farmers.
C
Ça Ira.
A revolutionary song, highly popular in Paris, composed in 1789 for the
Fête de la Fédération.
Caaba.
The sacred shrine of Mecca, the holy place of the whole Moslem world. A
Mohammedan who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca is known as a Hadji.
Cabal.
The Ministry which succeeded to power when Charles II dismissed
Clarendon in 1667. Its members were Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham,
Ashley (afterwards Lord Shaftesbury), and Lauderdale, the initials of
these names forming the word “Cabal.”
Cabal, American.
A low intrigue in the American Congress in 1777, directed against
Washington. Those concerned in it were mostly representatives of the
Northern States, and its object was the advancement of Lee. It is also
known as Conway’s cabal, from the name of its leader.
Cabanagem.
The rebels who overran the Amazon Valley and other parts of Brazil, in
1833 to 1836, after the abdication of Pedro I. The name means cottagers.
Cabinet Noir.
A department of the French Post Office, established in the reign of
Louis XIV, for the surveillance of the correspondence of suspected
persons. Napoleon III availed himself of its services freely, and it was
only abolished in 1886.
Cabochiens.
The guild of butchers in Paris, so called from Caboche, one of their
leaders. They were bitter opponents of the Armagnacs, and were guilty of
terrible atrocities on the persons of their political foes. The
corporation was dissolved in 1416.
Cacos.
A political party in Guatemala in 1820, who favoured complete separation
from Spain, and the establishment of a republic. The word means
pickpockets.
Cadan, Treaty of.
A treaty between the leading German Princes, signed in 1534, by which
Ferdinand of Austria acknowledged Ulrich, Duke of Würtemberg, with the
proviso that Würtemberg was to be considered an _arrière-fief_ of the
Empire, dependent on Austria. The League of Schmalkald acknowledged
Ferdinand as King of the Romans, but stipulated that in future that
dignity should only be conferred by the unanimous vote of the electors.
Caen, Treaty of.
A treaty between William Rufus and Robert of Normandy, signed in 1091,
by which Robert renounced all claim to England, and recognized William’s
feudal rights over certain Norman Seigneuries, among others those of
Cherbourg, Fécamp, and Mont St. Michel.
Cahiers de Doléances.
The instructions given to the Deputies of the States-General, as to the
grievances to be laid before the King in 1789. The principal demands
were: equality in punishments; suppression of the sale of public
offices; suppression of seignorial judicial powers, of the Gabelle, the
corvée and the militia ballot; religious toleration, and amelioration of
the condition of the parish clergy.
Caisse de Poissy.
A species of bank, established at Poissy, near Paris, under municipal
control, to secure the proper provisioning of the Paris market. It
proceeded by way of loan to the butchers, charging interest on the
advances and a percentage on all meat purchased, and as none could enter
the markets without a certificate of the payment of this fee, it had
absolute control of the trade. It was abolished in 1791, re-established
in 1810, under the control of the Prefect of the Seine, and finally
abolished in 1858.
Calatrava, Knights of.
A Spanish order of religious chivalry, established by Papal Bull in
1164. The rules of the order were similar to those of the Benedictines,
the knights being bound, among other vows, to perpetual celibacy. The
object of the order was the expulsion of the Mussulman power from Spain.
Calendar Act.
An Act passed in 1751 substituting the Gregorian for the Julian
Calendar. With the exception of Sweden and Russia, England was the last
country to adopt the new style.
Calixtines.
The more moderate of the two sections into which the Hussite sect was
divided after the death of Jerome of Prague. The more fanatical section
was that of John Zisca, known as the Taborites.
Calvin, Institutes of.
The profession of the Calvinistic doctrine, issued by Calvin, 1535.
Camarilla.
The name given to the favourites and admirers of Ferdinand VII of Spain,
after his restoration in 1814. They were in reality the rulers of Spain,
distributing justice and office throughout the kingdom to the highest
bidder.
Cambray, League of.
An alliance between Louis XII and the Emperor Maximilian, formed in
1508, for the partition of the Venetian provinces between the
contracting parties. The Venetian armies were forced to retreat before
the allies, but the partition was never carried into effect, and the
league was dissolved by the Treaty of Noyon in 1516.
Cambray, Treaty of.
A treaty between Charles V and Francis I, signed in 1529, confirming the
main provisions of the Treaty of Madrid (1526), which had been found
unacceptable by the French notables. This treaty is generally known as
the Paix des Dames.
Camel-driver of Mecca.
A nickname of Mohammed.
Cameronians.
An extreme section of the Covenanters who followed Richard Cameron in
1679. They were afterwards (1689) formed into a regiment, and served
against the Jacobites in the Highlands in that year. The regiment later
became the Twenty-sixth Regiment of the Line, and is now known as the
Cameronians (Scottish Rifles).
Camissards.
The Protestants of the Cevennes, who rose in rebellion in 1702. The
revolt was suppressed in 1704.
Camorra.
A secret society in Naples, which for many years terrorized the kingdom.
An attempt was made by Francis II of Naples to suppress the society, and
many of its members were deported, but the remainder joined the
Garibaldians and were largely instrumental in the expulsion of the
Bourbons in 1867.
Campo Formio, Treaty of.
A treaty between France and Austria, following Napoleon’s successful
campaign in Northern Italy, signed in 1797. France secured possession of
the Belgian provinces, the left bank of the Rhine, and the Ionian
Islands, and recognized the Cisalpine Republic, formed out of the
territories conquered from Austria, Venice and the Pope. Austria
resigned the city of Venice, and her eastern provinces, Dalmatia, Friuli
and Istria.
Canada Act.
An Act passed in 1774, giving a constitution to Canada.
Canada, Confederation of.
An Act was passed in 1867, for the purpose of confederating the two
provinces of Canada with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and providing a
federal constitution. Provision was also made for the admission into the
Dominion of such other of the North American Colonies as might desire to
come in. Under this clause Manitoba joined the confederation in 1870,
British Columbia and Vancouver’s Island in 1871, and Prince Edward’s
Island in 1873. The Hudson’s Bay Territory having been acquired in 1869,
the whole of the British possessions in North America are now included
in the Dominion, with the exception of Newfoundland.
Canadian Fisheries Question.
A long-standing dispute between Canada and the United States, dating
from the treaty of peace of 1783, when American fishermen were given
fishing rights on the coast of Canada. The Americans claimed that this
right was inalienable, England that it was forfeited during the second
war. In 1818 a _modus vivendi_ was arrived at by which the Americans
were allowed to fish outside the three mile limit, but friction still
continued till 1871, when a treaty was signed at Washington giving the
two countries reciprocal rights. Canada maintained that the right to
fish off the American coast was of little value to her, and in 1877 a
commission was appointed, which met at Halifax, to assess the damage she
had sustained. The award of the commission was that Canada and
Newfoundland should receive five and a half million dollars as
compensation.
Canons of 1604.
The new canons, issued by Convocation in 1604, contained regulations for
the conduct of public worship. They excommunicated all who attacked the
Prayer Book, the Thirty-nine Articles, or the Supremacy of the Crown, as
also those who seceded from the Church. They were, however, held by the
Courts at Westminster to be binding only on the clergy.
Canons of 1640.
A series of seventeen canons, supplementary to the canons of 1604,
issued by Convocation, and confirmed by the King, under the Great Seal.
Parliament subsequently passed a measure giving them full canonical
validity, but not the force of an Act of Parliament.
Canossa.
The castle of Matilda of Tuscany, where Gregory VII was staying when the
Emperor Henry IV made a pilgrimage to Italy, in 1077, to make his
submission to the Pope, who had excommunicated him. He was treated in
the most humiliating fashion by Gregory, who left him for three days in
the snow in the courtyard of the Castle before consenting to receive
him. It is to this incident that Bismarck referred in the famous phrase,
“Nach Canossa gehen wir nicht” (We are not going to Canossa), uttered in
the Reichstag in 1872, during the Kulturkampf.
Canossa Bill.
A bill introduced into the Prussian Landstag in 1880, making great
concessions to the Catholic clergy, but maintaining the supremacy of the
State over the Church.
Capitularies.
The edicts of the early French Kings were so called.
Capitulations.
Arrangements by which foreigners are subject to the jurisdiction of
their own consuls, and not to the tribunals of the country in which they
are residing. These are generally in force in Mohammedan and other
non-Christian states, where Western ideas of justice are non-existent.
Caporal Violet.
Napoleon was so called by his adherents in France, during his exile in
Elba in 1814-15.
Cappel, Treaty of.
A treaty between the five Catholic Cantons of Switzerland, and Zurich
and Berne, following the defeat of the two latter States at Cappel, and
the death of Zwingli, in 1531. Zurich and Berne consented to tolerate
Catholicism in their dominions.
Carbonari.
A Sicilian secret society, utilized by the Bourbons of Naples against
Murat. The name was afterwards adopted by the ultra-royalist secret
societies in France, which conspired against Louis XVIII in 1822.
Carlisle, Statute of.
A statute of 1307, enacting that no Papal instruments should be
permitted in England.
Carlists.
The supporters of Don Carlos and his branch of the Bourbon family, as
claimants to the Spanish throne. Don Carlos was the younger brother of
Ferdinand VII, and under the constitution of 1812 should have inherited
the throne, as the female succession was excluded. In 1832, however,
Ferdinand, who had already, by a decree which he subsequently withdrew,
readmitted the principle of female succession, finally settled the crown
on his daughter Isabella, who succeeded in the same year, with her
mother, Christina, as regent. Don Carlos was exiled, but various risings
have since taken place in support of his claims, chiefly in the Biscayan
provinces, including the first Carlist War, which lasted till 1840.
Carlowitz, Treaty of.
A treaty signed in 1699, by which Turkey finally surrendered the various
provinces of the Ottoman Empire conquered by the Allies during the wars
of the preceding forty years. Austria retained Transylvania, Sclavonia
and Hungary; Poland took Podolia and part of the Ukraine; Russia, her
conquests on the Black Sea, and Venice, the Morea.
Carlsbad, Congress of.
A congress of Austria, Prussia, and other German States, held in 1819,
to consider measures for dealing with the growth of democratic movement
in Germany. It issued the Carlsbad Decrees.
Carlsbad Decrees.
A series of proposals submitted to the German Diet by the Congress of
Carlsbad, and accepted by the Diet. They included the establishment of a
strict censorship of the press, and the suppression of the
Burschenschaft.
Carmagnole.
The favourite song of the Paris mob, during the Reign of Terror
(1792-3.)
Carmelites.
A religious order, originally formed by associating the hermits living
on the slopes of Mount Carmel about 1156. They were recognized as a
monastic order by Honorius III, in 1224. They were driven out of
Palestine by the Saracens in 1238, and were made a mendicant order by
Innocent IV. in 1247.
Carolina, Proprietaries of.
The original landowners of Carolina, to whom the Colony was granted by
Charles II in 1643. They were eight in number, among whom were
Clarendon, Monk and Lord Craven. Their authority was practically
absolute, Charles exacting a bare allegiance to the English crown.
Caroline Islands Arbitration.
In 1885 Germany endeavoured to establish a protectorate over the
Caroline Islands, which Spain claimed to have been under her dominion
since the seventeenth century. Germany disputed this claim and occupied
Yap. Matters became very serious, and the two countries were on the
verge of war. It was, however, finally agreed to submit the question to
the Pope, who gave his award in favour of Spain, as to the sovereignty,
but allowed to Germany free trading and colonizing rights.
Caroline Ordinance.
A codification of the criminal laws of Germany, issued by the Diet of
Ratisbon, in the name of Charles V, in 1532.
Carpet-baggers.
Northerners who came into the Southern States after the Civil War, many
of them with the object of getting returned for Congress by the aid of
the negro vote. The name was intended to convey the idea that they had
no stake or interest in the country, beyond the baggage they carried
with them.
Cartel System.
A system prevailing in Germany and Austria, by which a ring of sugar
manufacturers, aided by heavy import duties, combine to obtain very
high prices for all sugar consumed at home. They utilize the large
profits thus secured to ship the surplus sugar below cost price, thus
securing for themselves all unprotected markets.
Cartellpartie.
A party in the German Reichstag, formed in 1888, by a coalition of the
Conservatives and the old National Liberals, and pledged to support
Bismarck.
Carthage of the North.
Lübeck was so called when the head of the Hanseatic League.
Carthusians.
A monastic order, with very severe rules, founded by St. Bruno, during
the papacy of Urban II in 1086. The order was recognized by Alexander
III in 1176. Their most famous convent is that of La Grande Chartreuse,
near Grenoble. The Charterhouse, in London, was formerly one of their
monasteries.
Carucage.
A tax imposed by the early English Kings on every carucate or hundred
acres of land. It was first levied by Richard I in 1198, when the tax
amounted to five shillings on the carucate.
Cas Royaux.
All cases in which the sovereign and his interests were concerned were
so called in France. By the “_Etablissements_” of Louis IX, all such
cases were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of feudal courts, and could
be decided only by the Royal Bailiffs, or by the Parlement.
Casenbrotspel.
_See_ Bread and Cheese War.
Casket Letters.
A series of letters and sonnets, purporting to be written by Mary Queen
of Scots to Bothwell, and left behind by him when he fled from Edinburgh
in 1567. If genuine, these letters undoubtedly prove Mary to have been
privy to the murder of Darnley.
Cassini Convention.
A secret treaty between Russia and China, supposed to have been signed
in 1896, by which Russia secured certain definite rights over Manchuria.
She has since made several attempts to replace this agreement by a
public treaty, but has been prevented by the opposition of the Powers.
Russia’s present position in Manchuria, therefore, is correct so far as
China is concerned, but has not been acknowledged by the other Powers.
Castle Council.
A council established in Dublin by Lord Wentworth in 1633.
Catamaran Expedition.
An unsuccessful attempt on the part of the British to burn Napoleon’s
flotilla in Boulogne harbour in 1804.
Câteau Cambrésis, Treaty of.
A treaty between Henry II of France and the Emperor, Charles V. Both
parties agreed to return the conquests made by them during the war of
the previous eight years, and bound themselves to maintain the Catholic
faith throughout their dominions.
Catégories de La Bourdonnaye.
A list of Imperialists whose proscription he advocated, drawn up by La
Bourdonnaye, in 1815. They were divided into three categories.
Catherine, Conspiracy of.
A conspiracy entered into by Catherine II of Russia, with the Orloffs
and Princess Dashkoff, to remove her husband, Peter III, and ascend the
throne as his successor. She succeeded in getting herself recognized by
the nobles as Catherine II, and in 1762 the conspirators, headed by one
of the Orloffs, strangled Peter III at a house near Peterhof.
Catholic Association.
An association formed by Daniel O’Connell in 1823, to press the claims
of the Irish Catholics upon Parliament. It held entirely aloof from all
the secret societies, and endeavoured to keep strictly with the limits
of the law, but in 1825 it had become so powerful that an Act was passed
declaring it an illegal association.
Catholic Emancipation Act.
An Act passed in 1829, substituting for the old formula, which included
abjuration, a new form of oath, and thus enabling Catholics to sit in
either House. It opened to them all offices under the state, except
those of Regent, Lord Chancellor, Viceroy of Ireland, and Royal
Commissioner of the General Assembly of Scotland. The Roman Catholic
Church was to remain a dissenting church, and restrictions were placed
on the immigration of members of the monastic orders, and especially of
Jesuits, while the use of ecclesiastical titles was forbidden.
Catholic League (France).
_See_ League.