Transcriber’s Notes
Text printed in italics and bold face in the source document
have been transcribed between _underscores_ and =equal signs=
respectively. Small capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS.
This book on woodworking contains notes and working drawings for the
content in Correlated courses in woodwork and mechanical drawing by
the same author, available at Project Gutenberg.
More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.
[Illustration: FOREST INTERIOR. SEQUOIA NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA.]
ESSENTIALS OF
WOODWORKING
A TEXTBOOK FOR SCHOOLS
BY
IRA SAMUEL GRIFFITH, A. B.
ILLUSTRATIONS BY
EDWIN VICTOR LAWRENCE
[Illustration]
THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS
PEORIA, ILLINOIS
Copyright
Ira Samuel Griffith
1908
PREFACE.
An experience, somewhat extended, in teaching academic branches of
learning as well as woodworking, has convinced the author that the most
effective teaching of woodworking can be accomplished only when its
content is made a subject of as diligent study as is that of the other
and older branches. Such a study necessitates the possession, by the
student, of a text-book.
The selection of a suitable text is made difficult because of the fact
that tool processes are usually treated in connection either with
models or exercises. It is hardly to be expected that any one set of
models or of exercises, tho they may be of very great value, will fill
the needs of varying local school conditions. The production of a
text-book which shall deal with tool processes in a general way without
reference to any particular set of models or exercises is the author’s
aim. It is believed that such a text will prove suitable wherever the
essentials of woodworking shall be taught, whether in grammar, high
school or college, and whatever the system of instruction.
A few words as to the manner of using the text seem advisable. It
is not expected that the book will be studied chapter by chapter,
consecutively, as are the elementary texts in mathematics or science.
Rather, it is to be studied topically. To illustrate: A class is to
make a model, project, exercise, or whatever we may choose to call
it, which will require a knowledge of certain tools and the manner of
using them. At a period previous to their intended use the numbers of
the sections of the text relating to these tools and their uses, or
the page numbers, should be given the student. Previous to the period
in which these tools are to be used he should be required to study the
sections so marked. The recitation upon the assigned text should take
place at the beginning of the period following that of the assignment,
and may be conducted in a manner quite similar to that of academic
branches.
This should prepare the way and make intelligible the “demonstration”
which may be given in connection with the recitation or at its close.
If as thoro a knowledge of the matter studied is insisted upon in the
recitation as is insisted upon in the academic classroom, there need be
but little excuse for ignorance on the part of the pupil when he begins
his work or at any subsequent time.
Acknowledgement is due the Department of Forestry, Washington, D. C.,
for the use of material contained in the chapter on Woods and for the
prints from which many of the half-tones relating to forestry, were
produced.
INTRODUCTION.
CARE OF TOOLS AND BENCH.
It is important that a beginner should become impressed with the
importance of keeping his tools in the best condition. Good results can
be obtained only when tools are kept sharp and clean, and used only
for the purposes for which they are made. Tools properly sharpened and
properly used permit one to work easily as well as accurately. When it
becomes necessary for the worker to use undue strength because of the
dullness of his tools, “troubles” begin to accumulate and the “pleasure
of doing” is soon changed to despair.
Orderliness and carefulness, with knowledge and patience are sure to
bring good results; just as a lack of them will bring failure.
The bench top must not be marked with pencil or scratched
unnecessarily. Chisel boards are to protect the top from any accidental
cuts and should always be used for that purpose. Bench tops that are
scraped and shellaced or oiled every other year ought to remain in as
good condition as when new except for the few accidental marks too deep
to remove, which the thoughtless boy may have inflicted.
Good workers take pride in keeping their benches in good order. Tools
that are not in immediate use should be placed in their racks that
they may not be injured or cause injury to the worker. At the close of
the period the bright parts of tools that have come in contact with
perspiring hands should be wiped off with oily waste kept for that
purpose. All tools should then be put away in their proper places and
the top of the bench brushed clean.
The beginner should also understand that, important as are the results
he may be able to produce in wood, more serious results are being
produced in himself in the habits he is forming. Carefulness, neatness,
accuracy, ability to economize in time and material, ability to “think”
and “to do” because of the thinking, honesty, orderliness--these are
some of the more important results that are oftentimes overlooked.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
Care of tools and bench 3
PART I.
TOOLS AND ELEMENTARY PROCESSES.
CHAPTER I.--Laying-out Tools; Their Uses 9
1. The rule; 2. The try-square; 3. The framing square; 4. The
bevel; 5. The marking gage; 6. The pencil gage; 7. Splitting
gage; 8. The mortise gage; 9. The Dividers; 10. Pencil and
knife.
CHAPTER II.--Saws 20
11. Saws; 12. The crosscut saw; 13. The rip-saw; 14. The
back-saw; 15. The turning saw; 16. The compass saw; 17. Saw
filing.
CHAPTER III.--Planes 28
18. Planes; 19. Setting the blade; 20. Adjustment of the iron;
21. The jack-plane; 22. The smooth-plane; 23. The jointer; 24.
The block-plane; 25. The wooden plane; 26. Planing first surface
true; 27. Face side, face edge; 28. Planing first edge square
with face side; 29. Finishing the second edge; 30. Finishing the
second side; 31. Planing the first end square; 32. Finishing the
second end; 33. End planing with the shooting board; 34. Rules
for planing to dimensions; 35. Planing a chamfer.
CHAPTER IV.--Boring Tools 46
36. Brace or bitstock; 37. Center bit; 38. The auger bit; 39.
The drill bit; The gimlet bit; 40. Countersink bit; 41. The
screwdriver bit; 42. The brad-awl; 43. Positions while boring;
44. Thru boring; 45. Boring to depth.
CHAPTER V.--Chisels and Chiseling 53
46. Chisels; 47. Horizontal paring across the grain; 48. Vertical
paring; 49. Oblique and curved line paring; 50. Paring chamfers;
51. The firmer gouge; 52. Grinding beveled edge tools; 53.
Whetting beveled edge tools; 54. Oilstones; 55. Sharpening the
chisel; 56. Sharpening plane-irons; 57. To tell whether a tool is
sharp or not.
CHAPTER VI.--Form Work; Modeling 65
58. Making a cylinder; 59. The spokeshave; 60. Making curved
edges; 61. Modeling.
CHAPTER VII.--1. Laying Out Duplicate Parts; 2. Scraping and
Sandpapering; 3. Fastening Parts 70
62. Laying out duplicate parts; 63. Scraping; 64. Sandpapering;
65. Hammers; 66. Nails; 67. Nailing; 68. Nailset; 69. Withdrawing
nails; 70. The screwdriver; 71. Screws; 72. Fastening with
screws; 73. Glue; 74. Clamps; 75. Gluing.
PART II.
SIMPLE JOINERY.
CHAPTER VIII.--Type Forms 84
76. Joinery; 77. General directions for joinery; 78. Dado; 79.
Directions for dado; 80. Cross-lap joint; 81. Directions for
cross-lap joint, _first method_; 82. Directions for cross-lap
joint, _second method_; 83. Glue joint; 84. Directions for glue
joint; 85. Doweling; 86. Directions for doweling; 87. Keyed
tenon-and-mortise; 88. Directions for key; 89. Directions for
tenon; 90. Directions for mortise; 91. Directions for mortise in
the tenon; 92. Blind mortise-and-tenon; 93. Directions for tenon;
94. Directions for laying out mortise; 95. Directions for cutting
mortise, _first method_; 96. Directions for cutting mortise,
_second method_; 97. Miter joint; 98. Directions for miter joint;
99. Dovetail joint; 100. Directions for dovetail joint.
CHAPTER IX.--Elementary Cabinet Work 105
101. Combination plane; 102. Drawer construction; 103. Directions
for rabbeted corner; 104. Directions for dovetail corner; 105.
Directions for drawer; 106. Paneling; 107. Cutting grooves; 108.
Haunched mortise-and-tenon; 109. Rabbeting; 110. Fitting a door;
111. Hinging a door; 112. Locks.
PART III.
WOOD AND WOOD FINISHING.
CHAPTER X.--Wood 116
113. Structure; 114. Growth; 115. Respiration and transpiration;
116. Moisture; 117. Shrinkage; 118. Weight; 119. Other
properties; 120. Grain.
CHAPTER XI.--Lumbering and Milling 126
121. Lumbering; 122. Milling; 123. Quarter sawing; 124. Waste;
125. Lumber transportation; 126. Seasoning; 127. Lumber terms and
measurements.
CHAPTER XII.--Common Woods 138
128. Classification. _Coniferous woods_; 129. Cedar; 130.
Cypress; 131. Pine; 132. Spruce. _Broad-leaved woods_; 133. Ash;
134. Basswood; 135. Birch; 136. Butternut; 137. Cherry; 138.
Chestnut; 139. Elm; 140. Gum; 141. Hickory; 142. Maple; 143. Oak;
144. Sycamore; 145. Tulip wood; 146. Walnut.
CHAPTER XIII.--Wood Finishing 150
147. Wood finishes; 148. Brushes; 149. General directions for
using brush; 150. Fillers; 151. Filling with paste filler; 152.
Stains; 153. Waxing; 154. Varnishes; 155. Shellac; 156. Shellac
finishes; 157. Oil or copal varnishes; 158. Flowing copal
varnish; 159. Typical finishes for coarse-grained woods; 160.
Patching; 161. Painting.
APPENDIX I.--Additional Joints 164
APPENDIX II.--Wood Finishing Recipes 171
1. Wax; 2. Water stains; 3. Oil stains; 4. Spirit stains.
APPENDIX III.--Working Drawings 173
1. Instruments; 2. Conventions; 3. Projection and relation of
views; 4. Letters and figures; 5. Constructions; 6. Order of
procedure.
PART I.
TOOLS AND ELEMENTARY PROCESSES.
CHAPTER I.
LAYING-OUT TOOLS--THEIR USES.
=1. The Rule.=--The foot rule is used as a unit of measurement in
woodwork. The rule ordinarily used is called a two-foot rule because of
its length. Such rules are hinged so as to fold once or twice and are
usually made of boxwood or maple. The divisions along the outer edges,
the edges opposite the center hinge, are inches, halves, fourths,
eighths, and on one side sixteenths also. Fig. 1.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
The rule should not be laid flat on the surface to be measured but
should be stood on edge so that the knife point can be made to touch
the divisions on the rule and the wood at the same time. Fig. 2.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
Whenever there are several measurements to be made along a straight
line, the rule should not be raised until all are made, for with each
placing of the rule errors are likely to occur.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
The rule is used to find the middle of an edge or surface by placing it
across the piece so that the distances from the edges of the piece to
corresponding inch, or fractional marks shall be the same, Fig. 3, the
middle of the piece being at a point midway between the marks selected.
=2. The Try-square.=--The try-square may be made entirely of iron or
steel or it may have a head of wood called the beam and a blade of
steel. The blade is graduated into inches and fractions of an inch. As
all try-squares are liable to be injured by rough usage, care should be
taken not to let them drop on the bench or floor, nor should they ever
be used for prying or pounding. Fig. 4.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
The try-square is used for three purposes: First, to act as a guide for
the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across the grain at right
angles to an edge or surface; second, to test an edge or end to see
whether it is square to an adjoining surface or edge; third, to test
a piece of work to see whether it is of the same width or thickness
thruout its entire length.
Fig. 5 shows the various positions assumed in lining across a piece.
The beam should be held firmly against either the face side or the face
edge.
The face side of a piece is the broad surface which is first made true.
The face edge is the first edge which is made square to the face side
and straight. These two surfaces are usually marked in some way so that
they may be distinguished from the other surfaces. Their use is fully
explained in Chapter III.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
If the beam projects beyond the end of the wood, it should be reversed.
The knife should be inclined forward and away from the blade of the
try-square slightly. A light, firm line should be made the first time
across the piece.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
In testing edges or ends for squareness, the beam should be held, as in
lining, firmly either against the face side or the face edge. Fig. 6.
Care should be taken to test the extreme ends of the piece. Also test
at a sufficient number of points to show fully the condition of the
edge. Sliding the try-square along the edge is not objectionable if the
blade be held lightly on the surface. Under no circumstances should the
try-square be used to scrape the wood.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
In testing a piece to see whether it is of the same width or thickness
thruout its entire length, place the blade across the surface to be
tested, holding the beam lightly against the face side or face edge,
slide the try-square along the piece with the eye fixed upon the
graduations at the outer edge. Fig. 7.
=3. The Framing Square.=--Large squares of one piece of steel, called
framing squares, are used by carpenters for large and rough work. The
long arm is called the blade and the short one the tongue. Fig. 8.
In addition to the divisions into inches and fractions of an inch,
there is on the blade a board measure table and on the tongue a
brace or rafter measure table. This square will be found convenient
when “cutting up” stock, also for testing corners of large pieces of
furniture and for setting the bevel to various angles.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
=4. The Bevel.=--The bevel differs from the try-square in having a
movable blade. Fig. 9. This blade may be set at any desired angle from
0 to 180 degrees. The manner of using the bevel is similar to that of
the try-square. When adjusting, the blade should be just loose enough
to move upon the application of slight pressure.
There are various ways of setting the bevel to the required angle.
Should the triangle used in mechanical drawing be available, angles of
30 degrees, 45 degrees and 60 degrees are easily obtained by adjusting
the bevel to the sides of the required angle.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
To set the bevel to 45 degrees by means of the framing square, hold
the beam against one of the arms, Fig. 10, and move the blade so that
it shall pass through corresponding points on both blade and tongue.
Fig. 11 illustrates a method in which no other tools are needed. A line
is squared across a board having a straight edge. Equal distances are
measured from the point at which the line cuts the edge, the blade then
being made to pass through these points while the beam is held tightly
against the edge.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
For angles of 30 degrees and 60 degrees, square a knife line at right
angles to an edge. Fig. 12. Measure from the edge, along this line,
or from this line along the edge any given distance. Take twice this
distance upon the blade of the bevel and adjust so that a right
triangle is formed in which the length of the longest side shall be
twice that of the shortest.
=5. The Marking Gage.=--The gage is used for laying out lines along
the grain of the wood. It consists of a beam, Fig. 13, head, thumb
screw, and marking point or spur. The spur should be sharpened to a
knife point with a file so that it may make a fine smooth line. It
should project far enough below the beam so that the beam may be rolled
forward in such a way as to bring the spur into the board at a slight
angle, when properly marking. It should extend not less than an eighth
of an inch and in most cases three-sixteenths of an inch.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
The graduations on the beam are seldom reliable. It is safer to set
the gage with the rule by measuring the distance from the spur to the
gage block. This is done by holding the gage bottom side up in the left
hand. With the right place the end of the rule against the head. Fig.
13. After the screw has been tightened, apply the rule again to make
sure of the correctness of the setting.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
To gage the line, take the tool in the right hand, three fingers
grasping the beam, first encircling the head for narrow work, and the
thumb back, or nearly back, of the spur. Fig. 14. The head should be
kept against one or the other of the face sides. Begin at the end of
the piece which is towards you, hold the block firmly against the
piece, roll the beam forward until the spur barely touches the surface
and make a very light line. Fig. 15 illustrates the manner of raising
the spur from the wood by raising the wrist during the backward stroke.
It will be found convenient to hold the piece against the bench stop.
This steadies the piece and permits the worker to see how deep the
spur is cutting and whether the head is against the face properly.
Avoid deep lines. They are inaccurate even if straight and always
cause trouble in the making unless the grain of the wood is perfectly
straight.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
=6. The Pencil Gage.=--There are occasions when a pencil-gage marks
with sufficient accuracy and is more suitable because its point does
not cut the wood, such as in gaging for a bevel. A hole bored thru the
beam near one end, just large enough to receive a pencil snugly, will
suffice. Fig. 16.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
Fig. 17 illustrates a method frequently used by carpenters. The fingers
act as a gage head.
=7. Slitting Gage.=--A slitting gage is one in which the spur is sharp
and strong, and will cut thru soft lumber as thick as one-quarter of an
inch. The boards are cut from each side and considerable pressure is
required. Sometimes a handle like that of the plane is fastened to the
beam near the knife or spur. Fig. 18.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
[Illustration: Slitting Gage
Mortise Gage
Panel Gage For wide boards
FIG. 18.]
=8. The Mortise Gauge.=--Fig. 18 also shows a mortise gage used in
advanced work. It has two spurs, one of them adjusted by means of
the screw at the end of the beam at any desired distance from the
stationary one, so that the two sides of a mortise or tenon can be
marked at once.
=9. The Dividers.=--Dividers, Fig. 19, are used (1) in describing
circles, (2) in dividing a given space into a given number of parts,
and (3) in marking one member which is to be fitted to another
irregular member. Fig. 20 shows the manner of setting the dividers.
The thumb-screw should be released so that the legs may be moved
without much effort. When the approximate setting has been secured, use
the thumb-nut for adjusting to more accurate measurement. In describing
circles, the dividers should be held as in Fig. 21 and swung to the
right or left as is convenient. They should be leaned forward slightly
and an effort made to secure a sharp, light line. For most work the
two legs may be sharpened to points. Sometimes one is sharpened like a
knife point.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
=10. Pencil and Knife.=--Pencil lines may be used in getting out stock
from rough material and in laying out work on rough surfaces where
a knife line would not be visible. Pencil lines should be carefully
made, however. The pencil may be used also in marking bevels, curves
and in other places where the knife or gage mark would be injurious.
Otherwise, the knife and gage should be used. Pencil lines are easiest
removed from wood by means of the eraser.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
In laying out rough stock, if the first edge is sufficiently straight,
it is usual to thumb-gage for width. This is done by holding the pencil
at the end of the rule and using the thumb of the left hand as the gage
head, drawing the whole towards you with the rule acting as gage-beam.
Fig. 22.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
A straight-edge, a board with a straight edge, is often used in marking
out. Mark off the length of the piece of wood required. Mark off the
breadth at the end of the board, also mark it near what is to be the
other end of the piece. Place the straight-edge on these two marks and
draw the line. Fig. 23. The try-square should be used to mark across
the grain.