as to grasp the importance of education and scientific investigation to
every-day life. Does it occur to the {481} man who seats himself in
his car to whisk away across the country in the pursuit of ordinary
business, to pause to inquire who discovered gasoline or who invented
the gasoline-engine? Does he realize that some patient investigator in
the laboratory has made it possible for even a child to thus utilize
the forces of nature and thus shorten time and ignore space? Whence
comes the improvement of live-stock in this country? Compare the
cattle of early New England with those on modern farms. Was the little
scrubby stock of our forefathers replaced by large, sleek, well-bred
cattle through accident? No, it was by the discovery of investigators
and its practical adaptation by breeders. Compare the vineyards and
the orchards of the early history of the nation, the grains and the
grasses, or the fruits and the flowers with those of present
cultivation. What else but investigation, discovery, and adaptation
wrought the change?
My common neighbor, when your child's poor body is racked with pain and
likely to die, and the skilled surgeon places the child on the
operating-table, administers the anaesthetic to make him insensible to
pain, and with knowledge gained by investigation operates with such
skill as to save the child's life and restore him to health, are you
not ready to say that scientific investigation is a blessing to all
mankind? Whence comes this power to restore health? Is it a
dispensation from heaven? Yes, a dispensation brought about through
the patient toil and sacrifice of those zealous for the discovery of
truth. What of the knowledge that leads to the mastery of the
yellow-fever bacillus, of the typhoid germ, to the fight against
tuberculosis and other enemies of mankind? Again, it is the man in the
laboratory who is the first great cause that makes it possible for
humanity to protect itself from disease.
Could our methods of transportation by steamship, railroad, or air, our
great manufacturing processes, our vast machinery, or our scientific
agriculture exist without scientific research? Nothing touches
ordinary life with such potent force as the results of the
investigation in the laboratory. Clearly it is {482} understood by the
thoughtful that education in all of its phases is a democratic process,
and a democratic need, for its results are for everybody. Knowledge is
thus humanized, and the educated and the non-educated must co-operate
to keep the human touch.
Educational Progress.--One of the landmarks of the present century of
progress will be the perfecting of educational systems. Education is
no longer for the exclusive few, developing an aristocracy of learning
for the elevation of a single class; it has become universal. The
large number of universities throughout the world, well endowed and
well equipped, the multitudes of secondary schools, and the
universality of the primary schools, now render it possible for every
individual to become intelligent and enlightened.
But these conditions are comparatively recent, so that millions of
individuals to-day, even in the midst of great educational systems,
remain entirely unlettered. Nevertheless, the persistent effort on the
part of people everywhere to have good schools, with the best methods
of instruction, certainly must have its effect in bringing the masses
of unlearned into the realm of letters. The practical tendency of
modern education, by which discipline and culture may be given while at
the same time preparing the student for the active duties of life,
makes education more necessary for all persons and classes. The great
changes that have taken place in methods of instruction and in the
materials of scientific investigation, and the tendency to develop the
man as well as to furnish him with information, evince the masterly
progress of educational systems, and demonstrate their great worth.
_The Importance of State Education_.--So necessary has education become
to the perpetuation of free government that the states of the world
have deemed it advisable to provide on their own account a sufficient
means of education. Perpetuation of liberty can be secured only on the
basis of intellectual progress. From the time of the foundation of the
universities of Europe, kings and princes and state authorities have
{483} encouraged and developed education, but it remained for America
to begin a complete and universal free-school system. In the United
States educators persistently urge upon the people the necessity of
popular education and intelligence as the only means of securing to the
people the benefits of a free government, and other statesmen from time
to time have insisted upon the same principle. The private
institutions of America did a vast work for the education of the youth,
but proved entirely inadequate to meet the immediate demands of
universal education, and the public-school system sprang up as a
necessary means of preparation for citizenship. It found its earliest,
largest, and best scope in the North and West, and has more recently
been established in the South, and now is universal.
The grant by the United States government at the time of the formation
of the Ohio territory of lands for the support of universities led to
the provision in the act of formation of each state and territory in
the Union for the establishment of a university. Each state, since the
admission of Ohio, has provided for a state university, and the Act of
1862, which granted lands to each state in the Union for the
establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges, has also given a
great impulse to state education. In the organizing acts of some of
the newer states these two grants have been joined in one for the
upbuilding of a university combining the ideas of the two kinds of
schools. The support insured to these state institutions promises
their perpetuity. The amount of work which they have done for the
education of the masses in higher learning has been prodigious, and
they stand to-day as the greatest and most perfect monument of the
culture and learning of the Western states.
The tremendous growth of state education has increased the burden of
taxation to the extent that the question has arisen as to whether there
is not a limit to the amount people are willing to pay for public
education. If it can be shown that they receive a direct benefit in
the education of their children there {484} will be no limit within
their means to the support of both secondary schools and universities.
But there must be evidence that the expenditure is economically and
wisely administered.
The princely endowments of magnificent universities like the Leland
Stanford Junior University, the University of Chicago, Johns Hopkins
University, Harvard, Yale, and others, have not interfered with the
growth and development of state education, for it rests upon the
permanent foundation of a popular demand for institutions supported by
the contributions of the whole people for the benefit of the state at
large. State institutions based upon permanent foundations have been
zealous in obtaining the best quality of instruction, and the result is
that a youth in the rural districts may receive as good undergraduate
instruction as he can obtain in one of the older and more wealthy
private institutions, and at very little expense.
_The Printing-Press and Its Products_.--Perhaps of all of the
inventions that occurred prior to the eighteenth century, printing has
the most power in modern civilization. No other one has so continued
to expand its achievements. Becoming a necessary adjunct of modern
education, it continually extends its influence in the direct aid of
every other art, industry, or other form of human achievement. The
dissemination of knowledge through books, periodicals, and the
newspaper press has made it possible to keep alive the spirit of
learning among the people and to assure that degree of intelligence
necessary for a self-governed people.
The freedom of the press is one of the cardinal principles of progress,
for it brings into fulness the fundamental fact of freedom of
discussion advocated by the early Greeks, which was the line of
demarcation between despotism and dogmatism and the freedom of the mind
and will. In common with all human institutions, its power has
sometimes been abused. But its defect cannot be remedied by repression
or by force, but by the elevation of the thought, judgment,
intelligence, and good-will of a people by an education which causes
them to {485} demand better things. The press in recent years has been
too susceptible to commercial dominance--a power, by the way, which has
seriously affected all of our institutions. Here, as in all other
phases of progress, wealth should be a means rather than an end of
civilization.
_Public Opinion_.--Universal education in school and out, freedom of
discussion, freedom of thought and will to do are necessary to social
progress. Public opinion is an expression of the combined judgments of
many minds working in conscious or unconscious co-operation. Laws,
government, standards of right action, and the type of social order are
dependent upon it. The attempt to form a League of Nations or a Court
of International Justice depends upon the support of an intelligent
public opinion. War cannot be ended by force of arms, for that makes
more war, but by the force of mutually acquired opinion of all nations
based on good-will. Every year in the United States there are examples
of the failure of the attempt to enforce laws which are not well
supported by public opinion. Such laws are made effective by a gradual
education of those for whom they are made to the standard expressed in
the laws, or they become obsolete.
SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. Show from observations in your own neighborhood the influence of
education on social progress.
2. Imperfections of public schools and the difficulties confronting
educators.
3. Should all children in the United States be compelled to attend the
public schools?
4. What part do newspapers and periodicals play in education?
5. Relation of education to public opinion.
6. Should people who cannot read and write be permitted to vote?
7. Study athletics in your school and town to determine their
educational value.
8. Show by investigation the educational value of motion-pictures and
their misuse.
9. In what ways may social inequality be diminished?
10. Would a law compelling the reading of the Bible in public schools
make people more religious?
[1] Richardson, _Messages and Papers of the Presidents_, I, 220.
{486}
CHAPTER XXXI
WORLD ECONOMICS AND POLITICS
_Commerce and Communication_.--The nations of the world have been drawn
together in thought and involuntary co-operation by the stimulating
power of trade. The exchange of goods always leads to the exchange of
ideas. By commerce each nation may profit by the products of all
others, and thus all may enjoy the material comforts of the world. At
times some countries are deficient in the food-supply, but there has
been in recent years a sufficient world supply for all, when properly
distributed through commerce. Some countries produce goods that cannot
be produced by others, but by exchange all may receive the benefits of
everything discovered, produced, or manufactured.
Rapid and complete transportation facilities are necessary to
accomplish this. Both trade and transportation are dependent upon
rapid communication, hence the telegraph, the cable, and the wireless
have become prime necessities. The more voluminous reports of trade
relations found in printed documents, papers, and books, though they
represent a slower method of communication, are essential to world
trade, but the results of trade are found in the unity of thought, the
development of a world mind, and growing similarity of customs, habits,
usages, and ideals. Slowly there is developing a world attitude toward
life.
_Exchange of Ideas Modifies Political Organization_.--The desire for
liberty of action is universal among all people who have been assembled
in mass under co-operation. The arbitrary control by the
self-constituted authority of kings and governments without the consent
of the governed is opposed by all human associations, whether tribal,
territorial, or national. Since the world settled down to the idea of
monarchy as a necessary form of government, men have been trying to
{487} substitute other forms of government. The spread of democratic
ideas has been slowly winning the world to new methods of government.
The American Revolution was the most epoch-making event of modern
times. While the French Revolution was about to burst forth, the
example of the American colonies was fuel to the flames.
In turn, after the United States had won their freedom and were well on
their way in developing a republican government, the influence of the
radical democracy was seen in the laws and constitutions of the states,
particularly in the first half of the nineteenth century. The
Spanish-American War led to the development of democracy, not only in
Cuba and Porto Rico but in the Philippine Islands. But the planting of
democracy in the Philippines had a world influence, manifested
especially in southeastern Asia, China, Japan, and India.
_Spread of Political Ideas_.--The socialism of Karl Marx has been one
of the most universal and powerful appeals to humanity for industrial
freedom. His economic system is characterized by the enormous emphasis
placed upon labor as a factor in production. Starting from the
hypothesis that all wealth is created by labor, and limiting all labor
to the wage-earner, there is no other conclusion, if the premise be
admitted, than that the product of industry belongs to labor
exclusively. His theories gained more or less credence in Germany and
to a less extent in other countries, but they were never fully tested
until the Russian revolution in connection with the Great War. After
the downfall of Czarism, leaders of the revolution attacked and
overthrew capitalism, and instituted the Soviet government. The
proletariat came to the top, while the capitalists, nobility, and
middle classes went to the bottom. This was brought about by sudden
revolution through rapid and wild propaganda.
Strenuous efforts to propagate the Soviet doctrine and the war against
capitalism in other countries have taken place, without working a
revolution similar to that in Russia. But the International is slowly
developing a world idea among {488} laborers, with the ultimate end of
destroying the capitalistic system and making it possible for organized
wage-earners to rule the world. It is not possible here to discuss the
Marxian doctrine of socialism nor to recount what its practical
application did to Russia. Suffice it to say that the doctrine has a
fatal fallacy in supposing that wage-earners are the only class of
laborers necessary to rational economic production.
_The World War Breaks Down the Barriers of Thought_.--The Great War
brought to light many things that had been at least partially hidden to
ordinary thinking people. It revealed the national selfishness which
was manifested in the struggle for the control of trade, the extension
of territory, and the possession of the natural resources of the world.
This selfishness was even more clearly revealed when, in the Treaty of
Versailles and the formation of the League of Nations, each nation was
unwilling to make necessary sacrifice for the purpose of establishing
universal peace. They all appeared to feel the need of some
international agreement which should be permanent and each favored it,
could it first get what it wanted. Such was the power of tradition
regarding the sanctity of national life and the sacredness of national
territory and, moreover, of national prerogatives!
Nevertheless, the interchange of ideas connecting with the gruelling of
war caused change of ideas about government and developed, if not an
international mind, new modes of national thinking. The war brought
new visions of peace, and developed to a certain extent a recognition
of the rights of nations and an interest in one another's welfare.
There was an advance in the theory at least of international justice.
Also the world was shocked with the terror of war as well as its
futility and terrible waste. While national selfishness was not
eradicated, it was in a measure subdued, and a feeling of co-operation
started which eventually will result in unity of feeling, thought, and
action. The war brought into being a sentiment among the national
peoples that they will not in the future be forced into war without
their consent.
{489}
_Attempt to Form a League for Permanent Peace_.--Led by the United
States, a League of Nations was proposed which should settle all
disputes arising between nations without going to war. The United
States having suggested the plan and having helped to form the League,
finally refused to become a party to it, owing in part to the tradition
of exclusiveness from European politics--a tradition that has existed
since the foundation of the nation. Yet the United States was
suggesting a plan that it had long believed in, and a policy which it
had exercised for a hundred years with most nations. It took a
prominent part in the first peace conference called by the Czar of
Russia in 1899. The attempt to establish a permanent International
Tribunal ended in forming a permanent Court of Arbitration, which was
nothing more than an intelligence office with a body of arbitrators
composed of not more than four men from each nation, from whom nations
that had chosen to arbitrate a dispute might choose arbitrators. The
conference adjourned with the understanding that another would be
called within a few years.
The Boxer trouble in China and the war between Japan and Russia delayed
the meeting. Through the initiation of Theodore Roosevelt, of the
United States, a second Hague Conference met in 1907. Largely through
the influence of Elihu Root a permanent court was established, with the
exception that a plan for electing delegates could not be agreed upon.
It was agreed to hold another conference in 1915 to finish the work.
Thus it is seen that the League of Nations advocated by President
Wilson was born of ideas already fructifying on American soil.
McKinley, Roosevelt, John Hay, Elihu Root, Joseph H. Choate, James
Brown Scott, and other statesmen had favored an International Tribunal.
The League of Nations provided in its constitution among other things
for a World Court of Nations. In the first draft of the constitution
of the League no mention was made of a World Court. But through a
cablegram of Elihu Root to Colonel E. M. House, the latter was able to
place articles 13 {490} and 14, which provided that the League should
take measures for forming a Court of International Justice.
Subsequently the court was formed by the League, but national
selfishness came to the front and crippled the court. Article 34
originally read: "Between states which are members of the League of
Nations, the court shall have jurisdiction, and this without any
convention giving it jurisdiction to hear and determine cases of legal
nature." It was changed to read; "The jurisdiction of the court
comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters
specially provided for in treaties and conventions in force."
It is to be observed that in the original statement, either party to a
dispute could bring a case into court without the consent of the other,
thus making it a real court of justice, and in the modified law both
parties must agree to bring the case in court, thus making it a mere
tribunal of arbitration. The great powers--England, France, Italy, and
Japan--were opposed to the original draft, evidently being unwilling to
trust their disputes to a court, while the smaller nations favored the
court as provided in the original resolution. However, it was provided
that such nations who desired could sign an agreement to submit all
cases of dispute to the court with all others who similarly signed.
Nearly all of the smaller nations have so signed, and President Harding
urged the United States, though not a member of the League, to sign.
The judges of the court, eleven in all, are nominated by the old
Arbitration Court of the Hague Tribunal, and elected by the League of
Nations, the Council and Assembly voting separately. Only one judge
may be chosen from a nation, and of course every nation may not have a
judge. In cases where a dispute involves a nation which has no member
in the court, an extra judge may be appointed. The first court was
chosen from the following nations: Great Britain, France, Italy, United
States, Cuba, Switzerland, Netherlands, Denmark, Japan, and Brazil. So
the Court of International Justice is functioning in an incomplete way,
born of the spirit of {491} America, and the United States, though not
a member of the League of Nations, has a member in the court sitting in
judgment on the disputes of the nations of the world. So likewise the
League of Nations, which the United States would not join, is
functioning in an incomplete way.
_International Agreement and Progress_.--But who shall say that the
spirit of international justice has not grown more rapidly than appears
from the workings of the machinery that carries it out? Beneath the
selfish interests of nations is the international consciousness that
some way must be devised and held to for the settlement of disputes
without war; that justice between nations may be established similar to
that practised within the boundaries of a single nation.
No progress comes out of war itself, though it may force other lines of
conduct. Progress comes from other sources than war. Besides, it
brings its burdens of crime, cripples, and paupers, and its discontent
and distrust. It may hasten production and stimulate invention of
destruction, but it is not constructive and always it develops an army
of plunderers who prey upon the suffering and toil of others. These
home pirates are more destructive of civilization than poison gases or
high explosives.
_The Mutual Aid of Nations_.--In a previous chapter it was shown that
mutual aid of individuals was the beginning of society. It now is
evident that the mutual aid of nations is their salvation. As the
establishment of justice between individuals through their reactions
does not destroy their freedom nor their personalities, so the
establishment of justice among nations does not destroy their autonomy
nor infringe upon their rights. It merely insists that brutal national
selfishness shall give way to a friendly co-operation in the interest
and welfare of all nations. "A nation, like an individual, will become
greater as it cherishes a high ideal and does service and helpful acts
to its neighbors, whether great or small, and as it co-operates with
them in working toward a common end."[1] {492} Truly "righteousness
exalteth a nation," and it will become strong and noble as it seeks to
develop justice among all nations and to exercise toward them fair
dealing and friendly relations that make for peace.
_Reorganization of International Law_.--The public opinion of the
nations of the world is the only durable support of international law.
The law represents a body of principles, usages, and rules of action
regarding the rights of nations in peace and in war. As a rule nations
have a wholesome respect for international law, because they do not
wish to incur the unfriendliness and possible hatred of their fellow
nations nor the contempt and criticism of the world. This fear of open
censure has in a measure led to the baneful secret treaties, such an
important factor in European diplomacy, whose results have been
suspicion, distrust, and war. Germany is the only modern nation that
felt strong enough to defy world opinion, the laws of nations, and to
assume an entirely independent attitude. But not for long. This
attitude ended in a disastrous war, in which she lost the friendship
and respect of the world--lost treasure and trade, lives and property.
It is unfortunate that modern international law is built upon the basis
of war rather than upon the basis of peace. In this respect there has
not been much advance since the time of Grotius, the father of modern
international law. However, there has been a remarkable advance among
most nations in settling their difficulties by arbitration. This has
been accompanied by a strong desire to avoid war when possible, and a
longing for its entire abandonment. Slowly but surely public opinion
realizes not only the desire but the necessity of abandoning great
armaments and preparation for war.
But the nations cannot go to a peace basis without concerted action.
This will be brought about by growth in national righteousness and a
modification of crude patriotism and national selfishness. It is now
time to codify and revise international law on a peace basis, and new
measures adopted in accordance to the progress nations have made in
recent {493} years toward permanent peace. Such a move would lead to a
better understanding and furnish a ready guide to the Court of
International Justice and all other means whereby nations seek to
establish justice among themselves.
_The Outlook for a World State_.--If it be understood that a world
state means the abandonment of all national governments and their
absorption in a world government, then it may be asserted truly that
such is an impossibility within the range of the vision of man. Nor
would it be desirable. If by world state is meant a political league
which unites all in a co-operative group for fair dealing in regard to
trade, commerce, territory, and the command of national resources, and
in addition a world court to decide disputes between nations, such a
state is possible and desirable.
Great society is a community of groups, each with its own life to live,
its own independence to maintain, and its own service to perform. To
absorb these groups would be to disorganize society and leave the
individual helpless before the mass. For it is only within group
activity that the individual can function. So with nations, whose life
and organization must be maintained or the individual would be left
helpless before the world. But nations need each other and should
co-operate for mutual advantage. They are drawn closer each year in
finance, in trade and commerce, in principles of government and in
life. A serious injury to one is an injury to all. The future
progress of the world will not be assured until they cease their
squabbles over territory, trade, and the natural resources of the
world--not until they abandon corroding selfishness, jealousy, and
suspicion, and covenant with each other openly to keep the peace.
To accomplish this, as Mr. Walter Hines Page said: "Was there ever a
greater need than there is now for first-class minds unselfishly
working on world problems? The ablest ruling minds are engaged on
domestic tasks. There is no world-girdling intelligence at work on
government. The present order must change. It holds the Old World
still. It keeps all {494} parts of the world apart, in spite of the
friendly cohesive forces of trade and travel. It keeps back
self-government of men." These evils cannot be overcome by law, by
formula, by resolution or rule of thumb, but rather by long, patient
study, research, and work of many master-minds in co-operative
leadership, who will create a sound international public opinion. The
international mind needs entire regeneration, not dominance of the
powers.
The recent war was but a stupendous breaking with the past. It
furnished opportunity for human society to move forward in a new
adjustment on a larger and broader plan of life. Whether it will or
not depends upon the use made of the opportunity. The smashing process
was stupendous, horrible in its moment. Whether society will adapt
itself to the new conditions remains to be seen. Peace, a highly
desirable objective, is not the only consideration. There are even
more important phases of human adjustment.
SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What were the results of the first (1899) and the second (1907)
Hague Conference?
2. What is meant by "freedom of the seas"?
3. Should a commission of nations attempt to equalize the ownership
and distribution of the natural products and raw materials, such as
oil, coal, copper, etc.?
4. How did the World War make opportunity for democracy?
5. Believing that war should be abolished, how may it be done?
6. What are the dangers of extreme radicalism regarding government and
social order?
7. The status of the League of Nations and the Court of International
Justice.
8. National selfishness and the League of Nations.
9. The consolidation or co-operation of churches in your town.
10. The union of social agencies to improve social welfare.
11. Freedom of the press; freedom of speech.
12. Public opinion.
[1] Cosmos, _The Basis of Durable Peace_.
{495}
CHAPTER XXXII
THE TREND OF CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES
_The Economic Outlook_.--The natural resources of forest, mines, and
agriculture are gradually being depleted. The rapidity of movement in
the economic world, the creation of wealth by vast machinery, and the
organization of labor and industry are drawing more and more from the
wealth stored by nature in her treasure-houses. There is a strong
agitation for the conservation of these resources, but little has been
accomplished. The great business organizations are exploiting the
resources, for the making of the finished products, not with the prime
motive of adding to the material comforts and welfare of mankind, but
to make colossal fortunes under private control. While the progress of
man is marked by mastery of nature, it should also be marked by
co-operation with nature on a continued utility basis. Exploitation of
natural resources leads to conspicuous waste which may lead to want and
future deterioration.
The development of scientific agriculture largely through the influence
of the Agricultural Department at Washington and the numerous
agricultural colleges and experiment stations has done something to
preserve and increase the productivity of the soil. Scientific study
and practical experiment have given improved quality of seed, a better
grade of stock, and better quality of fruits and vegetables. They have
also given improved methods of cultivation and adaptability of crops to
the land, and thus have increased the yield per acre. The increased
use of selected fertilizers has worked to the same end. The use of a
large variety of labor-saving machines has conduced to increase the
amount of the product. But all of this improvement is small,
considering the amount that needs to be done. The population is
increasing rapidly from {496} the native stock and by immigration.
There is need for wise conservation in the use of land to prevent
economic waste and to provide for future generations. The greedy
consumers, with increasing desire for more and better things, urge,
indirectly to be sure, for larger production and greater variety of
finished products.
_The Economics of Labor_.--In complex society there are many divisions
or groups of laborers--laborers of body and laborers of mind. Every
one who is performing a legitimate service, which is sought for and
remunerative to the laborer and serviceable to the public, is a
laborer. At the base of all industry and social activity are the
industrial wage-earners, who by their toil work the mines, the
factories, the great steel and iron industries, the railroads, the
electric-power plants and other industries. Since the beginning of the
industrial revolution in the latter part of the eighteenth century,
labor has been working its way out of slavery into freedom.
As a result laborers have better wages, better conditions of life, more
of material comforts, and a higher degree of intelligence than ever
before. Yet there is much improvement needed. While the hours of
labor have been reduced in general to eight per day, the irregularity
of employment leads to unrest and frequently to great distress. There
is a growing tendency to make laborers partners in the process of
production. This does not mean that they shall take over the direction
of industry, but co-operate with the managers regarding output, quality
of goods, income, and wages, so as to give a solidarity to productive
processes and eliminate waste of time, material, and loss by strikes.
The domestic peace in industry is as important as the world peace of
nations in the economy of the world's progress. A direct interest of
the wage-earner in the management of production and in the general
income would have a tendency to equalize incomes and prevent laborers
from believing that the product of industry as well as its management
should be under their direct control. Public opinion usually favors
the {497} laborer and, while it advocates the freedom and dignity of
labor, does not favor the right of labor to exploit industry nor
concede the right to destroy. But it believes that labor organizations
should be put on the same basis as productive corporations, with equal
degree of rights, privileges, duties, and responsibilities.
_Public and Corporate Industries_.--The independent system of organized
industry so long dominant in America, known by the socialists as
capitalistic production, has become so thoroughly established that
there is no great tendency to communistic production and distribution.
There is, however, a strong tendency to limit the power of exploitation
and to control larger industries in the interest of the public.
Especially is this true in regard to what are known as public
utilities, such as transportation, lighting, telephone, and telegraph
companies, and, in fact, all companies that provide necessaries common
to the public, that must be carried on as monopolies. Public opinion
demands that such corporations, conducting their operations as special
privileges granted by the people, shall be amenable to the public so
far as conduct and income are concerned. They must be public service
companies and not public exploitation companies.
The great productive industries are supposed to conduct their business
on a competitive basis, which will determine price and income. As a
matter of fact, this is done only in a general way, and the incomes are
frequently out of proportion to the power of the consuming public to
purchase. Great industries have the power to determine the income
which they think they ought to have, and, not receiving it, may cease
to carry on their industry and may invest their capital in non-taxable
securities. While under our present system there is no way of
preventing this, it would be a great boon to the public, and a new
factor in progress, if they were willing to be content with a smaller
margin of profit and a slower accumulation of wealth. At least some
change must take place or the people of small incomes will be obliged
to give up many {498} of the comforts of life of which our boasted
civilization is proud, and gradually be reduced to the most sparing
economy, if not to poverty. The same principle might be applied to the
great institutions of trade.
_The Political Outlook_.--In our earlier history the struggle for
liberty of action was the vital phase of our democracy. To-day the
struggle is to make our ideal democracy practical. In theory ours is a
self-governed people; in practice this is not wholly true. We have the
power and the opportunity for self-government, but we are not
practising it as we might. There is a real danger that the people will
fail to assume the responsibility of self-government, until the affairs
of government are handed over to an official class of exploiters.
For instance, the free ballot is the vital factor in our government,
but there are many evidences that it is not fully exercised for the
political welfare of the country. It frequently occurs that men are
sent to Congress on a small percentage of voters. Other elective
offices meet the same fate. Certainly, more interest must be taken in
selecting the right kind of men to rule over them or the people will
barter away their liberties by indifference. Officials should be
brought to realize that they are to serve the public and it is largely
a missionary job they are seeking rather than an opportunity to exploit
the office for personal gain.
The expansive process of political society makes a larger number of
officers necessary. The people are demanding the right to do more
things by themselves, which leads to increased expenses in the cost of
administration, great bonded indebtedness, and higher taxation. It
will be necessary to curb expansion and reduce overhead charges upon
the government. This may call for the reorganization of the machinery
of government on the basis of efficiency. At least it must be shown to
the people that they have a full return for the money paid by taxation.
It is possible only by study, care, civic responsibility, and interest
in government affairs, as well as by increased intelligence, that our
democratic idealism may be put {499} into practice. Laboratory methods
in self-government are a prime necessity.
_The Equalization of Opportunity_.--Popular education is the greatest
democratic factor in existence. It is the one great institution which
recognizes that equal opportunities should be granted to everybody.
Yet it has its limits in establishing equal opportunities in the
accepted meaning of the term. There is a false idea of equality which
asserts that one man is as good as another before he has proved himself
to be so. True equality means justice to all. It does not guarantee
that equality of power, of intellect, of wealth, and social standing
shall obtain. It seeks to harmonize individual development with social
development, and to insure the individual the right to achieve
according to his capacity and industry. "The right to life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness" is a household word, but the right to
_pursue_ does not insure success.
The excessive altruism of the times has led to the protecting care of
all classes. In its extreme processes it has made the weak more
helpless. What is needed is the cultivation of individual
responsibility. Society is so great, so well organized, and does so
much that there is a tendency of the individual to shift his
responsibility to it. Society is composed of individuals, and its
quality will be determined by the character and quality of the
individual working especially for himself and generally for the good of
all. A little more of the law of the survival of the fittest would
temper our altruism to more effective service. The world is full of
voluntary altruistic and social betterment societies, making drives for
funds. They should re-examine their motives and processes and
carefully estimate what they are really accomplishing. Is the
institution they are supporting merely serving itself, or has it a
working power and a margin of profit in actual service?
_The Influence of Scientific Thought on Progress_.--The effect of
scientific discovery on material welfare has been referred to
elsewhere. It remains to determine how scientific thought changes the
attitude of the mind toward life. The laboratory {500} method
continually tests everything, and what he finds to be true the
scientist believes. He gradually ignores tradition and adheres to
those things that are shown to be true by experimentation or recorded
observation. It is true that he uses hypotheses and works the
imagination. But his whole tendency is to depart from the realm of
instinct and emotions and lay a foundation for reflective thinking.
The scientific attitude of mind influences all philosophy and all
religion. "Let us examine the facts in the case" is the attitude of
scientific thought.
The study of anthropology and sociology has, on the one hand,
discovered the natural history of man and, on the other, shown his
normal social relations. Both of these studies have co-operated with
biology to show that man has come out of the past through a process of
evolution; that all that he is individually and socially has been
attained through long ages of development. Even science, philosophy,
and religion, as well as all forms of society, have had a slow, painful
evolution. This fact causes people to re-examine their traditional
belief to see how far it corresponds to new knowledge. It has helped
men to realize on their philosophy of life and to test it out in the
light of new truth and experience. This has led the church to a
broader conception of the truth and to a more direct devotion to
service. It is becoming an agency for visualizing truth rather than an
institution of dogmatic belief. The religious traditionalists yield
slowly to the new religious liberalism. But the influence of
scientific thought has caused the church to realize on the investment
which it has been preaching these many centuries.
_The Relation of Material Comfort to Spiritual Progress_.--The material
comforts which have been multiplying in recent centuries do not insure
the highest spiritual activity. The nations that have achieved have
been forced into activity by distressing conditions. In following the
history of any nation along any line of achievement, it will be noticed
that in its darkest, most uncomfortable days, when progress seemed
least {501} in evidence, forces were in action which prepared for great
advancement. It has been so in literature, in science, in liberty, in
social order; it is so in the sum-total of the world's achievements.
Granting that the increase of material comforts, in fact, of wealth, is
a great achievement of the age, the whole story is not told until the
use of the wealth is determined. If it leads to luxurious living,
immorality, injustice, and loss of sense of duty, as in some of the
ancient nations, it will prove the downfall of Western civilization.
If the leisure and strength it offers are utilized in raising the
standard of living, of establishing higher ideals, and creating a will
to approximate them, then they will prove a blessing and an impulse to
progress. Likewise, the freedom of the mind and freedom in
governmental action furnish great opportunities for progress, but the
final result will be determined by use of such opportunities in the
creation of a higher type of mind characterized by a well-balanced
social attitude.
_The Balance of Social Forces_.--There are two sources of the origin of
social life, one arising out of the attitude of the individual toward
society, and the other arising out of the attitude of society toward
the individual. These two attitudes seem, at first view, paradoxical
in many instances, for both individual and society must survive. But
in the long run they are not antagonistic, for the good of one must be
the good of the other. The perfect balancing of the two forces would
make a perfect society. The modern social problem is to determine how
much choice shall be left to individual initiative and how much shall
be undertaken by the group.
In recent years the people have been doing more and more for themselves
through group action. The result has been a multiplication of laws,
many of them useless; the creation of a vast administrative force
increasing overhead charges, community control or operation of
industries, and the vast amount of public, especially municipal,
improvements. All of these have been of advantage to the people in
common, but have {502} greatly increased taxation until it is felt to
be a burden. Were it not for the great war debts that hang heavily on
the world, probably the increased taxation for legitimate expenses
would not have been seriously felt. But it seems certain that a halt
in excessive public expenditures will be called until a social
stock-taking ensues. At any rate, people will demand that useless
expenditures shall cease and that an ample return for the increased
taxation shall be shown in a margin of profit for social betterment. A
balance between social enterprise and individual effort must be secured.
_Restlessness Versus Happiness_.--Happiness is an active principle
arising from the satisfaction of individual desires. It does not
consist in the possession of an abundance of material things. It may
consist in the harmony of desires with the means of satisfying them.
Perhaps the "right to achieve" and the successful process of
achievement are the essential factors in true happiness. Realizing how
wealth will furnish opportunities for achievement, and how it will
furnish the luxuries of life as well as furnish an outlet for restless
activity, great energy is spent in acquiring it. Indeed, the attitude
of mind has been centred so strongly on the possession of the dollar
that this seems to be the end of pursuit rather than a means to higher
states of life. It is this wrong attitude of life that brings about so
much restlessness and so little real happiness. Only the utilization
of material wealth to develop a higher spiritual life of man and
society will insure continuous progress.
The vast accumulations of material wealth in the United States and the
wonderful provisions for material comfort are apt to obscure the vision
of real progress. Great as are the possible blessings of material
progress, it is possible that eventually they may prove a menace.
Other great civilizations have fallen because they stressed the
importance of the material life and lost sight of the great adventure
of the spirit. Will the spiritual wealth rise superior, strong, and
dominant to overcome the downward drag of material prosperity and {503}
thus be able to support the burdens of material civilization that must
be borne?
_Summary of Progress_.--If one were to review the previous pages from
the beginnings of human society to the present time, he would observe
that mind is the ruling force of all human endeavor. Its freedom of
action, its inventive power, and its will to achieve underlie every
material and social product of civilization. Its evolution through
action and reaction, from primitive instincts and emotions to the
dominance of rational planning and reflective thinking, marks the trail
of man's ascendancy over nature and the establishing of ideals of
social order. Has man individual traits, physical and mental,
sufficiently strong to stand the strain of a highly complex social
order? It will depend upon the strength of his moral character, mental
traits, and physical resistance, and whether justice among men shall
prevail, manifested in humane and sound social action. Future progress
will depend upon a clearness of vision, a unity of thought, the
standardization of the objectives of social achievement, and, moreover,
an elevation of human conduct. Truly, "without vision the people
perish."
SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. What measures are being taken to conserve the natural resources?
2. What plan would you suggest for settling the labor problem so as to
avoid strikes?
3. How shall we determine what people shall do in group activity and
what shall be left to private initiative?
4. How may our ideals of democracy be put to effective practice?
5. To what extent does future progress of the race depend upon science?
6. Is there any limit to the amount of money that may be wisely
expended for education?
7. Public measures for the promotion of health.
8. What is meant by the statement that "Without vision the people
perish"?
9. Equalization of opportunity.
{504}
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{508}
INDEX
Abelard, 354.
Aegean culture, 207.
Ages of culture, stone, bronze, 36.
Agriculture, beginning of, 93; modern, 440.
Akkadians, religion of, 155, 156.
Alexander, conquests of, 246.
Allia, battle of the, 387.
Altruism and democracy, 449-462.
America, peopling of, 185.
American Indians, culture of, 200; contributions to civilization, 201.
Anaxagoras, 218.
Anaximander, 217.
Anaximenes, 217.
Ancient society, Morgan, 4, 49,
Animals, domestication of, 92.
Anselm, 354.
Antiquity of man shown by race development, 69.
Arabian empire, 305; science and art, 307.
Arab-Moors in Spain, 305; cultures, 308-315; science and art, 307-310;
discoveries, 312; language and literature, 313; architecture, 315;
achievement, 316; decline, 317.
Arab-Moors, religious zeal of, 308.
Aristotle, 223.
Arkwright, Richard, spinning by rollers, 436.
Art, development of, 37; as a language of aesthetic ideas, 130;
representative, 131; and architecture, 368.
Aryans, coming of the, 167.
Athens, Government of, 233; character of democracy, 240; decline of,
241.
Aztecs, culture of, 190.
Babylon, 146.
Bacon, Francis, 355, 460.
Bacon, Roger, 459.
Barbarians, 281.
Beautiful, the love of, develops slowly, 135-136; a permanent social
force, 137.
Bill of Rights, 397, 413.
Boccaccio, 366.
Books, 128.
Bow and arrow, 87.
Brahe, Ticho, 463.
Bryce, James, 380.
Bunyan, John, 398.
Burial mounds, 76.
Cabrillo, 116.
Calvin, John, and the Genevan system, 386.
Canuleius, 255.
Cassius, Spurius, agrarian laws, 254.
Catholic Church, the, 384.
Catlin, North American Indians, 134.
Caves, 71.
Chaldea, early civilization of, 153-156.
Charlemagne, 349.
Chemistry, 308.
China, 166.
Christian influence on Roman legislation, 273.
Christian religion, social contacts of, 268.
Christianity and the social life, 271; service of, 279; opposes pagan
literature, 357; competition with Graeco-Roman schools, 357.
Christians come into conflict with civil authority, 273.
Church, the wealth of, 275; development of hierarchy, 270; control of
temporal power, 277; service of, 278; retrogressive attitude, 350; in
France, 402; widening influences of, 446; organizing centre, 453.
Cities, rise of free, 330-332; modern, 440.
Civilization, material evidences of, 4; fundamentals of, 10-14;
possibilities of, 15; can be estimated, 16; modern, 456.
Cleisthenes, reforms of, 237.
Cliff Dwellers, 194.
Clothing, manufacture of, 97.
Cnossos, 207.
Colonization, Greek, 246; Phoenician, 161.
Commerce and communication, 486.
Commerce, hastens progress, 362.
Common schools, 477.
Constitutional liberty in England, 393.
Copernicus, 461.
Crete, island of, 207.
Cro-Magnon, earliest ancestral type, 28; cultures of, 72.
Crompton, Samuel, spinning "mule," 436.
Crusades, causes of, 319, 320, 321; results of, 322-323; effect on
monarchy, 324; intellectual development, 325; impulse to commerce, 326;
social effect, 327.
Cultures, evidence of primitive, 28; mental development and, 32; early
European, 32.
Curie, Madame, 469.
Custom, 112, 288, 295.
Dance, the, as dramatic expression, 133; economic, religious, and
social functions of, 134.
Darius I, founded Persian Empire, 168.
Darwin, Charles, 467.
Democracy, 342, 392, 449.
Democracy in America, 418; characteristics of, 419-421; modern
political reforms of, 421-425.
Descartes, Rene, 461.
Diogenes, 218.
Discovery and invention, 362.
Duruy, Victor, 363.
Economic life, 170-180, 290, 429.
Economic outlook, 495.
Education and democracy, 477-482.
Education, universal, 475, 478; in the United States, 476.
Educational progress, 482.
Egypt, 145, 146; centre of civilization, 157-160; compared with
Babylon, 162; pyramids, 160; religion, 172; economic life, 178;
science, 182.
England, beginnings of constitutional liberty in, 345.
Environment, physical, determines the character of civilization, 141;
quality of soil, 144; climate and progress, 146; social order, 149.
Equalization of opportunities, 499.
Euphrates valley, seat of early civilization, 152.
Evidences of man's antiquity, 69; localities of, 71-78; knowledge of,
develops reflective thinking, 77.
Evolution, 467-469.
Family, the early, 109-112; Greek and Roman, 212-213; German, 286.
Feudalism, nature of, 294-299; sources of, 294, based on land tenure,
296; social classification under, 298; conditions of society under,
300; individual development under, 302; influence on world progress,
303.
Fire and its economy, 88.
Florence, 336.
Food supply, determines progress, 83-85; increased by discovery and
invention, 86.
France, free cities of, 330; rise of popular assemblies, 338; rural
communes, 338; place in modern civilization, 399; philosophers of, 403;
return to monarchy, 417; character of constitutional monarchy, 418.
France, in modern civilization, 399; philosophers of, 403.
Franklin, Benjamin, 465.
Freedom of the press, 484.
Freeman, E. A., 233.
French republic, triumph of, 417.
French Revolution, 405-407; results of, 407.
Galileo, 461.
Gabon, Francis, 469.
Geography, 312.
Germans, social life of, 283; classes of society, 285; home life, 286;
political organization, 287; social customs, 288; contribution to law,
291; judicial system, 292.
Gilbert, William, 461.
Glacial epoch, 62.
Greece, 148, 205, 210.
Greece and Rome compared, 250.
Greek equality and liberty, 229.
Greek federation, 245.
Greek government, an expanded family, 229; diversity of, 231; admits
free discussion, 231; local self-government, 232; independent community
life, 231; group selfishness, 232; city state, 239.
Greek influence on Rome, 261.
Greek life, early, 205; influence of, 213.
Greek philosophy, observation and inquiry, 215; Ionian philosophy, 216;
weakness of, 219; Eleatic philosophy, 220; Sophists, 221; Epicureans,
224; influence of, 225.
Greek social life, 241, 243.
Greeks, origin of, 209; early social life of, 208; character of
primitive, 209; family life of, 212; religion of, 212.
Guizot, 399.
Hargreaves, James, invents the spinning jenny, 436.
Harvey, William, 461.
Hebrew influence, 164.
Henry VIII and the papacy, 387; defender of the faith, 396.
Heraclitus, 218.
Hierarchy, development of, 276.
History, 312.
Holy Roman Empire, 414.
Human chronology, 59.
Humanism, 349, 364, 366; relation of language and literature to, 367;
effect on social manners, 371; relation to science and philosophy, 372;
advances the study of the classics, 373; general influence on life, 373.
Huss, John, 378, 379.
Huxley, Thomas H., 471.
Ice ages, the, 62, 64.
Incas, culture of, 187.
India, 148, 166.
Individual culture and social order, 150.
Industrial development, 429-433, 439; revolution, 437.
Industries, radiate from land as a centre, 429; early mediaeval, 430;
public, 497; corporate, 497.
Industry and civilization, 441.
International law, reorganization of, 492.
Invention, 86, 362, 436.
Iroquois, social organization of, 198.
Italian art and architecture, 368.
Italian cities, 332; popular government of, 333.
Jesuits, the, 385.
Justinian Code, 260.
Kepler, 463.
Knowledge, diffusion of, 480.
Koch, 470.
Koran, the, 304, 310.
Labor, social economics of, 496.
Lake dwellings, 78.
Lamarck, J. P., 467.
Land, use of, determines social life, 145.
Language, origin of, 121; a social function, 123; development of,
126-129; an instrument of culture, 129.
Latin language and literature, 261.
League for permanent peace, 489-492
Licinian laws, 256.
Lister, 469, 470.
Locke, John, 398.
Lombard League, 337.
Louis XIV, the divine right of kings, 400.
Luther, Martin, and the German Reformation, 382-385.
Lycurgus, reforms of, 244.
Lysander, 241.
Magdalenian cultures, 72.
Man, origin of, 57; primitive home of, 66, antiquity of, 73-70; and
nature, 141; not a slave to environment, 149.
Manorial system, 430.
Manuscripts, discovery of, 364.
Marxian socialism in Russia, 427.
Maya race, 192.
Medicine, 308.
Medontidae, 234.
Men of genius, 33.
Mesopotamia, 154.
Metals, discovery and use of, 100.
Metaphysics, 310.
Mexico, 146.
Michael Angelo, 370.
Milton, John, 398.
Minoan civilization, 207.
Monarchy, a stage of progress in Europe, 344.
Monarchy versus democracy, 392.
Mongolian race, 167.
Montesquieu, 404.
Morgan, Lewis H., beginning of civilization, 4; classification of
social development, 49.
Morton, William, T. G., 470.
Mound builders, 197.
Music, as language, 131; as a socializing factor, 133, 137.
Mutual aid, 120; of nations, 491.
Napier, John, 463.
Napoleon Bonaparte, 417.
Nationality and race, 444.
Nature, aspects of, determine types of social life, 147.
Neanderthal man, 29, 65.
Newton, Sir Isaac, 463.
Nile, valley, seat of early civilization, 152.
Nobility, the French, 400.
Occam, William of, 379.
Oriental civilization, character of, 170; war for conquest and plunder,
171; religious belief, 171-174; social condition, 175; social
organization, 176-178; economic life, 178-180; writing, 181; science,
182; contribution to world progress, 184.
Parliament, rebukes King James I, 396; declaration of, 397.
Pasteur, Louis, 469, 470.
Peloponnesian War, 241.
People, the condition of, in France, 401.
Pericles, age of, 247.
Petrarch, 365, 366.
Philosophy, Ionian, 216; Eleatic, 220; sophist, 221; stoic, 225;
sceptic, 225; influence of Greek on civilization, 226, 228.
Phoenicians, the, become great navigators, 161; colonization by, 161.
Physical needs, efforts to satisfy, 82-85.
Picture writing, 126.
Pithecanthropus erectus, 29.
Plato, 222.
Political ideas, spread of, 486-488.
Political liberty in XVIII century. [Transcriber's note: no page number
in source]
Polygenesis, monogenesis, 66.
Popular government, expense of, 328, 414.
Power manufacture, 437.
Pre-historic human types, 63, 65, 66.
Pre-historic man, types of, 28,
Pre-historic time, 60-61.
Primitive man, social life of, 31, 32; brain capacity of, 29.
Progress and individual development, 23; and race development, 22;
influence of heredity on, 24; influence of environment on, 25; race
interactions and, 26; early cultural evidence of, 32; mutations in, 33;
data of, 34; increased by the implements used, 35; revival of,
throughout Europe, 348; and revival of learning, 372-373.
Progress, evidence of, 456.
Public opinion, 485.
Pueblo Indians, culture of, 194; social life, 195; secret societies,
196.
Pythagoras, 219.
Race and language, 124.
Races, cause of decline, 201, 202.
Racial characters, 70.
Recounting human progress, methods of 37-52; economic development,
39-40.
Reform measures in England, 415.
Reformation, the, character of, 375; events leading to, 376-380; causes
of, 380-382; far-reaching results of, 388-391.
Religion and social order, 113-116.
Religious toleration, growth of, 447.
Renaissance, the, 349, 370.
Republicanism, spread of, 425.
Research, foundations of, 472; educational process of, 479.
Revival of learning, 364.
River and glacial drift, 74.
Roebuck, John, the blast furnace, 436.
Roman civil organization, 258.
Roman empire, and its decline, 264.
Roman government, 258; law, 259; imperialism, 267.
Roman social life, 264.
Rome a dominant city, 257; development of government, 258.
Rome, political organization, 252; struggle for liberty, 243; social
conditions, 255; invasion of the Gauls, 255; Agrarian laws, 254, 256;
plebeians and patricians, 256; optimates, 256; influence on world
civilization, 266.
Rousseau, 404.
Savonarola, 380.
Scholastic philosophy, 353.
Schools, cathedral and monastic, 356; Graeco-Roman, 357.
Science, in Egypt, 182; in Spain, 306; nature of, 307, 458; and
democracy, 464, 465.
Scientific classification, 460; men, 465; progress, 470; investigation,
trend of, 473.
Scientific methods, 459.
Scientific research, 463.
Semites, 160.
Shakespeare, 398.
Shell mounds, 73.
Shelters, primitive, 99.
Social conditions at the beginning of the Christian era, 269.
Social contacts of the Christian religion, 268.
Social development, 13, 23, 49, 104, 114, 347, 443.
Social evolution, depends on variation, 347; character of, 443.
Social forces, balance of, 501.
Social groups, interrelation of, 454.
Social life, 31, 133, 145, 147, 171, 178-180, 208, 241, 243, 247, 255,
258, 283, 285, 289, 298, 300, 327, 371.
Social life of primitive man, 31, 32; development of social order,
41-45; intellectual character of, 47; religious and moral condition of,
46, 47; character of, 108; moral status of, 117.
Social opportunities, 455.
Social order, 8, 41, 122, 149, 150, 176-178, 193, 196, 444, 445.
Social organization, 145, 176-178, 210, 250-252, 432, 433, 444.
Social unrest, 502.
Society, 5, 175, 205, 255, 256, 268-273, 285, 301, 316, 443, 445, 446,
450, 451, 452.
Society, complexity of modern, 452.
Socrates, 221.
Solon, constitution of, 235.
Spain, attempts at popular government in, 341.
Sparta, domination of, 241; character of Spartan state, 242.
Spencer, Herbert, 471.
Spiritual progress and material comfort, 500.
State education, 482.
States-general, 341.
Struggle for existence develops the individual and the race, 106.
Summary of progress, 503.
Switzerland, democracy in cantons, 342.
Symonds, J. A., 366.
Teutonic liberty, 281; influence of, 282, 291, 292; laws, 291.
Theodosian Code, 260.
Toltecs, 192.
Towns, in the Middle Ages, 329.
Trade,434.
Trade and its social Influence, 104.
Transportation, 102.
Tylor, E. B., Primitive Culture, 114.
Tyndall, John, 471.
Unity of the human race, 66.
Universities, mediaeval, 475; English, 476; German, 476; American, 476;
endowed, 484.
Universities, rise of, 360; nature of, 361; failure in scientific
methods, 361.
Venice, 335.
Village community, 44.
Village sites, 77.
Voltaire, 404.
Waldenses, 378.
Warfare and social progress, 119.
Watt, James, power manufacture, 436.
Weissman, A., 467.
Western civilisation, important factors in its foundation, 268.
Whitney, Ely, the cotton gin, 436.
Wissler, Clark, culture areas, 26; trade, 104.
World state, 493.
World war, breaks the barriers of thought, 488.
World War, iconoclastic effects of, 427.
Writing, 181.
Wyclif, John, and the English reformation, 378, 386.
Zeno, 220.
Zenophanes, 220.
Zwingli and the reformation in Switzerland, 385.
Transcriber's notes:
In the Table of Contents, the "PART III" division precedes Chapter VII,
but in the body of the book it precedes Chapter VIII.
Page numbers in this book are enclosed in curly braces. For its Index,
a page number has been placed only at the start of that section. In
the HTML version of this book, page numbers are placed in the left
margin.
Footnote numbers are enclosed in square brackets. Each chapter's
footnotes have been renumbered sequentially and moved to the end of
that chapter.
End of Project Gutenberg's History of Human Society, by Frank W. Blackmar