METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS
_Difficulty of Measuring Progress_.--In its larger generalization,
progress may move in a straight line, but it has such a variety of
expression and so many tributary causes that it is difficult to reduce
it to any classification. Owing to the difficulties that attend an
attempt to recite all of the details of human progress, philosophers
and historians have approached the subject from various sides, each
seeking to make, by means of higher generalizations, a clear course of
reasoning through the labyrinth of materials. By adopting certain
methods of marking off periods of existence and pointing out the
landmarks of civilization, they have been able to estimate more truly
the development of the race. Civilization cannot be readily measured
by time; indeed, the time interval in history is of little value save
to mark order and continuity. It has in itself no real significance;
it is merely an arbitrary division whose importance is greatly
exaggerated. But while civilization is a continuous quantity, and
cannot be readily marked off into periods without destroying its
movement, it is necessary to make the attempt, especially in the study
of ancient or prehistoric society; for any method which groups and
classifies facts in logical order is helpful to the study of human
progress.
_Progress May Be Measured by the Implements Used_.--A very common
method, based largely upon the researches of archaeologists, is to
divide human society into four great periods, or ages, marked by the
progress of man in the use of implements. The first of these periods
is called the Stone Age, and embraces the time when man used stone for
all {36} purposes in the industrial arts so far as they had been
developed. For convenience this period has been further divided into
the age of ancient or unpolished implements and the age of modern or
polished implements. The former includes the period when rude
implements were chipped out of flint or other hard stone, without much
idea of symmetry and beauty, and with no attempt to perfect or beautify
them by smoothing and polishing their rough surface.
In the second period man learned to fashion more perfectly the
implements, and in some instances to polish them to a high degree.
Although the divisions are very general and very imperfect, they map
out the great prehistoric era of man; but they must be considered as
irregular, on account of the fact that the Stone Era of man occurred at
different times in different tribes. Thus the inhabitants of North
America were in the Stone Age less than two centuries ago, while some
of the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands are in the Stone Age during
the present century. It is quite remarkable that the use of stone
implements was universal to all tribes and nations at some period of
their existence.
After the long use of stone, man gradually became acquainted with some
of the metals, and subsequently discovered the method of combining
copper with tin and other alloys to form bronze, which material, to a
large extent, added to the implements already in use. The Bronze Age
is the most hypothetical of all these divisions, as it does not appear
to have been as universal as the Stone, on account of the difficulty of
obtaining metals. The use of copper by the Indians of the Lake
Superior region was a very marked epoch in their development, and
corresponds to the Bronze Age of other nations, although their
advancement in other particulars appears to be less than that of other
tribes of European origin which used bronze freely. Bronze implements
have been found in great plenty in Scandinavia and Peru, and to a
limited extent in North America. They certainly mark a stage of
progress in advance of that of the inhabitants of the Stone Age.
Bronze {37} was the chief metal for implements throughout the early
civilization of Europe.
Following the age of bronze is the Iron Age, in which the advancement
of man is especially marked. The bronze implements were at first
supplemented in their use by those of iron. But gradually iron
implements superseded the bronze. The Iron Age still is with us.
Possibly it has not yet reached its highest point. Considering the
great structures built of iron, and the excessive use of iron in
machinery, implements, and furniture, it is easy to realize that we are
yet in this great period. Though we continue to use stone more than
the ancients and more bronze for decoration and ornament than they, yet
both are subordinate to the use of iron. General as the above
classification is, it helps in an indefinite way to give us a central
idea of progress and to mark off, somewhat indefinitely, periods of
development.
_The Development of Art_.--Utility was the great purpose underlying the
foundation of the industrial arts. The stone axe, or celt, was first
made for a distinct service, but, in order to perfect its usefulness,
its lines became more perfect and its surface more highly polished. So
we might say for the spear-head, the knife, or the olla. Artistic
lines and decorative beauty always followed the purpose of use. This
could be applied to all of the products of man's invention to transform
parts of nature to his use. On account of the durability of form, the
attempt to trace the course of civilization by means of the development
of the fine arts has met with much success. Though the idea of beauty
is not essential to the preservation of man or to the making of the
state, it has exerted a great influence in individual-building and in
society-building. In our higher emotional natures aesthetic ideas have
ruled with imperial sway.
But primitive ideas of beauty appear to us very crude, and even
repulsive. The adornment of person with bright though rudely colored
garments, the free use of paint on the person, and the promiscuous use
of jewelry, as {38} practised by the primitive peoples, present a great
contrast to modern usage. Yet it is easy to trace the changes in
custom and, moreover, to determine the origin of present customs. So
also in representative art, the rude sketch of an elephant or a buffalo
on ivory or stone and the finished picture by a Raphael are widely
separated in genius and execution, but there is a logical connection
between the two found in the slowly evolving human activities. The
rude figure of a god moulded roughly from clay and the lifelike model
by an Angelo have the same relations to man in his different states.
The same comparison may be made between the low, monotonous moaning of
the savage and the rapturous music of a Patti, or between the beating
of the tom-tom and the lofty strains of a Mozart.
_Progress Is Estimated by Economic Stages_.--The progress of man is
more clearly represented by the successive economic stages of his life.
Thus we have first the _primal nomadic_ period, in which man was a
wanderer, subsisting on roots and berries, and with no definite social
organization. This period, like all primary periods, is largely
hypothetical. Having learned to capture game and fish, he entered what
might be called the _fisher-hunter_ stage, although he was still a
nomad, and rapidly spread over a large part of the earth's surface,
wandering from forest to forest and from stream to stream, searching
for the means of subsistence and clothing.
When man learned to domesticate animals he made a great step forward
and entered what is known as the _pastoral_ period, in which his chief
occupation was the care of flocks and herds. This contributed much to
his material support and quickened his social and intellectual
movement. After a time, when he remained in one place a sufficient
time to harvest a short crop, he began agriculture in a tentative way,
while his chief concern was yet with flocks and herds. He soon became
permanently settled, and learned more fully the art of agriculture, and
then entered the permanent _agricultural_ stage. It was during this
period that he made the most rapid advances in {39} the industrial arts
and in social order. This led to more densely populated communities,
with permanent homes and the necessary development of law and
government.
As the products of industry increased men began to exchange "the
relatively superfluous for the relatively necessary," and trade in the
form of barter became a permanent custom. This led to the use of money
and a more extended system of exchange, and man entered the
_commercial_ era. This gave him a wider intercourse with surrounding
tribes and nations, and brought about a greater diversity of ideas.
The excessive demand for exchangeable goods, the accumulation of
wealth, and the enlarged capacity for enjoyment centred the activities
of life in industry, and man entered the _industrial_ stage. At first
he employed hand power for manufacturing goods, but soon he changed to
power manufacture, brought about by discovery and invention. Water and
steam were now applied to turn machinery, and the new conditions of
production changed the whole industrial life. A revolution in
industrial society caused an immediate shifting of social life.
Classes of laborers in the great industrial army became prominent, and
production was carried on in a gigantic way. We are still in this
industrial world, and as electricity comes to the aid of steam we may
be prepared for even greater changes in the future than we have
witnessed in the past.[1]
In thus presenting the course of civilization by the different periods
of economic life, we must keep the mind free from conventional ideas.
For, while the general course of economic progress is well indicated,
there was a slow blending of each period into the succeeding one.
There is no formal procedure in the progress of man. Yet we might
infer from the way in which some writers present this matter that
society moved forward in regular order, column after column. From the
formal and forcible way in which they have presented the history of
early society, one might imagine that a certain tribe, having become
weary of tending cattle and goats, resolved one {40} fine morning to
change from the pastoral life to agriculture, and that all of the
tribes on earth immediately concluded to do the same, when, in truth,
the change was slow and gradual, while the centuries passed away.
It is well to consider that in the expanded industrial life of man the
old was not replaced, but supplemented, by the new, and that after the
pastoral stage was entered, man continued to hunt and fish, and that
after formal agriculture was begun the tending of flocks and herds
continued, and fishing was practised at intervals. But each succeeding
occupation became for the time the predominant one, while others were
relatively subordinate. Even to-day, while we have been rushing
forward in recent years at a rapid rate, under the power of steam and
electricity, agriculture and commerce have made marvellous improvement.
Though we gain the new, nothing of the old is lost. The use of flocks
and herds, as well as fish and game, increases each year, although not
relatively.
_Progress Is Through the Food Supply_.--This is only another view of
the economic life. The first period is called the natural subsistence
period, when man used such food as he found prepared for him by nature.
It corresponds to the primal nomadic period of the last classification.
From this state he advanced to the use of fish for food, and then
entered the third period, when native grains were obtained through a
limited cultivation of the soil. After this followed a period in which
meat and milk were the chief articles of food. Finally the period of
extended and permanent agriculture was reached, and farinaceous food by
cultivation became the main support of life. The significance of this
classification is observed in the fact that the amount, variety, and
quality of the food available determine the possibility of man's
material and spiritual advancement. As the food supply lies at the
foundation of human existence, prosperity is measured to a large extent
by the food products. The character of the food affects to a great
extent the mental and moral capabilities of man; that is, it {41}
limits the possibilities of civilization. Even in modern civilization
the effect of poor food on intellect, morals, and social order is
easily observed.
_Progress Is Estimated by Different Forms of Social Order_.--It is only
a more general way of estimating political life, and perhaps a broader
way, for it includes the entire social development. By this
classification man is first represented as wandering in a solitary
state with the smallest amount of association with his fellows
necessary to his existence and perpetuation, and with no social
organization. This status of man is hypothetical, and gives only a
starting point for the philosophy of higher development. No savage
tribes have yet been discovered in which there was not at least
association of individuals in groups, although organization might not
yet have appeared. It is true that some of the lower tribes, like the
Fuegians of South America, have very tentative forms of social and
political association. They wander in loosely constructed groups,
which constantly shift in association, being without permanent
organization. Yet the purely solitary man is merely conjectural.
It is common for writers to make a classification of social groups into
primary and secondary.[2] The primary social groups are: first, the
family based upon biological relations, supported by the habit of
association; second, the play group of children, in which primitive
characters of social order appear, and a third group is the association
of adults in a neighborhood meeting. In the formation of these groups,
the process of social selection is always in evidence. Impulse,
feeling, and emotion play the greater parts in the formation of these
primitive groups, while choice based on rational selection seldom
appears.
The secondary groups are those which originate through the
differentiation of social functions in which the contact of individuals
is less intimate than in the primary group. Such voluntary
associations as a church, labor organization, or {42} scientific
society may be classified as secondary in time and in importance.
Next above the human horde is represented the forced association of men
in groups, each group struggling for its own existence. Within the
group there was little protection and little social order, although
there was more or less authority of leadership manifested. This state
finally led to the establishment of rudimentary forms of government,
based upon blood relationship. These groups enlarged to full national
life. This third stage finally passed to the larger idea of
international usage, and is prospective of a world state. These four
stages of human society, so sweeping in their generalization, still
point to the idea of the slow evolution of social order.
_The Development of Family Life_.--Starting with the hypothesis that
man at one time associated in a state of promiscuity, he passed through
the separate stages of polyandry and polygamy, and finally reached a
state of monogamy and the pure home life of to-day. Those who have
advocated this doctrine have failed to substantiate it clearly so as to
receive from scholars the recognition of authority. All these forms of
family life except the first have been observed among the savage tribes
of modern life, but there are not sufficient data to prove that the
human race, in the order of its development, must have passed through
these four stages. However, it is true that the modern form of
marriage and pure home life did not always exist, but are among the
achievements of modern civilization. There certainly has been a
gradual improvement in the relations of the members of the household,
and notwithstanding the defects of faithlessness and ignorance, the
modern family is the social unit and the hope of modern social progress.
_The Growth of Political Life_.--Many have seen in this the only true
measure of progress, for it is affirmed that advancement in civil life
is the essential element of civilization. Its importance in
determining social order makes it a central factor in all progress.
The _primitive family_ represents the germ {43} of early political
foundation. It was the first organized unit of society, and contained
all of the rudimentary forms of government. The executive, the
judicial, the legislative, and the administrative functions of
government were all combined in one simple family organization. The
head of the family was king, lord, judge, priest, and military
commander all in one. As the family expanded it formed the _gens_ or
_clan_, with an enlarged family life and more systematic family
government. The religious life expanded also, and a common altar and a
common worship were instituted.
A slight progress toward social order and the tendency to distribute
the powers of government are to be observed. Certain property was held
in common and certain laws regulated the family life. The family
groups continued to enlarge by natural increase and by adoption, all
those coming into the gens submitting to its laws, customs, and social
usage. Finally several gentes united into a brotherhood association
called by the Greeks a _phratry_, by the Romans a _curia_. This
brotherhood was organized on a common religious basis, with a common
deity and a central place of worship. It also was used partially as
the basis of military organization. This group represents the first
unit based upon locality. From it spring the ward idea and the idea of
local self-government.
The _tribe_ represented a number of gentes united for religious and
military purposes. Although its principal power was military, there
were a common altar and a common worship for all members of the tribe.
The chief, or head of the tribe, was the military leader, and usually
performed an important part in all the affairs of the tribe. As the
tribe became the seat of power for military operations, the gens
remained as the foundation of political government, for it was the
various heads of the gentes who formed the council of the chief or king
and later laid the foundation of the senate, wherever instituted. It
was common for the tribe in most instances to pass into a village
community before developing full national life. There were exceptions
to this, where tribes have passed directly into {44} well-organized
groups without the formation of the village or the city.
The _village community_, next in logical order, represents a group of
closely related people located on a given territory, with a
half-communal system of government. There were the little group of
houses forming the village proper and representing the different homes
of the family group. There were the common pasture-land, the common
woodland, and the fertile fields for cultivation. These were all
owned, except perhaps the house lot, by the entire community, and every
year the tillable land was parcelled out by the elders of the community
to the heads of families for tillage. Usually the tiller of the soil
had a right to the crop, although among the early Greeks the custom
seems to be reversed, and the individual owned the land, but was
compelled to place its proceeds into a common granary. The village
community represents the transition from a nomadic to a permanent form
of government, and was common to all of the Aryan tribes. The
federation of the village communities or the expansion of the tribes
formed the Greek city-state, common to all of the Greek communities.
It represents the real beginning of civic life among the nations.
The old family organization continued to exist, although from this time
on there was a gradual separation of the functions of government. The
executive, legislative, and judicial processes became more clearly
defined, and special duties were assigned to officers chosen for a
particular purpose. Formal law, too, appeared as the expression of the
will of a definitely organized community. Government grew more
systematic, and expanded into a well-organized municipality. There was
less separation of the duties of officers than now, but there was a
constant tendency for government to unfold and for each officer to have
his specific powers and duties defined. A deity watched over the city,
and a common shrine for worship was set up for all members of the
municipality.
The next attempt to enlarge government was by federation {45} and by
conquest and domination.[3] The city of Rome represents, first, a
federation of tribal city groups, and, finally, the dominant city
ruling over many other cities and much territory. From this it was
only a step to the empire and imperial sway. Athens in her most
prosperous period attempted to do the same, but was not entirely
successful. After the decline of the Roman power there arose from the
ruins of the fallen empire the modern nationalities, which used all
forms of government hitherto known. They partook of democracy,
aristocracy, or imperialism, and even attempted, in some instances, to
combine the principles of all three in one government. While the
modern state developed some new characteristics, it included the
elements of the Greek and Roman governments. The relations of these
new states developed a new code of law, based upon international
relations. Though treaties were made between the Greeks and the Romans
in their first international relations, and much earlier between the
Hebrews and the Phoenicians, international law is of practically modern
origin. At present modern nations have an extended and intricate code
of laws governing their relations. It is an extension of government
beyond the boundaries of nationality.
Through commerce, trade, and political intercourse the nations of the
Western World are drawn more closely together, and men talk of a world
citizenship. A wide philanthropy, rapid and cheap transportation, the
accompanying influences of travel, and a world market for the products
of the earth, all tend to level the barriers of nationality and to
develop universal citizenship. The prophets of our day talk of the
coming world state, which is not likely to appear so long as the
barriers of sea and mountain remain; yet each year witnesses a closer
blending of the commercial, industrial, and political interests of all
nations. Thus we see how governments have been evolved and national
life expanded in accordance {46} with slowly developing civilization.
Although good government and a high state of civilization are not
wholly in the relation of cause and effect, they always accompany each
other, and the progress of man may be readily estimated from the
standpoint of the development of political institutions and political
life.
_Religion Important in Civilization_.--It is not easy to trace the
development of man by a consideration of the various religious beliefs
entertained at different periods of his existence. Yet there is
unmistakably a line of constant development to be observed in religion,
and as a rule its progress is an index of the improvement of the race.
No one can contrast the religion of the ancient nations with the modern
Christian religion without being impressed with the vast difference in
conception and in practice existing between them. In the early period
of barbarism, and even of savagery, religious belief was an important
factor in the development of human society.
It is no less important to-day, and he who recounts civilization
without giving it a prominent place has failed to obtain a
comprehensive view of the philosophy of human development. From the
family altar of the Greeks to the state religion; from the rude altar
of Abraham in the wilderness to the magnificent temple of Solomon at
Jerusalem; from the harsh and cruel tenets of the Oriental religions to
the spiritual conception and ethical practice of the Christian
religion, one observes a marked progress. We need only go to the crude
unorganized superstition of the savage or to the church of the Middle
Ages to learn that the power and influence of religion is great in
human society building.
_The Progress Through Moral Evolution_.--The moral development of the
race, although more difficult to determine than the intellectual, may
prove an index to the progress of man. The first formal expression of
moral practice is the so-called race morality or group morality, based
upon mutual aid for common defense. This is found to-day in all
organized groups, such as the boy gang, the Christian church, the
political party, {47} the social set, the educational institution, and,
indeed, the state itself; but wherever found it has its source in a
very primitive group action. In the primitive struggle for existence
man had little sympathy for his fellows, the altruistic sentiment being
very feeble. But gradually through the influence of the family life
sympathy widened and deepened in its onward flow until, joining with
the group morality, it entered the larger world of ethical practice.
This phase of moral culture had its foundation in the sympathy felt by
the mother for her offspring, a sympathy that gradually extended to the
immediate members of the household. As the family expanded into the
state, human sympathy expanded likewise, until it became national in
its significance. Through this process there finally came a world-wide
philanthropy which recognizes the sufferings of all human beings. This
sympathy has been rapidly increased by the culture of the intellect,
the higher development of the sensibilities, and the refinement of the
emotions; thus along the track of altruism or ethical development,
which had its foundation in primitive life, with its ever widening and
enlarging circles, the advancement of humanity may be traced. The old
egoism, the savage warfare for existence, has been constantly tempered
by altruism, which has been a saving quality in the human race.
_Intellectual Development of Man_.--Some philosophers have succeeded in
recounting human progress by tracing the intellectual development of
the race. This is possible, for everything of value that has been
done, and which has left a record, bears the mark of man's intellect.
In the early period of his existence, man had sufficient intellect to
direct his efforts to satisfy the common wants of life. This exercise
of the intellectual faculty has accompanied man's every movement, but
it is best observed in the products of his industry and the practice of
social order. By doing and making, the intellect grows, and it is only
by observing the phenomena of active life that we get a hint or trace
of the powers and capacities of the mind. {48} But after man begins
the process of reflective thinking, his intellectual activities become
stronger, and it is much easier to trace his development by considering
the condition of religion, law, philosophy, literature, sculpture, art,
and architecture. These represent the best products of the mind, and
it is along this intellectual highway that the best results of
civilization are found. During the modern period of progressive life
systematic education has forced the intellectual faculties through a
more rapid course, giving predominance to intellectual life everywhere.
The intellectual development of nations or the intellectual development
of man in general is a theme of never-tiring interest, as it represents
his noblest achievements.
Man from the very beginning has had a desire for knowledge, to satisfy
curiosity. Gradually, however, he had a desire to know in order to
increase utility, and finally he reaches the highest state of progress
in desiring to know for the sake of knowing. Thus he proceeds from
mere animal curiosity to the idealistic state of discovering "truth for
truth's sake." These are qualities not only of the individual in his
development but of the racial group and, indeed, in a larger way of all
mankind; intelligence developed in the attempt of man to discover the
nature of the results of his instinctive, impulsive, or emotional
actions. Later he sought causes of these results. Here we have
involved increased knowledge as a basis of human action and the use of
that knowledge through discriminating intelligence. The intellect thus
represents the selective and directive process in the use of knowledge.
Hence, intelligent behavior of the individual or of the group comes
only after accumulated knowledge based on experience. The process of
trial and error thus gives rise to reflective thinking. It is a
superior use of the intellect that more than anything else
distinguishes the adult from the child or modern man from the primitive.
_Change from Savagery to Barbarism_.--Perhaps one of the broadest
classifications of ancient society, based upon general characteristics
of progress, makes the two general divisions of {49} savagery and
barbarism, and subdivides each of these into three groups. The lowest
status of savagery represents man as little above the brute creation,
subsisting upon roots and berries, and with no knowledge of art or of
social order. The second period, called the middle status of savagery,
represents man using fire, and using fish for food, and having
corresponding advancement in other ways. The upper status of savagery
begins with the use of the bow-and-arrow and extends to the period of
the manufacture and use of pottery.
At this point the period of barbarism begins. Its lower status,
beginning with the manufacture of pottery, extends to the time of the
domestication of animals. The middle status includes not only the
domestication of animals in the East but the practice of irrigation in
the West and the building of walls from stone and adobe brick. The
upper status is marked by the use of iron and extends to the
introduction of the phonetic alphabet and literary composition. At
this juncture civilization is said to dawn.
"Commencing," says Mr. Morgan, the author of this classification, in
his _Ancient Society_, "with the Australians and the Polynesians,
following with the American Indian tribes, and concluding with the
Roman and Grecian, which afford the best exemplification of the six
great stages of human progress, the sum of their united experiences may
be supposed to fairly represent that of the human family from the
middle status of savagery to the end of the ancient civilization." By
this classification the Australians would be placed in the middle
status of savagery, and the early Greeks and Romans in the upper status
of barbarism, while the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico would be placed in
the middle status of barbarism. This is an excellent system for
estimating the progress of ancient society, for around these initial
periods may be clustered all of the elements of civilization. It is of
especial value in the comparative study of different races and tribes.
_Civilization Includes All Kinds of Human Progress_.--The above
representation of the principal methods of recounting {50} civilization
shows the various phases of human progress. Although each one is
helpful in determining the progress of man from a particular point of
view, none is sufficient to marshal all of the qualities of
civilization in a completed order. For the entire field of
civilization should include all the elements of progress, and this
great subject must be viewed from every side before it can be fairly
represented to the mind of the student. The true nature of
civilization has been more clearly presented in thus briefly
enumerating the different methods of estimating human progress. But we
must remember that civilization, though continuous, is not uniform.
The qualities of progress which are strong in one tribe or nation are
weak in others. It is the total of the characteristics of man and the
products of his activity that represents his true progress. Nations
have arisen, developed, and passed away; tribes have been swept from
the face of the earth before a complete development was possible; and
races have been obliterated by the onward march of civilization. But
the best products of all nations have been preserved for the service of
others. Ancient Chaldea received help from central Asia; Egypt and
Judea from Babylon; Greece from Egypt; Rome from Greece; and all Europe
and America have profited from the culture of Greece and Rome and the
religion of Judea. There may be a natural growth, maturity, and decay
of nations, but civilization moves ever on toward a higher and more
diversified life. The products of human endeavor arrange themselves on
the side of man in his attempt to master himself and nature.
TABLE SHOWING METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS
I. Method of the Kind of Implements Used.
1. Paleolithic, or Old Stone, Age.
2. Neolithic, or New Stone, Age.
3. Incidental use of copper, tin, and other metals.
4. The making of pottery.
5. The age of bronze.
6. The iron age.
{51}
II. Method by Art Development.
1. Primitive drawings in caves and engraving on ivory and
wood.
2. The use of color in decoration of objects, especially in
decoration of the body.
3. Beginnings of sculpture and carving figures, animals,
gods, and men.
4. Pictorial representations--the pictograph.
5. Representative art in landscapes.
6. Perspective drawing.
7. Idealistic art.
8. Industrial arts.
III. Method of Economic Stages.
1. The Nomadic Stage.
2. The Hunter-Fisher Stage.
3. The Pastoral Period.
4. The Agricultural Period.
5. The Commercial Period.
6. The Period of Industrial Organization.
IV. Progress Estimated by the Food Supply.
1. Natural subsistence Period.
2. Fish and shell fish.
3. Cultivation of native grains.
4. Meat and milk.
5. Farinaceous foods by systematic agriculture.
V. Method of Social Order.
1. Solitary state of man (hypothetical).
2. The human horde.
3. Small groups for purposes of association.
4. The secret society.
5. The religious cult.
6. Closely integrated groups for defense.
7. Amalgamated or federated groups.
8. The Race.
VI. The Family Development.
1. State of promiscuity (hypothetical).
2. Polyandry.
3. Polygamy.
4. Patriarchal family with polygamy.
5. The Monogamic family.
VII. Progress Measured by Political Organization.
1. The organized horde about religious ideas.
{52}
2. The completed family organization.
_a_. Family.
_b_. Gens.
_c_. The Phratry.
_d_. Patriarchal family.
_e_. Tribe.
3. The Ethnic state.
4. State formed by conflict and amalgamation.
5. International relations.
6. The World State (Idealistic).
VIII. Religious Development.
1. Belief in spiritual beings.
2. Recognition of the spirit of man and other spirits.
3. Animism.
4. Anthropomorphic religion.
5. Spiritual concept of religion.
6. Ethnical religions.
7. Forms of religious worship and religious practice.
IX. Moral Evolution.
1. Race morality (gang morality).
2. Sympathy for fellow beings.
3. Sympathy through blood relationship.
4. Patriotism: love of race and country.
5. World Ethics.
X. Progress Through Intellectual Development.
1. Sensation and reflex action.
2. Instinct and emotion.
3. Impulse and adaptability.
4. Reflective thought.
5. Invention and discovery.
6. Rational direction of human life.
7. Philosophy.
8. Science.
XI. Progress Through Savagery and Barbarism.
1. Lower status of savagery.
2. Middle status of savagery.
3. Upper status of savagery.
4. Lower status of barbarism.
5. Middle status of barbarism.
6. Upper status of barbarism.
7. Civilization (?).
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SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. In what other ways than those named in this chapter may we estimate
the progress of man?
2. Discuss the evidences of man's mental and spiritual progress.
3. The relation of wealth to progress.
4. The relation of the size of population to the prosperity of a
nation.
5. Enumerate the arguments that the next destructive war will destroy
civilization.
6. In what ways do you think man is better off than he was one hundred
years ago? One thousand years ago?
7. In what ways did the suffering caused by the Great War indicate an
increase in world ethics?
[1] See Chapter XXVII.
[2] See Cooley, _Social Organization_, chap. III.
[3] The transition from the ethnic state to the modern civic state was
through conflict, conquest, and race amalgamation.
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_PART II_
FIRST STEPS OF PROGRESS