words should be carefully noted. To _felicitate_ is to pronounce one
happy and in the strict sense, applies to self alone; _congratulate_ is
to wish joy to another. In recent years _congratulate_ has been applied
to one’s self, and _felicitate_ to another; thus the application of the
meanings of these words have been reversed by careless usage.
Trench says, “When I _congratulate_ a person (_congratulor_) I declare
that I am sharer in his joy, that what has rejoiced him has rejoiced me
also.” _Gratulation_, does not signify participation, and therefore, is
a mere _felicitation_ (or admission of existing happiness or cause for
happiness) addressed to another.
~female~: An opprobrious or contemptuous epithet for woman. _Female_
should be restricted to its correct use. Do not say “With that modesty
so characteristic of a _female_”; say rather, “... so characteristic of
a woman.” Compare LADY.
~fermentation~, ~fomentation~: Exercise care in the use of these words.
_Fermentation_ is a chemical decomposition of an organic compound;
_fomentation_, is the act of treating with warm water.
~fetch~. Compare BRING.
~few~: Sometimes used incorrectly for “in some measure”; “to an
extent”; “somewhat”; “rather”; as, “Did you enjoy yourself?” “Just
a _few_.” _Few_ is correctly applied to quantity and incorrectly to
quality; therefore, its use as in the illustration given here is not
good English.
~few~ and ~a few~ must not be confounded. “_Few_ men would act thus”
means that scarcely any would; but “_A few_ men will always speak the
truth” means that there are some, though not many, whose custom this is.
~few~, ~little~: The first of these words is sometimes improperly used
for the second. Measurement by count is expressed by _few_, measurement
by quantity by _little_; as, “the loss of a _few_ soldiers will make
but _little_ difference to the result.” “The _fewer_ his acquaintances,
the _fewer_ (not the _less_) his enemies.” _Few_, _fewer_, _fewest_,
are correctly used in describing articles the aggregate of which is
expressed in numbers; _little_, _less_, and _least_ are used of objects
that are spoken of in bulk.
~figure~: E. S. Gould and other critics object to the use of the word
in the sense of an amount stated in numbers, as “Goods at a high
_figure_.” But Dean Alford is content to give his sanction to its use,
and the literary and general public have followed him.
~final~: Sometimes misused in such a sentence as “the _final_
completion of the work.” This is inadmissible, for completion
necessarily implies finality.
~financial~, ~monetary~, ~pecuniary~: Discriminate carefully between
these words. _Financial_ is applied correctly to public funds or to
the revenue of a government. _Monetary_ and _pecuniary_ apply only to
transactions between individuals.
~finish~. Compare COMPLETE.
~fire~: As this verb possesses the sense of impel, explode, discharge,
as by using fire; as, “_fire_ a mine or gun,” it has been humorously
applied to discharge from employment, as “_fire_ a clerk.” But the
usage is slang, and as such is avoided by careful speakers.
~first~: Say the “_first_ two” rather than the “two _first_,” for
unless they be bracketed equal there can not be two _firsts_. For a
similar reason the expression seen in cars, “Smoking on the _four rear_
seats,” is equally incorrect. There can not be four _rear_ (or _last_)
seats; but there can be “the _last four_ seats.” As meaning the four
seats collectively which are situated at the rear, the phrase has its
only justification.
~first~ and ~firstly~: _First_ being an adverbial form is the correct
form to use. _Firstly_ has been used by Dickens, De Quincey, and others
but in modern usage _first_ is the preferred form.
~first-rate~ is an adjectival not an adverbial expression. One may
say correctly, “He is a _first-rate_ walker,” but not that “he walks
_first-rate_.”
~fish~: When speaking of fish collectively this word represents the
plural; speaking of fish severally the plural is formed by the addition
of _es_.
~fix~: The colloquial use of this noun for a position involving
embarrassment or a dilemma or predicament has not the sanction of
literary usage. Do not say “I am in a bad _fix_” say, rather, “...
in a bad _condition_.” As a verb, it is better unused in the sense
of _set_ or _arrange_. As meaning “put into thorough adjustment
or repair,” with the word _up_ added, it is sanctioned by popular
usage; but the expression is thought inelegant and indefinite. Some
more discriminating term is to be preferred. _Fix_, in the sense
of “disable, injure, or kill,” and “fix up” in the sense of “dress
elegantly,” are vulgarisms.
~flap-doodle~: An inelegant term for “pretentious silly talk
characterized by an affectation of superior knowledge.” _Twaddle_ is a
preferable synonym. Compare FLUB-DUB.
~flash~ for ostentatious display, as of money, is inelegant. _Display_
is a preferable word.
~flew~ is often misused for _fled_. Do not say “He _flew_ the city”
when you mean that he _fled_ from it.
~flies on~: “There are no _flies on_ him,” is a slang phrase not used
by persons accustomed to refined diction.
~flock~: A word sometimes misapplied. Do not say “a _flock_ of girls;”
say, rather, “a _bevy_ of girls” and “a _flock_ of sheep.” _Flock_ is
correctly applied to a company or collection of small animals as sheep,
goats, rabbits, or birds.
~flop~ is an inelegant word used sometimes to denote change of attitude
on a subject. Do not say “He _flopped_ over to the other side”; say,
rather, “He went over....”
~flub-dub~: A slang term used to designate a literary work that is
worthless.
~flummux~: A vulgarism sometimes used for “perplex” or “disconcert.”
~fly off the handle~: A colloquial phrase meaning to “lose one’s self
control” as from anger.
~folks~: The modern colloquial plural use of this term is not to be
recommended. The word is properly used, both in singular and plural
form, as _folk_, its correct signification being “people, collectively
or distributively.”
~foment~, ~ferment~: Exercise care in the use of these words. _Foment_
is to bathe with warm or medicated lotions; _ferment_, to cause
chemical decomposition in. Both words are also used figuratively.
~fondling~, ~foundling~: Discriminate carefully between these words. A
_fondling_ is a person fondled or caressed; a _foundling_ is a deserted
infant whose parents are unknown.
~fooling~: The use of the word in the sense of “deceiving” has been
condemned by certain writers as a “very vulgar vulgarism,” but is
permissible, having the sanction not only of good literary authority
but of modern dictionaries. See Tennyson’s “Gareth and Lynette” (st.
127): “Worse than being fool’d of others is to fool one’s self.”
~for~ and ~to~: These words are often added at the end of a sentence by
careless speakers but are redundant. Do not say “Less than you think
_for_”; nor “Where are you going _to_?”
~forget it~: When used as the equivalent of “don’t talk about it,” is
a vulgarism that can not be too severely condemned.
~fork over~: Slang for “hand over,” a preferable phrase.
~former~: This word can refer to only one of two persons or things
previously mentioned, never to any one of three or more. Avoid such
construction as the following: “Mr. Henley says that had Rosetti and
Byron been contemporaries, some of the _former’s_ (meaning Rosetti)
verses would have caused the latter (meaning Byron) to blush.” Here,
_former_ refers to Mr. Henley, but the context shows clearly the
intention of the writer to refer to Rosetti.
~forsake~. Compare ABANDON.
~fort~, ~forte~: These two words similarly pronounced must be
distinguished. In each case the derivation is the same (the Latin
_fortis_ strong), and although there is an alternative spelling of
_fort_ for “forte” it is not the favored form. A _fort_ signifies
a fortification held by a garrison; _forte_ is that in which an
individual chiefly excels.
~fracas~: A _fracas_ is a brawl or an uproar, not a part of the human
anatomy. Therefore, avoid such expressions as “He was stabbed in the
fracas.” Say, rather, “During the fracas he was stabbed.”
~fraud~: Just as _cheat_ has been made to do duty both for the act and
the person committing the act, so in colloquial usage has _fraud_ been
made to represent not only the act but also its perpetrator. It has
even been extended to “a deceptive or spurious thing.” These usages of
_fraud_ are, however, not to be recommended.
~freeze~: This word has nothing in common with _frieze_ save the
pronunciation. The former is an Anglo-Saxon term, whereas the latter
comes from the French _frise_, for _fraise_, a ruff. To _freeze_ is to
convert into ice, congeal; to _frieze_ is to provide with a _frieze_,
which is, in architecture, the middle division of an entablature.
~freeze out~: A vulgar phrase for to “treat with coldness, as of manner
or conduct.”
~freeze to~: An inelegant colloquialism for “cling to,” sometimes found
in literature as in Kipling’s “Mine Own People,” p. 209.
~frequently~. Compare COMMONLY.
~fresh~ in the sense of “full of ignorant conceit and presumption” is
slang and as such is avoided by persons careful with their diction.
~friend~: Carefully distinguish between _friend_ and _acquaintance_.
The former is an acquaintance who has been admitted to terms of
intimacy, and who is regarded with a certain amount of affectionate
regard. A person to whom one has received a bare introduction is an
acquaintance--nothing more.
~frieze~. Compare FREEZE.
~from~: A preposition often incorrectly used for “of.” _From_ should
not be used elliptically. Do not say “He died _from_ pneumonia” when
you mean “_from the effects of_ pneumonia.” Here _effect_ suggests the
cause from which the result proceeded. “He died _of_ pneumonia” is
correct.
~froze~: A term sometimes misused for frozen. _Froze_ is the imperfect
of the verb _freeze_, while _frozen_ is a participial adjective. It is
incorrect to say, “My hands are _froze_,” here _frozen_ should be used.
~-ful~. The plural of compounds ending in _-ful_, as _spoonful_ is
formed in the same manner as the plural of other nouns of regular
formation--by the simple addition of a final “s,” as, _spoonfuls_. So
when a physician prescribes medicine to be taken by the spoonful more
than once a day, these are correctly spoken of as _spoonfuls_. But
supposing more than one medicine is to be taken and that the medicines
do not assimilate thus requiring _more than one spoon_ to administer
them; then it would be correct to refer to the different doses as
_spoons full_, since the words denote more than one spoon full.
_Spoonfuls_ denote one spoon filled more than once.
~fulfil~: Remember that in this word the “l” is not doubled but that it
is in _fulfilling_.
~full~, ~fuller~: Terms sometimes incorrectly used. A “_full_ cup,” is
a cup completely filled, therefore it would seem illogical to say “my
cup is _fuller_ than yours.” As a rule all words that in themselves
express the idea of completion or perfection should be used only in the
positive degree. A perfection greater than itself is inconceivable, yet
in literature, and with speakers who are accustomed to a careful choice
of words, this form of expression has been permitted for comparison in
the absence of an absolute standard of measurement.
~full~: A coarse substitute for “intoxicated.”
~funeral~: A term sometimes misused for “affair,” or “business,” as in
the phrase “Not my _funeral_” meaning “No business of mine.” The use is
not to be commended.
~funny~: As a colloquialism signifying “queer” this adjective should be
used with care. It is better retained for signification of that which
is mirth-provoking or ludicrous. _Funny_ is sometimes used incorrectly
to imply silly impropriety, as in the phrase, “Don’t get _funny_.” Such
usage should be avoided.
~further~. Compare FARTHER.
~future, the~: Used sometimes to signify the present; as, “I _shall
be_ happy to accept”--this is not what is meant. The meaning is “I
_am_ happy to accept, for I _shall be_ happy to come,” or “(Because)
I shall be happy to (come I am happy to) accept”; and the elliptical
result is that there is elision of the words in parentheses. In a
recent lawsuit the plaintiff lost $10,000 because a so-called guarantee
was given in these terms: “I _will_ guarantee” instead of “I (hereby
_do_) guarantee.” The guarantee provided had never been asked for,
given, or obtained. The credulous victim had accepted a promise,
without condition, for a performance; and he lost. Time has improved
his knowledge of the force of the English tongue.
G
~galaxy~: Exercise care in the use of this word. It signifies any
brilliant circle or group; as, a _galaxy_ of beauties or of gems, and
is never correctly used of any person or thing of inferior quality.
~gall~: Correctly used is “an intensely bitter feeling.” When used as
a synonym for “cool assurance” or “impudence” it is slang which should
be avoided.
~gang~ is correctly applied to a squad of laborers, and others detailed
to certain given tasks. But sometimes applied also, usually in an
uncomplimentary way, to a company of persons who meet habitually for
social intercourse; as, “He sent a letter to the _gang_ at Seelig’s.”
~gazebo~: A term often misused for “chief person.” A _gazebo_ is a
belvedere or elevated summer-house and as such is often the highest
point of a building: applied to a person the term is slang.
~gee whiz~: A slang exclamation of astonishment that it is best to
avoid.
~geezer~: A vulgar term applied, usually in derision to elderly
persons, particularly women. Formerly it was used to designate a mummer
or other grotesque character.
~generally~. Compare COMMONLY.
~genius~, ~genus~: Discriminate carefully between these words. _Genius_
implies the possession of remarkable natural gifts through which their
possessor may attain ends or obtain results by intuitive power. _Genus_
is a class or kind. In the natural sciences it is the subordinate of an
order, tribe, or family.
~gent~: As an abbreviation for _gentleman_ this word is not permitted
in refined speech; and _gentleman_ is never correctly used for _man_
as a mere indication of sex. Compare LADY.
~genteel~ is sometimes improperly applied to persons who are preferably
spoken of as polite or well-bred. If used with regard to persons, it
should only be in connection with some specific characteristic, as “a
person of _genteel_ speech or appearance,” or to indicate suitability
to the condition of a well-bred person, as in the expression “a
_genteel_ fortune.”
~genuine~. Compare AUTHENTIC.
~get a gait~ or ~move on~: Slang phrases for “hasten one’s steps or
actions,” which, while it may not be so expressive, is more elegant and
refined.
~get over~: Sometimes used for _deny_ or _refute_. One doesn’t get over
a charge but _refutes_ it.
~git~: Vulgarism used in the imperative for _get out_.
~go~. See WENT.
~go back on~: A colloquialism for abandon, deceive, play false.
Inelegant and not used by persons accustomed to nice discriminations of
speech.
~going~ is sometimes used as a synonym for _just about_. One frequently
hears, “I am just going to sing,” from a person who is _about to_ do
so. The verb _go_, in the transitive, is sometimes used loosely in
the colloquial sense of “endure” or “wager.” Polite speech does not
sanction such locutions as “I can not _go_ that music;” “I will _go_
you a dollar on the race.”
~gone~: The phrase “He’s been _gone_ this month,” though frequently
used, is better rendered thus: “It’s a month since he went.” The verb
“to go” does not lend itself agreeably to this treatment which is
common with other verbs (as “He has been known and loved for years”),
and the expression “this month,” for “this past month,” is somewhat too
elliptical to be received with favor.
~gone case~: A vulgarism sometimes used to denote that the affection
bestowed by one person on another of the opposite sex shows him to be
serious in his intentions. It is also a vulgarism when applied to one
who is in a hopeless condition, as from illness.
~good~ should never be used for _well_. Do not say, “I feel pretty
_good_” or “she plays that pretty _good_” when you mean that you “feel
pretty _well_” or that “she plays fairly _well_.”
~go past~: “Go” usually implies motion forward, therefore, it is
pleonastic to say “go past.” Say, rather, that you “go _by_” and not
_past_. Nevertheless a march _past_ is a recognized expression.
~got~: This word is used correctly for acquired or obtained, but is
incorrectly used to denote simple possession and correctly implies
_effort to secure_ something. Sometimes it is used redundantly; as, “He
has _got_ it”; the simpler form, “He has it” is preferable. “We have
_got_ to do it,” while emphatic, is less so than “we _must_ do it.”
~go the whole hog~: An inelegant phrase used for “to go to the utmost
limit.” Carlyle traces the origin of this phrase from the Irish because
in Ireland _hog_ was a synonym for a ten penny piece, a coin once
current in that country.
~graduate~: The use of this verb in the intransitive has been condemned
by purists but is now well established. Thus, one may correctly say
“He _was graduated_ from a university” or, “_He graduated_ from a
university.”
~grammar~: The phrases ~good grammar~ and ~bad grammar~ have been
condemned as false syntax by some persons unfamiliar with the meanings
of the word “grammar.” One meaning recorded by the STANDARD DICTIONARY
is “speech or writing considered with regard to its correctness;
propriety of linguistic usage; as, he uses _good_ or _bad grammar_.”
The _New York Herald_ (March 4, 1906) says: “_Good grammar_ is one of
those cheap vulgarisms which most offend the scholarly ear. A phrase
is either grammatical or ungrammatical. It can not be characterized as
either ‘good’ or ‘bad’ grammar.”
The writer of the foregoing based his criticism on a misunderstanding.
The word “grammar” is not like the word “orthography,” a word made up
of _orthos_, correct, and _grapho_, to write. Grammar does not carry
with it the implication of correctness, and modern grammarians bear
this out. Prof. Edward Maetzner in his “English Grammar: Methodical,
Analytical and Historical,” so defines the term:
“_Grammar_, or the _doctrine of language_, treats of the laws of
speech, and, in the first place, of the _Word_, as its fundamental
constituent, with respect to its _matter_ and its _form_, in
_prosody_, or the doctrine of sounds, and _morphology_, or the
doctrine of forms, and then of the _combination_ of words in speech,
in _syntax_, or the doctrine of the joining of words and sentences”
(vol. i. p. 12).
Syntax, which is a part of grammar, is sometimes confused with grammar
itself. It is that part of grammar which treats of the sentence and of
its construction, and embraces, among other features, the doctrine of
the collocation of words in sentences in connected speech, treating of
their arrangement and relative positions, as required by grammatical
connection, euphony, and clearness and energy of expression.
The “New English Dictionary,” edited at Oxford University by Dr. J. A.
H. Murray, treating this subject says:
“The old-fashioned definition of grammar as ‘The art of speaking
and writing a language correctly’ is from the modern point of view
in one respect too narrow, because it applied only to a portion of
this branch of study; in another respect it is too wide, and was
so even from the older point of view, _because many questions of
‘correctness’ in language are recognized as outside the province
of grammar_: _e. g._, the use of a word in a wrong sense, or a bad
pronunciation or spelling, would not have been called a grammatical
mistake. Until a not very distant date, grammar was divided by
English writers into Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody, to
which Orthoepy was added by some others. The division now usual is
that into Phonology, treating of the sounds now used in the language,
Accidence, of the inflexional forms or equivalent combinations, and
Syntax, of the structure of sentences.”
In defining grammar, Lindley Murray wrote “English grammar is the art
of speaking and writing the English language with propriety.” Following
the style of the STANDARD DICTIONARY, Dr. Murray gives one of the
meanings of grammar as follows; “Speech or writing judged as good or
bad according as it conforms to or violates grammatical rules; also
speech or writing that is correct according to those rules.”
If grammar can not be good or bad, as contended by the _New York
Herald’s_ editor, then it can not be true or false. Yet Dryden wrote,
“And I doubt the word ‘they’ is _false grammar_” (Almanzor, II. Def.
Epilogue); and Macaulay writing of Frederick the Great, said: “He had
German enough to scold his servants, but his _grammar and pronunciation
are extremely bad_” (Essays; Frederick the Great). Again, elsewhere,
“The letter may still be read, with all the original _bad grammar_ and
bad spelling” (History of England, IV., xviii., 245). Both phrases are
permissible. Compare BAD.
~grammatical error~: A common locution, but “an error in grammar,” is
to be preferred as avoiding what is sometimes considered a violation
of grammatical precision.
~grant~. Compare ACCORD.
~grass, go to~: A vulgar imperative meaning “get away” or “clear out!”
~grass widow~: A common term of disparagement applied to a woman
abandoned by or separated from her husband: a term which is not used by
persons of refinement and one that, if used at all, should be applied
only with great care.
~grass widower~: A term used to denote a husband who lives apart from
his wife or one from whom the wife is temporarily absent.
~gratitude~, ~thankfulness~: Gratitude, from the Latin _gratitudo_,
from _gratus_, kind, is a sense of appreciation of favors received,
as indicated by actions. It is the actual feeling, of which
_thankfulness_, or the fulness of thanks, is the mere outward
expression. It is therefore quite possible, and indeed often the case,
for a person who at one time is _full of thanks_ to show subsequently
a want of gratitude.
~great~. Compare BIG.
~groom~ should not be used for “bridegroom.”
~grouchy~: A slang term for sulky or disgruntled.
~grow~ sometimes used for _become_ is gaining the sanction of usage;
as, “to _grow_ smaller.” In this sense _grow_ has been used by such
masters of English as Steele, Gray, Johnson, and Macaulay.
~guess~, ~suppose~, ~think~, ~conjecture~: Words sometimes used
incorrectly. We _guess_ when we are content to hazard an opinion based
on data which are admittedly insufficient, but we _suppose_ when we
have good ground for assuming a thing to be true. When we _think_, we
give thought to a matter on which we yet admit the thought has been
insufficient to furnish us with exact or certain knowledge. _Thinking_
is allied to _conjecturing_, in which, though holding a pronounced
opinion, this falls short of absolute _conviction_. We _guess_ the
outcome of an event, but _suppose_ that an event which has happened may
result in good. We _think_ that a certain medicine may effect a cure,
but if we have tried it successfully before for a similar complaint,
_conjecture_ that it will, although not being absolutely sure that the
conditions are precisely the same we are not _convinced_ and do not
_know_.
~gums~. Compare RUBBERS.
H
~habit~, ~custom~, ~usage~: Discriminate carefully between these
words. In strict usage _habit_ pertains exclusively to the individual;
_custom_ to a race or nation of people, as, the _customs_ of the Jews.
_Usage_ refers particularly to habitual practise or something permitted
by it or done in accordance with it.