2. A Pleasant Evening.
3. My Walk to School.
4. Pluck.
5. School Friendships.
6. When my Ship Comes In.
7. Ancient and Modern Warfare.
8. The View from my Window.
9. Homes without Hands.
10. I Can.
11. My Friend Jack.
12. John Chinaman.
13. Irish Characters.
14. Robin Hood.
15. A Visit to Olympus.
16. Monday Morning.
17. My Native Town.
18. Over the Sea.
19. Up in a Balloon.
20. Queer People.
21. Our Minister.
22. A Plea for Puss.
23. Castles in Spain.
24. Young America.
25. Black Diamonds.
26. Mosquitoes.
27. A Day in the Woods.
28. A Boy's Trials.
29. The Yankee.
30. Robinson Crusoe.
31. Street Arabs.
32. Legerdemain.
33. Our Neighborhood.
34. Examinations.
35. Theatre-going.
36. Donkeys.
37. The Southern Negro.
38. A Rainy Saturday.
39. The Early Bird Catches the Worm.
40. Spring Sports
41. How Horatius Kept the Bridge.
42. Jack Frost
43. My First Sea Voyage.
44. Monkeys.
45. Grandmothers.
46. The Boy of the Story Book.
47. Famous Streets.
48. Pigeons.
49. Jack and Gill.
50. Make Haste Slowly.
51. Commerce.
52. The Ship of the Desert.
53. Winter Sports.
54. A Visit to Neptune.
55. Whiskers.
56. Gypsies.
57. Cities of the Dead.
58. Street Cries.
59. The World Owes me A Living.
60. Politeness.
61. Cleanliness Akin to Godliness.
62. Fighting Windmills.
63. Along the Docks.
64. Maple Sugar.
65. Umbrellas.
66. A Girl's Trials.
67. A Spider's Web.
68. The Story of Ruth.
69. Clouds.
70. A Country Store.
71. Timepieces.
72. Bulls and Bears.
73. Bore.
74. Our Sunday School.
75. The Making of Beer.
76. Autumn's Colors.
77. The Watched Pot Never Boils.
78. The Mission of Birds.
79. Parasites.
80. Well-begun is Half-done.
81. The Tides.
82. The Schoolmaster in "The Deserted Village."
83. A Day on a Trout Stream.
84. A Stitch in Time Saves Nine.
85. Of What Use are Flowers?
86. A Descent in a Diving Bell.
* * * * *
LESSON 166.
LETTER-WRITING.
Letters need special treatment. In writing a letter there are five things
to consider--The Heading, The Introduction, The Body of the Letter, The
Conclusion, and The Superscription.
THE HEADING.
+Parts+.--The Heading consists of the name of the +Place+ at which the
letter is written, and the +Date+. If you write from a city, give the
door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of
the state. If you are at a Hotel or a School or any other well-known
Institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of
the street; as may also the number of your post-office box. If you write
from a village or other country place, give your post-office address, the
name of the county, and that of the state.
The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.
+How Written+.--Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of
the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note. If the letter
occupies but a few lines of a single page, you may begin the Heading lower
down. Begin the first line of the Heading a little to the left of the
middle of the page. If it occupies more than one line, the second line
should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to
the right than the second.
The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures; the
rest, in words. Bach important word begins with a capital letter, each item
is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period.
+Direction+.--_Study what has teen said, and write the following
headings according to these models:_--
1. Ripton, Addison Co., Vt.,
July 10, 1895.
2. 250 Broadway, N. T.,
June 6, 1890.
3. Saco, Me., Feb. 25, 1887.
4. Polytechnic Institute,
Brooklyn, N. Y.,
May 3, 1888.
1. ann arbor 5 July 1820 michigan
2. champlain co clinton n y jan 14 1800
3. p o box 2678 1860 oct 19 chicago
4. philadelphia 670 1858 chestnut st 16 apr
5. saint nicholas new york 1 hotel nov 1855
THE INTRODUCTION.
+Parts+.--The Introduction consists of the +Address+--the Name, the Title,
and the Place of Business or Residence of the one addressed--and the
+Salutation+. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address.
Prefix _Mr._ to a man's name, _Messrs._ to the names of several gentlemen;
_Master_ to the name of a young lad; _Miss_ to that of an unmarried lady;
_Mrs._ to that of a married lady; _Misses_ to the names of several young
ladies; and _Mesdames_ to those of several married or elderly ladies.
Prefix _Dr._ to the name of a physician (but never _Mr. Dr._), or write
_M.D._ after it. Prefix _Rev._ to the name of a clergyman, or _Rev. Mr._ if
you do not know his Christian name; _Rev. Dr._ if he is a Doctor of
Divinity, or write _Rev._ before the name and _D.D._ after it. Prefix _His
Excellency_ to the name of the President, [Footnote: The preferred form of
addressing the President is, _To the President, Executive Mansion,
Washington, D. C._; the Salutation is simply, _Mr. President._ ] and to
that of a Governor or of an Ambassador; _Hon._ to the name of a Cabinet
Officer, a Member of Congress, a State Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor. If
two literary or professional titles are added to a name, let them stand in
the order in which they were conferred--this is the order of a few common
ones: _A.M., Ph.D., D.D., LL.D._ Guard against an excessive use of titles--
the higher implies the lower.
Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's
degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir, Dear Sir,
Rev. Sir, General, Madam_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir, Dear Madam_,
etc.; friends as _My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Jones_, etc.; and
near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife, My dear Boy,
Dearest Ellen_, etc.
+How Written+.--The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next
line, and standing on the left side of the page; or it may stand in
corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the Conclusion. If
the letter is of an official character or is written to an intimate friend,
the Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in
ordinary business letters, it should be placed at the top and as directed
above. Never omit it from the letter except when the letter is written in
the third person. There should be a narrow margin on the left side of the
page, and the Address should begin on the marginal line. If the Address
occupies more than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope
to the right.
Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it
when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to
the right or to the left than the second line of the Address when this
occupies two lines; a little to the right of the marginal line when the
Address occupies one line; on the marginal line when the Address stands
below.
Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All
the items of it should be set off by the comma; and, as it is an
abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word
in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should
be followed by a comma, or by a comma and a dash.
+Direction+.--Write these introductions according to the models:--
1. Prof. March, Easton, Pa.
My dear Sir,
2. Messrs. Smith & Jones,
771 Broadway,
New York City.
Gentlemen,
3. My dear Mother,
When, etc.
4. Messrs. Vallette & Co.,
Middlebury, Vt.
Dear Sirs,
1. mr george platt burlington iowa sir
2. mass Cambridge prof James r lowell my dear friend
3. messrs ivison blakeman taylor & co gentlemen new york
4. rev brown dr the arlington Washington dear friend d c
5. col John smith dear colonel n y auburn
* * * * *
LESSON 167.
LETTER-WRITING--CONTINUED.
THE BODY OF THE LETTER.
+The Beginning+.--Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the
Salutation, and on the same line if the Introduction is long--in which case
the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash,--on the line
below if the Introduction is short.
+Style+.--Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of
writing. Avoid blots, erasures, interlineations, cross lines, and all other
offenses against epistolary propriety. The letter "bespeaks the man."
Letters of friendship should be colloquial, chatty, and familiar. Whatever
is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends, however trivial
it may seem to a stranger.
Business letters should be brief, and the sentences short, concise, and to
the point. Repeat nothing, and omit nothing needful.
Official letters and formal notes should be more stately and ceremonious.
In formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the first and
the second; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only the
name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the page,
thus:--
_Mr. & Mrs. A. request the pleasure of Mr. B.'s company at a social
gathering, on Tuesday evening, Nov. 15th, at eight o'clock.
32 Fifth Ave., Nov. 5_.
_Mr. B. accepts_ [Footnote: Or regrets that a previous engagement (or
illness, or an unfortunate event) prevents the acceptance of ----; or
regrets that on account of ---- he is unable to accept ----.] _with
pleasure Mr. & Mrs. A.'s kind invitation for Tuesday evening, Nov. 15th._
_Wednesday morning, Nov. 9th_.
THE CONCLUSION.
+Parts+.--The Conclusion consists of the +Complimentary Close+ and the
+Signature+. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are
determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters
of friendship you may use, _Your sincere, friend; Yours affectionately;
Your loving son_ or _daughter_, etc. In business letters you may use,
_Yours; Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully
yours_, etc. In official letters you should be more deferential. Use, _I
have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant; Very respectfully, your
most obedient servant_; etc., etc.
The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In
addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing
a stranger should prefix to her signature her title, _Mrs._ or _Miss_
(placing it within marks of parenthesis), unless in the letter she has
indicated which of these titles her correspondent is to use in reply.
+How Written+.--The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first
line below the Body of the Letter, and, if occupying two or more lines,
should slope to the right like the Heading and the Address. Begin each line
of it with a capital letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following
the whole with a period. The Signature should be very plain.
+Direction+.--_Write two formal notes--one inviting a friend to a social
party, and one declining the invitation._
+Direction+.--_Write the Conclusion of a letter of friendship, of a letter
of business, and of an official letter, carefully observing all that has
been said above._
+Direction+.--_Write a letter of two or three lines to your father or your
mother, and another to your minister, talcing care to give properly the
Heading in its two parts, the Introduction in its two parts, and the
Conclusion in its two parts. Let the Address in the letter to your father
or your mother stand at the bottom._
* * * * *
LESSON 168.
LETTER-WRITING--CONTINUED.
THE SUPERSCRIPTION.
+Parts+.--The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the
envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title,
and the full Directions of the one addressed.
+How Written+.--The Superscription should begin just below the middle of
the envelope and near the left edge--the envelope lying with its closed
side toward you--and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should
slope to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between
the lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower
right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand.
If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street
should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the
name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the
post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the
third, the name of the state on the fourth. The number of the post office
box may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street, or,
to avoid crowding, the number of the box or the name of the county may
stand at the lower left-hand corner. The titles following the name should
be separated from it and from each other by the comma, and every line
should end with a comma except the last, which should be followed by a
period. [Footnote: Some omit punctuation after the parts of the
Superscription. ] The lines should be straight, and every part of the
Superscription should be legible. Place the stamp at the upper right-hand
corner.
+Direction+.--_Write six Superscriptions to real or imaginary friends
or acquaintances in different cities, carefully observing all that has
been said above._
+Direction+.--_Write two snort letters--one to a friend at the Astor
House, New York, and one to a stranger in the country._
[Illustration: Envelope with stamp in upper-right corner. Addressed to
Master H. Buckman,
Andover,
Mass.]
[Cursive Text:
Ithaca, N. Y, June 15, '96.
My dear Friend,
You tell me that you
begin the study of English Literature
next term. Let me assume the
relation of an older brother, and tender
you a word of counsel.
Study literature, primarily, for
the thoughts it contains. Attend
to these thoughts until you understand
them and see their connection
one with another. Accept only such
as seem to you just and true, and
accept these at their proper value.
Notice carefully the words each
author uses, see how he arranges
them, whether he puts his thought
clearly, what imagery he employs,
what allusions he makes, what
acquaintance with men, with books,
and with nature he shows, and in
what spirit he writes.
Your study of the author should
put you in possession of his thought
and his style, and should introduce
you to the man himself.
Pardon me these words of unsought
advice, and believe me.
Your true friend,
John Schuyler.
Master H. Buckman,
Andover, Mass.]
A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
We here append a Summary of the so-called Rules of Syntax, with references
to the Lessons which treat of Construction.
I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a
predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case.
II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the
same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates.
III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive
case.
IV. A noun or pronoun used as object complement, as objective complement,
as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, or used adverbially
[Footnote: See Lesson 35.] is in the objective case.
V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as
the word explained.
+For Cautions, Principles, and Examples respecting the cases of nouns and
pronouns, see Lessons 119, 122, 123, 123. For Cautions and Examples to
guide in the use of the different pronouns, see Lessons 86, 87.+
VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.
+For Cautions, Principles, and Examples, see Lessons 118,142.+
VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number.
+For Cautions, Examples, and Exceptions, see Lesson 142.+
VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an
adjective or a noun.
+For Uses of the Participle, see Lessons 37, 38, 39.+
IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by _to_, and with it forms a
phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
+For Uses of the Infinitive, see Lessons 40, 41, 42.+
X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
+For Cautions and Examples respecting the use of adjectives and of
comparative and superlative forms, see Lessons 90, 91, 128.+
XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
+For Cautions and Examples, see Lesson 93.+
XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in
sense, of its principal word to the word modified.
+For Cautions, see Lessons 98, 99.+
XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
+For Cautions and Examples, see Lessons 100, 107.+
XIV. Interjections are used independently.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
+Remarks+.--The scheme of conjugation presented below is from English
text-books. In some of these books the forms introduced by _should_ are
classed, not as Future, but as Secondary Past Tense forms of the
Subjunctive.
If we substitute this scheme of conjugation for the simpler one given in
the preceding pages, we still fail to get a classification in which every
form corresponds in use to its name. The following examples will
illustrate:--
He _returns_ to-morrow. (Present = Future.)
When I _have performed_ this, I will come to you. (Present Perfect = Future
Perfect.)
If any member _absents_ himself, he shall pay a fine. (Indicative =
Subjunctive.)
You _shall_ go. (Indicative = Imperative.)
After memorizing all the terms and forms belonging to the conjugation here
outlined, the student will find that he has gained little to aid him in the
use of language. For instance, in this synopsis of the Subjunctive are
found nineteen forms. As there are three persons in the singular and three
in the plural, we have one hundred and fourteen subjunctive forms! How
confusing all this must be to the student, who, in his use of the
subjunctive, needs to distinguish only such as these: If he _be_, If he
_were_, If he _teach_! Beyond these, the subjunctive manner of assertion is
discovered from the structure of the sentence or the relation of clauses,
not from the conjugation of the verb.
Those English authors and their American copyists who eliminate the
Potential Mode from their scheme of conjugation tell us that the so-called
potential auxiliaries are either independent verbs in the indicative or are
subjunctive auxiliaries. With the meager instruction given by any one or by
all of these authors, the student will find it exceedingly difficult to
determine when these auxiliaries are true subjunctives. To illustrate:--
1. _May_ you be happy.
2. I learn that I _may_ be able to teach.
3. He _might_ have done it if he had liked.
4. If he _should_ try, he _would_ succeed.
5. I _would_ not tell you if I _could_.
6. I _could_ not do this if I were to try.
The forms italicized above are said to be subjunctive auxiliaries; those
below are said to be independent verbs in the indicative.
7. He _may_ be there.
8. He _might_ ask you to go.
9. You _should_ not have done that.
10. He _would_ not come when called.
11. I _could_ do this at one time.
We are told that _can_ and _must_ are always independent verbs in the
indicative, and that _may, might, could, would_, and _should_ are either
subjunctive auxiliaries or independent verbs parsed in the indicative,
separately from the infinitives with which they seem to combine. But in
parsing these words as separate verbs the student is left in doubt as to
whether they are transitive or intransitive, and as to the office of the
infinitives that follow.
_Shall_ (to owe) and _will_ (to determine) are, in their original meaning,
transitive. _May, can_, and _must_ denote power (hence potential); and, as
the infinitive with which they combine names the act on which this power is
exercised, some philologists regard them as originally transitive. Among
these is our distinguished critic, Prof. Francis A. March. _May_ denotes
power from without coming from a removal of all hindrance,--hence
permission or possibility. _Can_ denotes power from within,--hence ability.
_Must_ denotes power from without coming from circumstances or the nature
of things,--hence necessity or obligation. _Should, would, might_, and
_could_ are past forms of _shall, will, may_, and _can_.
The auxiliaries take different shades of meaning. In some constructions the
meaning is fainter or less emphatic than in others. To say just how little
of its common or original meaning _may, can, must, shall_, or _will_ must
have to be an auxiliary, and how much to be a "notional," or independent,
verb would be extremely venturesome For instance, _could_ in (6) above
expresses power or ability to do, as does _could_ in (11), yet we are told
that the former _could_ is a mere auxiliary, while the latter is an
independent verb. _May_ in (1) denotes a desired removal of all hindrance;
_may_ in (7) denotes a possible removal of hindrance. It is hard to see why
the former _may_ is necessarily a mere auxiliary, and the latter a
"notional," or independent, verb. These are some of the difficulties--not
to say inconsistencies--met by the student who is taught that there is no
Potential Mode.
In a scholarly work revised by Skeat, Wrightson, speaking of _I may, can,
shall, or will love_, says, "These auxiliary verbs had at some time such a
clear and definite meaning that it would have been tolerably easy to
determine the case function discharged by the infinitive; but these verbs,
after passing through various shades of meaning, have at last become little
more than conventional symbols, so that it would be worse than useless to
attempt to analyze these periphrastic tenses
of our moods."
A CONJUGATION OF TEACH.
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Indefinite............He teaches.
Present Imperfect.............He is teaching.
Present Perfect...............He has taught.
Present Perfect Continuous....He has been teaching.
Past Indefinite...............He taught.
Past Imperfect................He was teaching.
Past Perfect..................He had taught.
Past Perfect Continuous.......He had been teaching.
Future Indefinite.............He will teach.
Future Imperfect..............He will be teaching.
Future Perfect................He will have taught.
Future Perfect Continuous.....He will have been teaching.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Indefinite............(If) he teach.
Present Imperfect.............(If) he be teaching.
Present Perfect...............(If) he have taught.
Present Perfect Continuous....(If) he have been teaching.
Past Indefinite...............(If) he taught.
Past Imperfect................(If) he were teaching.
Past Perfect..................(If) he had taught.
Past Perfect Continuous.......(If) he had been teaching.
Future Indefinite.............(If) he should teach.
Future Imperfect..............(If) he should be teaching.
Future Perfect................(If) he should have taught.
Future Perfect Continuous.....(If) he should have been teaching.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present.......................Teach [thou].
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present Indefinite............(To) teach.
Present Imperfect.............(To) be teaching.
Present Perfect...............(To) have taught.
Present Perfect Continuous....(To) have been teaching.
PARTICIPLES.
Imperfect.....................Teaching.
Perfect.......................Having taught.
Perfect Continuous............Having been teaching.
Passive Voice.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Indefinite............He is taught.
Present Imperfect.............He is being taught.
Present Perfect...............He has been taught.
Past Indefinite...............He was taught.
Past Imperfect................He was being taught.
Past Perfect..................He had been taught.
Future Indefinite.............He will be taught.
Future Imperfect..............------------------------
Future Perfect................He will have been taught.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Indefinite............(If) he be taught.
Present Imperfect.............------------------------
Present Perfect...............(If) he have been taught.
Past Indefinite...............(If) he were taught.
Past Imperfect................(If) he were being taught.
Past Perfect..................(If) he had been taught.
Future Indefinite.............(If) he should be taught.
Future Imperfect..............------------------------
Future Perfect................(If) he should have been taught.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present.......................Be [thou] taught.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present Indefinite............(To) be taught.
Present Perfect...............(To) have been taught.
PARTICIPLES.
Imperfect.....................Being taught.
Perfect.......................Taught.
Compound Perfect..............Having been taught.
INDEX.