frequently hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and to names of
periods of time, and to words denoting value; as, the _earth's_ surface,
_fortune's_ smile, _eternity's_ stillness, a _year's_ interest, a _day's_
work, a _dollar's_ worth, _two cents'_ worth.
By the use of _of_, such expressions as _witness's statement_,
_mothers-in-law's faults_ may be avoided.
+Direction+.--_Study carefully the principles and Remarks given above, and
then make each of the following terms indicate possession, using either the
possessive sign or the preposition of, as may seem most appropriate, and
join an appropriate name denoting the thing possessed_:--
Father-in-law, William the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid-de-camp,
Henry the Eighth, attorney-at-law, somebody else,[Footnote: In such
expressions as _everybody else's business_, the possessive sign is removed
from the noun and attached to the adjective. (See Lesson lai.) The
possessive sign should generally be placed immediately before the name of
the thing possessed.] Jefferson, enemy, eagle, gunpowder, book, house,
chair, torrent, sun, ocean, mountain, summer, year, day, hour, princess,
Socrates.
* * * * *
LESSON 123.
CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE FORMS.
As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a distinctive
inflection, it is only with this case that mistakes can occur in
construction.
+Caution+.--When several possessive nouns modify the same word and imply
common possession, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they
modify different words, expressed or understood, the sign is added to
each.
+Explanation+.--_William_ and _Henry's_ boat; _William's_ and _Henry's_
boat. In the first example, William and Henry are represented as jointly
owning a boat; in the second, each is represented as owning a separate
boat--_boat_ is understood after _William's_.
+Remark+.--When the different possessors are thought of as separate or
opposed, the sign may be repeated although joint possession is implied; as,
He was his _father's_, _mother's_, and _sister's_ favorite; He was the
_King's_, as well as the _people's_, favorite.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors, and give your reasons_:--
1. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's reign.
2. Messrs. Leggett's, Stacy's, Green's, & Co.'s business prospers.
3. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate.
4. America was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign.
5. We were comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victories.
6. This was the sage and the poet's theme.
+Explanation+.--If an article precedes the possessive, the sign is
repeated.
7. It was the king, not the people's, choice.
8. They are Thomas, as well as James's, books.
+Caution+.--When a possessive noun is followed by an explanatory word, the
possessive sign is added to the explanatory word only. But, if the
explanatory word has several modifiers, or if there are more explanatory
words than one, only the principal word takes the sign.
+Remarks+.--When a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun, and the
name of the thing possessed is omitted, the possessive sign may be added
either to the modifying or to the principal word; as, We stopped at
Tiffany, the _jeweler's_, or We stopped at _Tiffany's_, the jeweler.
If the name of the thing possessed is given, the noun immediately before it
takes the sign.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--
1. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home.
2. I took tea at Brown's, my old friend and schoolmate's.
3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen of England's, dominion.
4. This province is Victoria's, queen of England's.
5. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's.
6. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's statesman's.
7. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace.
+Direction+.---Tell which of the sentences above may be improved by using
other forms to denote possession. (See the following Caution.)
+Caution+.--The relation of possession may be expressed not only by (_'s_)
and by _of_ but by the use of such phrases as _belonging to_, _property
of_, etc. In constructing sentences be careful to secure smoothness and
clearness and variety by taking advantage of these different forms.
+Direction+.--_Improve the following sentences_:--
1. This is my wife's father's opinion.
+Correction+.--This is the opinion _of my wife's father_, or _held by my
wife's father_.
2. This is my wife's father's farm.
3. France's and England's interest differs widely.
4. Frederick the Great was the son of the daughter of George I. of England.
5. My brother's wife's sister's drawings have been much admired.
6. The drawings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been much
admired.
_Of_ is not always equivalent to the (_'s_),
+Explanation+.--_The president's reception_ means the reception given by
the president, but _the reception of the president_ means the reception
given to the president.
+Direction+.--_Construct sentences illustrating the meaning of the
following expressions_:--
A mother's love, the love of a mother; a father's care, the care of a
father; my friend's picture, a picture of my friend.
+Caution+.--Often ambiguity may be prevented by changing the assumed
subject of a participle from a nominative or an objective to a possessive.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--
1. The writer being a scholar is not doubted.
+Correction+.--This is ambiguous, as it may mean either that the writer is
not doubted because he is a scholar, or that the writer's scholarship is
not doubted. It should be, _The writer's being_ [Footnote: The participle
may be modified not only, as here, by a noun in the possessive but by the
articles _a_ and _the_---as said in Lesson 37. Whether it be _the imposing
a tax_ or _the issuing a paper currency.--Bagehot_. Not _a making war_ on
them, not _a leaving them_ out of mind, but _the putting_ a new
_construction_ upon them, _the taking them_ from under the old conventional
point of view.--_Matthew Arnold_. Poltroonery is _the acknowledging_ an
_infirmity_ to be incurable.--_Emerson_. _The giving_ away a man's
_money_.--_Burke_. It is not _the finding of a thing_ but _the making
something_ out of it, after it is found, that is of consequence.--_Lowell_.
As seen in this last quotation, the participle may be followed by a
preposition and so become a pure noun (Lesson 38).] _a scholar_ is not
doubted, or _That the writer is a scholar_ is not doubted.
2. I have no doubt of the writer being a scholar.
3. No one ever heard of that man running for office.
4. Brown being a politician prevented his election.
5. I do not doubt him being sincere.
6. Grouchy being behind time decided the fate of Waterloo.
* * * * *
LESSON 124.
NUMBER AND CASE FORMS.
Declension.
+DEFINITION.--_Declension_ is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and
pronouns in the two numbers+.
+Direction+.--_Learn the following declensions_:--
Declension of Nouns.
LADY. BOY. MAN.
_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_.
Nom. lady, ladies, boy, boys, man, men,
Pos. lady's, ladies', boy's, boys', man's, men's,
Obj. lady; ladies. boy; boys. man; men.
Declension of Pronouns.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON-- SECOND PERSON--
_common form_ _old form_.
_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Nom. I, we,* you, you, thou, ye(++) _or_ you
Pos. my _or_ our _or_ your _or_ your _or_ thy _or_ ye(++) _or_ you
mine,+ ours, yours, yours, thine, yours,
Obj. me; us. you; you. thee; you.
[Footnote *: Strictly speaking, _we_ can hardly be the plural of _I_, says
Professor Sweet, for _I_ does not admit of plurality. _We_ means _I_ and
_you_, _I_ and _he_, _I_ and _she_, or _I_ and _they_, etc.]
[Footnote +: The forms _mine_, _ours_, _yours_, _thine_, _hers_, and
_theirs_ are used only when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as,
_Yours_ is old, _mine_ is new = _Your book_ is old, etc. _Mine_ and _thine_
were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound; as, _thine
enemy_, _mine honor_.
The expression _a friend of mine_ presents a peculiar construction. The
explanation generally given is, that _of_ is partitive, and that the
expression is equivalent to _one friend of my friends_.
It is said that this construction can be used only when more than one thing
is possessed such expressions as _This heart of mine_, _That temper of
yours_ are good, idiomatic English. This naughty world _of ours.--Byron_.
This moral life _of mine.--Sheridan Knowles_. Dim are those heads _of
theirs.---Carlyle_.
Some suggest that the word possessing or owning is understood after these
possessives; as, This _temper of yours_ (your possessing); others say that
_of_ simply marks identity, as does of in _city of_ (=viz.) _New York_ (see
Lesson 34). They would make the expression = _This temper, your temper_.
The _s_ in _ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_ is the _s_ of _his_ and _its_
extended by analogy to _our, your, her_, and _their_, forms already
possessive. _Ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_ are consequently double
possessives.]
[Footnote ++: _Ye_ is used in Chaucer and in the King James version of the
Bible exclusively in the nominative, as was its original _ge__ in the
Saxon. Shakespeare uses _you_ in the nominative. _You_ (the Saxon
accusative _eow_) has now taken the place of _ye_, and is both nominative
and objective.
THIRD PERSON--_Mas_. THIRD PERSON--_Fem_. THIRD PERSON--_Neut_.
_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_.
Nom. he, they, she, they, it, they,
Pos. his, their _or_ her or their _or_ its,* their _or_
theirs, hers, theirs, theirs,
Obj. him; them. her; them. it; them.
[Footnote *: The possessive _its_ is our only personal pronoun form not
found in Saxon. _His_, the possessive of the masculine _he_, was there the
possessive (genitive) of the neuter _hit_ also--our _it_. But it came to be
thought improper to employ _his_ to denote inanimate things as well as
animate. The literature of the 16th and 17th centuries shows a growing
sense of this impropriety, and abounds with _of it_, _thereof_, _her_,
_it_, _the_, and _it own_ in place of _his_ as the possessive of _it_. The
first appearance of the new coinage _its_ is placed in 1598. Long after its
introduction many looked askance at _its_, because of the grammatical
blunder it contains--the_ t_ in _its_ being a nominative neuter ending, and
the _s_ a possessive ending. But no one thinks now of shunning what was
then regarded as a grammatical monstrosity.]
COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. _
_Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and_
_Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj._
myself* thyself himself;
_or_ ourselves. _or_ yourselves. herself; themselves.
ourself; yourself; itself;
[Footnote *: The compound personal pronouns are used (1) for emphasis; as,
_I myself_ saw it: and (2) as reflexives, to turn the action of the verb
back upon the actor; as, _He_ found _himself_ deserted by his friends. They
are not the only words used in this last relation; where no obscurity would
arise, we may use the simple personal pronouns instead. And _millions_ in
those solitudes ... have laid _them_ down in their last sleep.--_Bryant_.
My uncle stopped a minute to look about _him_.--_Dickens_.
The compound personal pronouns should not be used as subjects.]
+Remark+.--The possessive of these pronouns is wanting.
_Ourself_ and _we_ are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide their
individuality, and give authority to what they say.
+Relative Pronouns+.
_Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu._
_Nom_. who, which, that, what,
_Pos_. whose, whose, ------, ------,
_Obj_. whom. which. that. what.
+Remark+.--From the composition of _which_--_hwa:_-lic, or _hwaet-lic_ =
_who-like_, or _what-like_, it is evident that _whose_ is not formed from
_which_. It is, in fact, the possessive of _what_ transferred to _which_.
Much has been said against this _whose_, but it is in general use. Those
who regard usage as the final arbiter in speech need not avoid this form of
the pronoun.
+Interrogative Pronouns+.
The interrogative pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are declined like the
relatives _who, which_, and _what_.
+Compound Relative Pronouns+.
_Singular and Plural_. _Singular and Plural_.
_Nom_. whoever, whosoever,
_Pos_. whosever, whosesoever,
_Obj_. whomever. whomsoever.
_Whichever, whichsoever, whatever_, and _whatsoever_ do not change their
form.
+Adjective Pronouns+.
_This_ and _that_ with their plurals, _these_ and _those_, have no
possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the objective. _One_
and _other_ are declined like nouns; and _another_, declined like _other_
in the singular, has no plural. _Either, neither, former_, and _latter_
sometimes take the apostrophe and _s_ ('_s_) in the singular. _Each_,
_either_, and _neither_ are always singular; _both_ is always plural; and
_all, any, farmery latter, none, same, some_, and _such_ are either
singular or plural. [Footnote: On the pages immediately preceding Lesson 1,
we said that +usage+, as determined by the majority of the best writers and
speakers of the generation, is the only authority in language; and we there
explained how we are able to appeal to usage as we all along have done. In
treating of the adjective pronouns we now appeal to it again. In the first
twelve paragraphs below we give alternative expressions. Only the second of
these alternative locutions in each paragraph is allowed by many
grammarians; they utterly condemn the first. On the warrant of usage we say
that both expressions are correct.
1. We may use +each other+ with more than two; we may use _one another_ in
such a case. We may say, "_Several_ able _men_ were in correspondence with
_each other_," or "with _one another_."
2. We may use +one another+ with only two; we may use _each other_ in such
a case. We may say, "The _two countries_ agreed to stand by _one another_,"
or "by _each other_."
3. We may use +all, both+, and +whole+ with a preposition and a noun
following; we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun. We may
say, "_All of_ the _people_," "_Both of_ the _trees_," "The _whole of_ the
farm," or "_All_ the _people_," "_Both trees_," "The _whole farm_."
4. We may use the pronouns +either+ and +neither+, as we do the
conjunctions _either_ and _neither_, with more than two; we may use _any
one_ and _none_ in such cases. We may say, "Here are _three candidates_;
you may vote for _either_ or for _neither_ of them," or "for _any one_ or
for _none_ of them."
5. We may use +he+ or some other personal pronoun after the indefinite one;
we may repeat the _one_ in such a case. We may say, "The home _one_ must
quit, yet taking much of its life along with _him_," or "along with _one_."
6. We may use +such+ before an adjective and its noun; we may use _so_ with
the adjective in such a case. We may say, "_Such a strong argument_,"
"_Such admirable talent_," or "_So strong an argument_," "_Talent so
admirable_."
7. We may use the plural +ones+; we may use the noun for which _ones_
stands. We may say, "You have red roses, I have white _ones_," or "white
_roses_."
8. We may apply +the other two+ to those that remain when one of three
things has been taken from the rest; we may use _the two others_ in such a
case. We may say, "One of them kept his ground; _the other two_ ran away,"
or "_the two others_ ran away."
9. We may use +a+ before a noun in the singular and +or two+ after it; we
may use _one or two_ before the noun in the plural. We may say, "I will go
in _a day or two_," or "in _one or two days_."
10. We may use +either+ in the sense of _each_; we may use _each_ instead.
We may say, "He wrested the land on _either_ side of the Seine," or "on
_each_ side of the Seine."
11. We may insert a noun, or a noun and other words, between +other+ and
+than+; we may place the _than_ immediately after _other_. We may say, "We
must look for somee _other reasons for it than_ those suggested," or "for
some _reasons for it other than_ those suggested."
12. We may use +none+ in the plural; we may use _none_ in the singular. We
may say, "_None hear_ thy voice," or "_None hears_ thy voice."
The paragraphs below contain noteworthy uses of adjective pronouns but no
really alternative expressions.
13. Usage is overwhelmingly in favor of +any one else's, no one else's,
somebody else's, nobody else's+, instead of _any one's else_, etc. There is
scarcely any authority for placing the (_'s_) upon _one_ or _body_.
"Written by Dickens for his own or _any one else's_ children." This form is
common and convenient. We are advised to shun it, but we need not.
14. Usage is also decidedly in favor of +first two, last three+, etc.,
instead of _two first, three last_, etc.]
Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and are not declined. Such
expressions as "the _wretched's_ only plea" and "the _wicked's_ den" are
exceptional.
* * * * *
LESSON 125.
CASE FORMS--PRONOUNS.
The pronouns _I_, _thou_, _he_, _she_, and _who_ are the only words in the
language that have each three different case forms.
+Direction+.--_Study the Declensions, and correct these errors_:--
Our's, your's, hi's, her's, it's, their's, yourn, hisn, hern, theirn.
Construction of Case Forms--Pronouns.
+Caution.--I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they,+ and +who+ are +nominative+
forms, and must not be used in the objective case. +Me, us, thee, him, her,
[Footnote: _Her_ is also a possessive.] them,+ and +whom+ are objective
forms, and must not be used in the nominative case.
Remark.--The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms here
given are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the
language. All the rules of syntax given in the grammars to guide in the use
of the nominative and the objective case apply, practically, only to these
fifteen words.
+Direction.+--_Study carefully the Definitions and principles given under
the head of case, Lesson 119, and then correct these errors, giving your
reasons in every instance:--_
1. It is not me you are in love with. [Footnote: Dr. Latham defends _It is
me,_ but condemns _It is him,_ and _It is her_. Dean Alford regards as
correct the forms condemned by Latham, and asserts that _thee_ and _me_
are correct in, "The nations not so blest as _thee_" "Such weak minister
as me may the oppressor bruise." Professor Bain justifies _If I were
him, It was her, He is better than me,_ and even defends the use of
_who_ as an objective form by quoting from Shakespeare, "_Who_ servest
thou under?" and from Steele, "_Who_ should I meet?"
They justify such expressions as _It is me_ from the analogy of the
French _c'est moi_, and on the ground that they are "more frequently
heard than the prescribed form." But such analogy would justify _It are
them (ce sont eux)_; and, if the argument from the speech of the
uneducated is to have weight, we have good authority for _"Her ain't a
calling we: us don't belong to she."_ A course of reading will satisfy
one that the best writers and speakers in England are not in the habit
of using such expressions as _It is me_, and that these are almost, if
not quite unknown in American literature. No one has freed himself from
the influence of early associations that are in a careless moment some
vicious colloquialism may not creep into his discourse. A Violation of
every principle of grammar may be defended, if such inadvertencies are
to be erected into authority. To whatever is the prevailing, the
habitual, usage of a majority of the best writers and speakers the
grammarian should bow without question; but not to the accidental slips
of even the greatest writers, or to the common usage of the unreflecting
and the uncultivated.]
2. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me. [See previous
Footnote.]
3. Who servest thou under? [See previous footnote.]
4. It was not them, it was her.
5. Its being me should make no difference.
6. Him and me are of the same age.
7. Them that study grammar talk no better than me.
8. I am not so old as her; she is older than me by ten years.
9. He was angry, and me too.
10. Who will go? Me.
11. It isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land.
12. Not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him.
13. Him being a stranger, they easily misled him.
14. Oh, happy us! surrounded thus with blessings.
15. It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted.
16. I referred to my old friend, he of whom I so often speak.
17. You have seen Cassio and she together.
18. Between you and I, I believe that he is losing his mind.
19. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend? 20. Who did he refer
to, he or I?
21. Who did he choose? Did he choose you and I?
22. He that is idle and mischievous reprove.
23. We will refer it to whoever you may choose.
24. Whosoever the court favors is safe.
25. They that are diligent I will reward.
20. Scotland and thee did in each other live.
27. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to such as thee.
28. I knew that it was him.
29. I knew it to be he.
30. Who did you suppose it to be?
31. Whom did you suppose it was?
32. I took that tall man to be he.
33. I thought that tall man was him.
Although _than_ is not a preposition, it is sometimes followed by _whom,_
as in the familiar passage from Milton: "Beelzebub... _than whom,_ Satan
except, none higher sat." _Than whom_ is an irregularity justified only on
the basis of good usage. _Whom_ here may be parsed as an objective case
form used idiomatically in place of _who_.
* * * * *
LESSON 126.
CONSTRUCTION OF CASE FORMS.
MISCELLANEOUS--REVIEW.
Direction.--_Correct these errors, and give your reasons:--_
1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother?
2. It did not occur during Washington, Jefferson, or Adams's
administration.
3. I consulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary.
4. This state was south of Mason's and Dixon's line.
5. These are neither George nor Fanny's books.
6. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a noble one.
7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's.
8. He visited his sons-in-law's homes.
+Explanation.+--If the possessive plural of such nouns were used, this
would be correct; but it is better to avoid these awkward forms.
9. A valuable horse of my friend William's father's was killed.
10. For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife.
11. For the queen's sake, his sister's.
12. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen.
13. He spoke of you studying Latin.
14. It being difficult did not deter him.
15. What need is there of the man swearing?
16. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again.
17. He thought it was us.
18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or me.
19. I shall not learn my duty from such as thee.
20. A lady entered, whom I afterwards found was Miss B.
21. A lady entered, who I afterwards found to be Miss B.
22. Ask somebody's else opinion.
23. Let him be whom he may.
24. I am sure it could not have been them.
25. I understood it to be they.
26. It is not him whom you thought it was.
27. Let you and I try it.
28. All enjoyed themselves, us excepted.
29. Us boys enjoy the holidays.
30. It was Virgil, him who wrote the "Aeneid."
31. He asked help of men whom he knew could not help him.
TO THE TEACHER.--These schemes and questions under the head of General
Review are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technical
grammar.
The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only
for outlines. In some cases a single question may suffice for a whole
lesson.
Scheme for the Noun.
(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)