another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities.
Things are alike whose qualities are the same, as, two oranges having the
same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, as an orange and an apple,
whose qualities are different.
It is by their qualities, then, that we know things and group them.
_Ripe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful._ In these two
sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class of
things; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking opposite qualities
in the apples, separate the apples into two kinds--the ripe ones and the
unripe ones.
These prefixed words _ripe_ and _unripe_, then, limit the word _apples_ in
its scope; _ripe apples_ or _unripe apples_ applies to fewer things than
_apples_ alone applies to.
If we say _the, this, that_ apple, or _an, no_ apple, or _some, many,
eight_ apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit; but _the, this,_ or
_that_ points out a particular apple, and limits the word _apple_ to the
one pointed out; and _an, no, some, many_, or _eight_ limits the word in
respect to the number of apples that it denotes.
These and all such words as by marking quality, by pointing out, or by
specifying number or quantity limit the scope or add to the meaning of the
noun, +modify+ it, and are called +Modifiers+.
In the sentence above, _apples_ is the +Simple Subject+ and _ripe apples_
is the +Modified Subject+.
Words that modify nouns and pronouns are called +Adjectives+ (Lat. _ad_,
to, and _jacere_, to throw).
+DEFINITION.--A _Modifier_ is a word or a group of words joined to some
part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+.
The +Subject+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified Subject+, or
_Logical Subject_.
+DEFINITION.--An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.
Analysis and Parsing.
1. The cold November rain is falling.
rain | is falling
=========================|==============
\The \cold \November |
+Explanation.+--The two lines shaded alike and placed uppermost stand for
the subject and the predicate, and show that these are of the same rank,
and are the principal parts of the sentence. The lighter lines, placed
under and joined to the subject line, stand for the less important parts,
the modifiers, and show what is modified. [Footnote: TO THE TEACHER.--When
several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjective does not always
modify the unlimited noun. _That old wooden house was burned._ Here
_wooden_ modifies _house_, _old_ modifies _house_ limited by _wooden_, and
_that_ modifies _house_ limited by _old_ and _wooden_. This may be
illustrated in the diagram by numbering the modifiers in the order of their
rank, thus:--
|
==================|=======
\3 \2 \1 |
Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in rank in the
same way. If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it will be well
to have them made in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation
and the arrangement. See Lessons 13 and 21.]
+TO THE TEACHER.+--While we, from experience, are clear in the belief that
diagrams are very helpful in the analysis of sentences, we wish to say that
the work required in this book can all be done without resorting to these
figures. If some other form, or no form, of written analysis is preferred,
our diagrams can be omitted without break or confusion.
When diagrams are used, only the teacher can determine how many shall be
required in any one Lesson, and how soon the pupil may dispense with their
aid altogether.
+Oral Analysis.+--(Here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis
and parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Lessons.) _The,
cold,_ and _November_ are modifiers of the subject. _The cold November
rain_ is the modified subject.
TO THE TEACHER.--While in these "models" we wish to avoid repetition, we
should require of the pupils full forms of oral analysis for at least some
of the sentences in every Lesson.
+Parsing.+--_The, cold,_ and _November_ are adjectives modifying
_rain_--_cold_ and _November_ expressing quality, and _the_ pointing out.
2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed.
3. A free people should be educated.
4. The old Liberty Bell was rung.
5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned.
6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed.
7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote.
8. The long Hoosac Tunnel is completed.
9. I alone should suffer.
10. All nature rejoices.
11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked.
12. The melancholy autumn days have come.
13. A poor old wounded soldier returned.
14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed.
15. Immense suspension bridges have been built.
* * * * *
LESSON 13.
COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVES.
+Caution.+--When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be
taken in their arrangement. If they differ in rank, place nearest the noun
the one most closely modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where
they will sound best--generally in the order of length, the shortest first.
+Explanation.+--_Two honest young men were chosen, A tall, straight,
dignified person entered._ _Young_ tells the kind of men, _honest_ tells
the kind of young men, and _two_ tells the number of honest young men;
hence these adjectives are not of the same rank. _Tall_, _straight_, and
_dignified_ modify _person_ independently--the person is tall and straight
and dignified; hence these adjectives are of the same rank.
Notice the comma after _tall_ and _straight_; _and_ may be supplied; in the
first sentence _and_ cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21.
+Direction.+--_Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasons:_--
1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog.
2. Level low five the fields.
3. A wooden rickety large building.
4. Blind white beautiful three mice.
5. An energetic restless brave people.
6. An enlightened civilized nation.
+Direction.+--_Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these
predicates:_--
1. ------ have been invented.
2. ------ were destroyed.
3. ------ are cultivated.
4. ------ may be abused.
5. ------ was mutilated.
6. ------ were carved.
7. ------ have been discovered.
8. ------ have fallen.
9. ------ will be respected.
10. ------ have been built.
+Direction.+--_Construct ten sentences, each of which shall contain a
subject modified by three adjectives--one from each of these columns:_--
Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson 21.
The dark sunny
That bright wearisome
This dingy commercial
Those short blue
These soft adventurous
Five brave fleecy
Some tiny parallel
Several important cheerless
Many long golden
A warm turbid
+Direction+.--_Prefix to each of these nouns several appropriate
adjectives:_--
River, frost, grain, ships, air, men.
+Direction+.--_Couple those adjectives and nouns below that most
appropriately go together:_--
Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited,
violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly,
waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, sparrow,
blackbird, cow, hen, cackling.
* * * * *
LESSON 14.
MODIFIED PREDICATE.
ADVERBS.
+Introductory Hints+.--You have learned that the subject may be modified;
let us see whether the predicate may be.
If we say, _The leaves fall_, we express a fact in a general way. But, if
we wish to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say,
The leaves fall _early_; of the place of their falling, The leaves fall
_here_; of the manner, The leaves fall _quietly_; of the cause, _Why_ do
the leaves fall?
We may join a word to one of these modifiers and say, The leaves fall
_very_ quietly. Here _very_ modifies _quietly_ by telling the degree.
_Very quietly_ is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predicate
with its modifiers is called the +Modified Predicate+. Such words as _very,
here_, and _quietly_ form another part of speech, and are called +Adverbs+
(Lat. _ad_, to, and _verbum_, a word, or verb).
Adverbs may modify adjectives; as, _Very ripe_ apples are healthful.
Adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns--by limiting them. The
horse has a _proud step_ = The horse _steps proudly_.
The +Predicate+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified +Predicate, or
_Logical Predicate_.
+DEFINITION.--An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or
an adverb.+ [Footnote: See Lesson 92 and foot-note.]
Analysis and Parsing.
1. The leaves fall very quietly.
leaves | fall
========|======
\The | \quietly
\very
+Oral Analysis+.--_Very quietly_ is a modifier of the predicate; _quietly_
is the principal word of the group; _very_ modifies _quietly_; _the leaves_
is the modified subject; _fall very quietly_ is the modified predicate.
+Parsing+.--_Quietly_ is an adverb modifying _fall_, telling the manner;
_very_ is an adverb modifying _quietly_, telling the degree.
2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down.
3. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshiped there.
4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere.
5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted.
6. The timely suggestion was very kindly received.
7. We turned rather abruptly.
8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided.
9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed.
10. Why will people exaggerate so!
11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unexpectedly.
12. We now travel still more rapidly.
13. Therefore he spoke excitedly.
14. You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed.
15. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by.
16. The Hell Gate reef was slowly drilled away.
* * * * *
LESSON 15.
COMPOSITION--ADVERBS.
+Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you
intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also.
+Direction+.--_Place the, italicized words below in different positions,
and note the effect on the sound and the sense_:--
1. I _immediately_ ran out.
2. _Only_ one was left there.
3. She looked down _proudly_.
4. _Unfortunately_, this assistance came too late.
+Direction+.--_Construct on each of these subjects three sentences having
modified subjects and modified predicates_:---
For punctuation, see Lesson 21.
+Model+. ---- _clouds_ ----.
1. _Dark, heavy, threatening clouds are slowly gathering above_.
2. _Those, brilliant, crimson clouds will very soon dissolve_.
3. _Thin, fleecy clouds are scudding over_.
l. ---- ocean ----.
2. ---- breeze ----.
3. ---- shadows ----.
4. ---- rock ----.
5. ---- leaves ----.
+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify
verbs_:--
Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, legibly, evasively,
everywhere, aloof, forth.
+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall
modify adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs_:--
Far, unusually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost, too,
rather.
* * * * *
LESSON 16.
REVIEW.
TO THE TEACHER.--In all school work, but especially here, where the
philosophy of the sentence and the principles of construction are developed
in progressive steps, success depends largely on the character of the
reviews.
Let reviews be, so far as possible, topical. Require frequent outlines of
the work passed over, especially of what is taught in the "Introductory
Hints." The language, except that of Rules and Definitions, should be the
pupil's own, and the illustrative sentences should be original.
+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson 8 to Lesson 15, inclusive_.
Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what
three things such words as _tick, are,_ and _remain_ do in the sentence,
what office they have in common, what such words are called, and why; what
common office such words as _ripe, the,_ and _eight_ have, in what three
ways they perform it, what such words are called, and why, etc.). Repeat
and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate what is taught of the
capitalization and the abbreviation of names, and of the position of
adjectives and adverbs.
Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.
(SEE PAGES 150-153.)
TO THE TEACHER.--After the pupil has learned a few principles of analysis
and construction through the aid of short detached sentences that exclude
everything unfamiliar, he may be led to recognize these same principles in
longer related sentences grouped into paragraphs. The study of paragraphs
selected for this purpose may well be extended as an informal preparation
for what is afterwards formally presented in the regular lessons of the
text-book.
These "Exercises" are offered only as suggestions. The teacher must, of
course, determine where and how often this composition should be
introduced.
We invite special attention to the study of the paragraph.
* * * * *
LESSON 17.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSITIONS.
+Introductory Hints+.--To express our thoughts with greater exactness we
may need to expand a word modifier into several words; as, A _long_ ride
brought us _there_ = A ride _of one hundred miles_ brought us _to Chicago_.
These groups of words, _of one hundred miles_ and _to Chicago_--the one
substituted for the adjective _long_, the other for the adverb _there_--we
call +Phrases+. A phrase that does the work of an adjective is called an
+Adjective Phrase+. A phrase that does the work of an adverb is called an
+Adverb Phrase+.
As adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their equivalent
phrases; as, The train stops _only at the station_. They sometimes modify
only the introductory word of the phrase--this introductory word being
adverbial in its nature; as, He sailed _nearly around_ the globe.
That we may learn the office of such words as _of, to_, and _at_, used to
introduce these phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to another
may be expressed. _Wealthy men_. These two words express two ideas as
related. We have learned to know this relation by the form and position of
the words. Change these, and the relation is lost--_men wealth_. But by
using _of_ before _wealth_ the relation is restored---_men of wealth_. The
word _of_, then, shows the relation between the ideas expressed by the
words _men_ and _wealth_.
All such relation words are called +Prepositions+ (Lat. _prae_, before, and
_positus_, placed--their usual position being before the noun with which
they form a phrase).
A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a +Prepositional Phrase+.
This, however, is not the only kind of phrase.
+DEFINITION.--A _Phrase_ is a group of words denoting related ideas, and
having a distinct office, but not expressing a thought+.
+DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier,
and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word
modified.+
Analysis and Parsing.
1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of vibration.
TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning the use of
diagrams.
pitch depends
==========|=================
\The \of \upon
\ \
\ note \ rapidity
\-------- \------------
\the \musical \the \of
\
\vibration
\---------
+Explanation+.--The diagram of the phrase is made up of a slanting line
standing for the introductory word, and a horizontal line representing the
principal word. Under the latter are drawn the lines which represent the
modifiers of the principal word.
+Oral Analysis+.---_The_ and the adjective phrase _of the musical note_ are
modifiers of the subject; the adverb phrase _upon the rapidity of
vibration_ is a modifier of the predicate. _Of_ introduces the first
phrase, and _note_ is the principal word; _the_ and _musical_ are modifiers
of _note_; _upon_ introduces the second phrase, and _rapidity_ is the
principal word; _the_ and the adjective phrase _of vibration_ are modifiers
of _rapidity_; _of_ introduces this phrase, and _vibration_ is the
principal word.
TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning oral analysis.
+Parsing+.--_Of_ is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of _note_
to _pitch_; etc., etc.
TO THE TEACHER.--Insist that, in parsing, the pupils shall give specific
reasons instead of general definitions.
2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United States by
the blueness of the water.
3. The North Pole has been approached in three principal directions.
4. In 1607, Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the North Pole.
[Footnote: "1607" may be treated as a noun, and "six hundred" as one
adjective.]
5. The breezy morning died into silent noon.
6. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis.
7. Coal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants.
8. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom.
\in \
\ _____\below
\atmosphere \just \
\___________ \Falls
\ \______
\only \
\the
+Explanation+.----_Only_ modifies the whole phrase, and _just_ modifies the
preposition.
9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just below
the Falls.
10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over the moon.
11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the fifteenth
century.
12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at Seville by
the Saracens.
13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000 miles.
14. The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St. Helena to
France.
* * * * *
LESSON 18.
COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.
+COMMA-RULE.--Phrases that are placed out of their usual order [Footnote:
For the usual order of words and phrases, see Lesson 51.] and made
emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence,
should be set off by the comma.+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a
sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one
comma.]
+Remark.+--This rule must be applied with caution. Unless it is desired to
make the phrase emphatic, or to break the continuity of the thought, the
growing usage among writers is not to set it off.
+Direction.+--_Tell why the comma is, or is not, used in these
sentences_:--
1. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley.
2. Of the scenery along the Rhine, many travelers speak with enthusiasm.
3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor.
4. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday.
5. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he
approached.
+Direction+.--_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation_:--
1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans.
2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died.
3. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of its
natural order.
4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced with
wit.
5. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth.
6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest times to
the present day.
+Direction+.--_See in how many places the phrases in the sentences above
may stand without obscuring the thought._
+Caution+.--So place phrase modifiers that there can be no doubt as to what
yon intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also.
+Direction+.--_Correct these errors in position, and use the comma when
needed_:--
1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by the
president.
2. That small man is speaking with red whiskers.
3. A message was read from the President in the Senate.
4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning.
5. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at the old brick
church was delivered.
+Direction+.--_Form a sentence out of each of these groups of words_:--
(Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation.)
1. Of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty.
2. Of affectation of the young fop in the face impertinent an was seen
smile.
3. Has been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of the
earth over the face.
4. To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through deep
roads we after much fatigue came.
5. At the distance a flood of flame from the line from thirty iron mouths
of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth.
+Direction+.--_See into how many good, clear sentences you can convert
these by transposing the phrases_:--
1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood.
2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the tenth of
May in 1775.
* * * * *
LESSON 19.
COMPOSITION--PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.
+Direction+.--_Rewrite these sentences, changing the italicized words into
equivalent phrases_:--
+Model+.--The sentence was _carefully_ written. The sentence was written
_with_ care.
1. A _brazen_ image was _then_ set up.
2. Those _homeless_ children were _kindly_ treated.
3. Much has been said about the _Swiss_ scenery.
4. An _aerial_ trip to Europe was _rashly_ planned.
5. The _American_ Continent was _probably_ discovered by Cabot.
+Direction+.--_Change these adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases;
and then, attending carefully to the punctuation, use these phrases in
sentences of your own_:--
1. Bostonian
2. why
3. incautiously
4. nowhere
5. there
6. hence
7. northerly
8. national
9. whence
10. here
11. Arabian
12. lengthy
13. historical
14. lucidly
15. earthward
+Direction+.--_Compose sentences, using these phrases as modifiers_:--
Of copper; in Pennsylvania; from the West Indies; around the world; between
the tropics; toward the Pacific; on the 22d of February; during the reign
of Elizabeth; before the application of steam to machinery; at the
Centennial Exposition of 1876.
* * * * *
LESSON 20.
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE.
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.
+Introductory Hints.+--_Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in England._
The three words _Edward, Mary,_ and _Elizabeth_ have the same
predicate--the same act being asserted of the king and the two queens.
_Edward, Mary_, and _Elizabeth_ are connected by _and_, _and_ being
understood between Edward and Mary. Connected subjects having the same
predicate form a +Compound Subject+.
_Charles I. was seized, was tried, and was beheaded._ The three predicates
_was seized, was tried_, and _was beheaded_ have the same subject--the
three acts being asserted of the same king. Connected predicates having the
same subject form a +Compound Predicate.+
A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate; as,
_Mary_ and _Elizabeth lived_ and _reigned_ in England.
The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a compound
predicate are called +Conjunctions+ (Lat. _con_, or _cum_, together, and
_jungere_, to join).
A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word
modifiers--A dark _and_ rainy night follows; Some men sin deliberately
_and_ presumptuously.
It may connect two phrases; as, The equinox occurs in March _and_ in
September.
It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone,
would be sentences; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, _but_ the
leaves of the maple drop in autumn.
+Interjections+ (Lat. _inter_, between, and _jacere_, to throw) are the
eighth and last part of speech.
_Oh! ah! pooh! pshaw!_ etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden and
violent for deliberate sentences.
_Hail! fudge! indeed! amen! _etc., express condensed thought as well as
feeling.
Any part of speech may be wrenched from its construction with other words,
and may lapse into an interjection; _as, behold! shame! what!_
Professor Sweet calls interjections _sentence-words_.
Two or more connected subjects having the same predicate form a +Compound
Subject+.
Two or more connected predicates having the same subject form a +Compound
Predicate+.
+DEFINITION.--A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or
clauses.+
+DEFINITION.--An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or sudden
feeling.+
Analysis and Parsing.
1. Ah! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news.