[Transcriber’s note: Sidenotes are shown enclosed in diamond symbols
and multiple notes are separated by bars, as shown: ♦Note 1 | Note 2♦.]
THE
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE
VOL. I.
LONDON: PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET
THE
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
OF
EUROPE
BY
EDWARD A. FREEMAN, D.C.L., LL.D.
HONORARY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, OXFORD
IN TWO VOLUMES
_VOL. I.—TEXT_
LONDON
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
1881
_All rights reserved_
PREFACE.
It is now several years since this book was begun. It has been delayed
by a crowd of causes, by a temporary loss of strength, by enforced
absence from England, by other occupations and interruptions of various
kinds. I mention this only because of the effect which I fear it has
had on the book itself. It has been impossible to make it, what a book
should, if possible, be, the result of one continuous effort. The
mere fact that the kindness of the publishers allowed the early part
to be printed some years back has, I fear, led to some repetition and
even contradiction. A certain change of plan was found unavoidable.
It proved impossible to go through the whole volume according to the
method of the earlier chapters. Instead of treating Europe as a whole,
I found it needful to divide it into several large geographical groups.
The result is that each of the later chapters has had to go over again
some small amount of ground which had been already gone over in the
earlier chapters. In some cases later lights have led to some changes
of view or expression. I have marked these, as far as I could, in the
Additions and Corrections. If in any case I have failed to do so, the
later statement is the one which should be relied on.
I hope that I have made the object of the work clear in the
Introductory Chapter. It is really a very humble one. It aims at little
more than tracing out the extent of various states at different times,
and at attempting to place the various changes in their due relation to
one another and to their causes. I am not, strictly speaking, writing
history. I have little to do with the internal affairs of any country.
I have looked at events mainly with reference to their effect on the
European map. This has led to a reversal of what to many will seem the
natural order of things. In a constitutional history of Europe, our own
island would claim the very first place. In my strictly geographical
point of view, I believe I am right in giving it the last.
I of course assume in the reader a certain elementary knowledge of
European history, at least as much as may be learned from my own
General Sketch. Names and things which have been explained there I
have not thought it needful to explain again. I need hardly say that
I found myself far more competent to deal with some parts of the work
than with others. No one can take an equal interest in, or have an
equal knowledge of, all branches of so wide a subject. Some parts of
the book will represent real original research; others must be dealt
with in a far less thorough way, and will represent only knowledge
got up for the occasion. In such cases the reader will doubtless find
out the difference for himself. But I have felt my own deficiencies
most keenly in the German part. No part of European history is to me
more attractive than the early history of the German kingdom as such.
No part is to me less attractive than the endless family divisions and
unions of the smaller German states.
In the Slavonic part I have found great difficulty in following any
uniform system of spelling. I consulted several Slavonic scholars. Each
gave me advice, and each supported his own advice by arguments which I
should have thought unanswerable, if I had not seen the arguments in
support of the wholly different advice given me by the others. When
the teachers differ so widely, the learner will, I hope, be forgiven,
if the result is sometimes a little chaotic. I have tried to write
Slavonic names so as to give some approach to the sound, as far as I
know it. But I fear that I have succeeded very imperfectly.
In such a crowd of names, dates, and the like, there must be many small
inaccuracies. In the case of the smaller dates, those which do not mark
the great epochs of history, nothing is easier than to get wrong by a
year or so. Sometimes there is an actual difference of statement in
different authorities. Sometimes there is a difference in the reckoning
of the year. For instance, In what year was Calais lost to England? We
should say 1558. A writer at the time would say 1557. Then again there
is no slip of either pen or press so easy as putting a wrong figure,
and, except in the case of great and obvious dates, or again when the
mistake is very far wrong indeed, there is no slip of pen or press so
likely to be passed by in revision. And again there is often room for
question as to the date which should be marked. In recording a transfer
of territory from one power to another, what should be the date given?
The actual military occupation and the formal diplomatic cession are
often several years apart. Which of these dates should be chosen? I
have found it hard to follow any fixed rule in such matters. Sometimes
the military occupation seems the most important point, sometimes the
diplomatic cession. I believe that in each case where a question of
this sort might arise, I could give a reason for the date which has
been chosen; but here there has been no room to enter into discussions.
I can only say that I shall be deeply thankful to any one who will
point out to me any mistakes or seeming mistakes in these or any other
matters.
The maps have been a matter of great difficulty. I somewhat regret
that it has been found needful to bind them separately from the text,
because this looks as if they made some pretensions to the character of
an historical atlas. To this they lay no claim. They are meant simply
to illustrate the text, and in no way enter into competition either
with such an elaborate collection as that of Spruner-Menke, or even
with collections much less elaborate than that. Those maps are meant
to be companions in studying the history of the several periods. Mine
do not pretend to do more than to illustrate changes of boundary in a
general way. It was found, as the work went on, that it was better on
the whole to increase the number of maps, even at the expense of making
each map smaller. There are disadvantages both ways. In the maps of
South-Eastern Europe, for instance, it was found impossible to show
the small states which arose in Greece after the Latin conquest at all
clearly. But this evil seemed to be counterbalanced by giving as many
pictures as might be of the shifting frontier of the Eastern Empire
towards the Bulgarian, the Frank, and the Ottoman.
In one or two instances I have taken some small liberties with my
dates. Thus, for instance, the map of the greatest extent of the
Saracen dominion shows all the countries which were at any time under
the Saracen power. But there was no one moment when the Saracen power
took in the whole extent shown in the map. Sind and Septimania were
lost before Crete and Sicily were won. But such a view as I have
given seemed on the whole more instructive than it would have been to
substitute two or three maps showing the various losses and gains at a
few years’ distance from one another.
I have to thank a crowd of friends, including some whom I have never
seen, for many hints, and for much help given in various ways. Such
are Professor Pauli of Göttingen, Professor Steenstrup of Copenhagen,
Professor Romanos of Corfu, M. J.-B. Galiffe of Geneva, Dr. Paul Turner
of Budapest, Professor A. W. Ward of Manchester, the Rev. H. F. Tozer,
Mr. Ralston, Mr. Morfill, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and my son-in-law Arthur
John Evans, whose praise is in all South-Slavonic lands.
SOMERLEAZE, WELLS:
_December 16, 1880._
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
Definition of Historical Geography 1
Its relation to kindred studies 1-2
Distinction between geographical and political names 3-5
§ 1. _Geographical Aspect of Europe._
Boundaries of Europe and Asia 5-6
General geography of the two continents—the great peninsulas 6-7
§ 2. _Effects of Geography on History._
Beginnings of history in the southern peninsulas—characteristics
of Greece and Italy 7-8
Advance and extent of the Roman dominion; the Mediterranean lands,
Gaul, and Britain 8-9
Effects of the geographical position of Germany, France, Spain,
Scandinavia, Britain 9-10
Effect of geographical position on the colonizing powers 10
Joint working of geographical position and national character 11
§ 3. _Geographical Distribution of Races._
Europe an Aryan continent—non-Aryan remnants and latter settlements 12
Fins and Basques 13
Order of Aryan settlements; Greeks and Italians 13
Celts, Teutons, Slaves, Lithuanians 14-15
Displacement and assimilation among the Aryan races 16
Intrusion of non-Aryans; Saracens 16
Turanian intrusions; Bulgarians; Magyars; Ottomans; differences in
their history 17
CHAPTER II.
GREECE AND THE GREEK COLONIES.
§ 1. _The Eastern or Greek Peninsula._
Geographical and historical characteristics of the Eastern, Greek,
or Byzantine peninsula 18-19
Its chief divisions; Thrace and Illyria; their relations to Greece 19-20
Greece Proper and its peninsulas 20-21
Peloponnêsos 21
§ 2. _Insular and Asiatic Greece._
Extent of _Continuous Hellas_ 21
The Islands 22
Asiatic Greece 22-23
§ 3. _Ethnology of the Eastern Peninsula._
The Greeks and the kindred races 23
Illyrians, Albanians, or Skipetar 24
Inhabitants of Epeiros, Macedonia, Sicily, and Italy 24
Pelasgians 24-25
The Greek Nation 25
§ 4. _Earliest Geography of Greece and the Neighbouring Lands._
Homeric Greece: its extent and tribal divisions 25-27
Use of the name _Epeiros_ 26
The cities: their groupings unlike those of later times; supremacy
of Mykênê 27
Extent of Greek colonization in Homeric times 28
The Asiatic catalogue 28
Probable kindred of all the neighbouring nations 28
Phœnician and Greek settlements in the islands 28
§ 5. _Change from Homeric to Historic Greece._
Changes in Peloponnêsos; Dorian and Aitolian settlements 29
Later divisions of Peloponnêsos 29-30
Change in Northern Greece; Thessaly 30
Akarnania and the Corinthian colonies 31
Foundation and destruction of cities 31
§ 6. _The Greek Colonies._
The Ægæan and Asiatic colonies 32-33
Early greatness of the Asiatic cities; Milêtos 32
Their submission to Lydians and Persians 32-33
The Thracian colonies; abiding greatness of Thessalonikê
and Byzantion 33
More distant colonies; Sicily, Italy, Dalmatia 33-34
Parts of the Mediterranean not colonized by the Greeks;
Phœnician settlements; struggles in Sicily and Cyprus 34-35
Greek colonies in Africa, Gaul, and Spain 35
Colonies on the Euxine; abiding greatness of Cherson and Trebizond 36
Beginning of the artificial Greek nation 36
§ 7. _Growth of Macedonia and Epeiros._
Growth of Macedonia; Philip; Alexander and the Successors;
effects of their conquests 37
Epeiros under Pyrrhos; Athamania 37
The Macedonian kingdoms; Egypt; Syria 38
Independent states in Asia; Pergamos 38
Asiatic states; advance of Greek culture 39
Free cities; Hêrakleia 39
Sinôpê; Bosporos 39
§ 8. _Later Geography of Independent Greece._
The Confederations; Achaia, Aitolia; smaller confederations 40
Macedonian possessions 40
First Roman possessions east of the Hadriatic 40
Progress of Roman conquest in Macedonia and Greece 41
Special character of Greek history 42
CHAPTER III.
FORMATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
Meanings of the name Italy; its extent under the Roman commonwealth 43
Characteristics of the Italian peninsula; the great islands 44
§ 1. _The Inhabitants of Italy and Sicily._
Ligurians and Etruscans 45
The Italian nations; Latins and Oscans 45-46
Other nations; Iapygians; Gauls; Veneti; use of the name _Venetia_ 46-47
Greek colonies in Italy; Kymê and Ankôn 47
The southern colonies; their history 47-48
Inhabitants of Sicily; Sikanians and Sikels 48
Phœnician and Greek settlements; rivalry of Aryan and
Semitic powers 48-49
§ 2. _Growth of the Roman Power in Italy._
Gradual conquest of Italy; different positions of the Italian
states 49
Origin of Rome; its Latin element dominant 49-50
Early Latin dominion of Rome 50
Conquest of Veii; more distant wars 50
Incorporation of the Italian states 50-51
§ 3. _The Western Provinces._
Nature of the Roman provinces 51
Eastern and Western provinces 52
First Roman possessions in Sicily; conquest of Syracuse 53
State of Sicily; its Greek civilization 53
Sardinia and Corsica 53-54
Cisalpine Gaul 54-55
Liguria; Venetia; Istria; foundation of Aquileia 55
Spain; its inhabitants; Iberians; Celts; Greek and Phœnician
colonies 55-56
Conquest and Romanization of Spain 56-57
Transalpine Gaul; the Province 57
Conquests of Cæsar; threefold division of Gaul 57-58
Boundaries of Gaul purely geographical; survival of nomenclature 57-58
Roman Africa; restoration of Carthage 58-60
§ 4. _The Eastern Provinces._
Contrast between the Eastern and Western provinces; Greek
civilization in the East 60
Distinctions among the Eastern provinces; boundary of Tauros 60-61
The Illyrian provinces; kingdom of Skodra; conquest of Dalmatia
and Istria 62-63
The outlying Greek lands: Crete, Cyprus, Kyrênê 63
The Asiatic provinces; province of Asia; Mithridatic War;
independence of Lykia 64
Syria; Palestine 65
Rome and Parthia 65
Conquest of Egypt; the Roman Peace 66
§ 5. _Conquests under the Empire._
Conquests from Augustus to Nero; incorporation of vassal kingdoms 66-67
Attempted conquest of Germany; frontiers of Rhine and Danube;
conquests on the Danube 67-68
Attempt on Arabia 68
Annexation of Thrace and Byzantion 68
Conquest of Britain; the wall 69
Conquests of Trajan; his Asiatic conquests surrendered by Hadrian 70
Arabia Petræa 70
Dacia; change of the name 70-71
Roman, Greek, and Oriental parts of the Empire 71
CHAPTER IV.
THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
§ 1. _The Later Geography of the Empire._
Changes under the Empire; loss of old divisions 73
New divisions of Italy under Augustus 74
Division of the Empire under Diocletian 74-75
The four Prætorian Prefectures 75
Prefecture of the East; its character 75-76
Its dioceses; the East; Egypt, Asia, Pontos 76
Diocese of Thrace; provinces of Scythia and Europa 76-77
Great cities of the Eastern prefecture 77
Prefecture of Illyricum; position of Greece 77-78
Dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia; province of Achaia 78
Prefecture of Italy; its extent 78
Dioceses of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa; greatness of Carthage 79
Prefecture of Gaul 79
Diocese of Spain; its African territory 79
Dioceses of Gaul and Britain; province of Valentia 79-80
§ 2. _The Division of the Empire._
Change in the position of Rome 80
Division of the Empire, A.D. 395 81
Rivalry with Parthia and Persia inherited by the Eastern Empire 81-82
Teutonic invasions; no Teutonic settlements in the East 82-83
§ 3. _The Teutonic Settlements within the Empire._
The Wandering of the Nations 83
New nomenclature of the Teutonic nations 83-84
Warfare on the Rhine and Danube; Roman outposts beyond the rivers 84
Teutonic confederations; Marcomanni; Quadi 84-85
Franks, Alemans, Saxons; Germans within the Empire 85-86
Beginning of national kingdoms 86
Loss of the Western provinces of Rome 86
Settlements within the Empire by land and by sea 87
Franks, Burgundians, Goths, Vandals 87-88
Early history of the Goths 88-89
The West-Gothic kingdom in Gaul and Spain 89-90
Alans, Suevi, Vandals; the Vandals in Africa 89-90
The Franks; use of the name _Francia_ 91
Alemans, Thuringians; Low-Dutch tribes 91
The Frankish dominions; Roman Germany Teutonized afresh;
peculiar position of the Franks 91-93
Celtic remnant in Armorica or Britanny 93
The Burgundians; various uses of the name _Burgundy_;
separate history of Provence 93-94
Inroads of the Huns; battle of Châlons; origin of Venice 94
Nominal reunion of the Empire in 476 94
Reigns of Odoacer and Theodoric 94-95
§ 4. _Settlement of the English in Britain._
Withdrawal of the Roman troops from Britain 95
Special character of the English Conquest of Britain 96
The Low-Dutch settlers, Angles, Saxons, Jutes; origin of the
name _English_ 97
The Welsh and Scots 98
§ 5. _The Eastern Empire._
Comparison of the two Empires; no Teutonic settlements in the
Eastern 98
The Tetraxite Goths 98
Rivalry with Parthia continued under the revived Persian kingdom 98-99
Position of Armenia 99
Momentary conquests of Trajan 99
Conquests of Marcus, Severus, and Diocletian; cessions of Jovian 100
Division of Armenia; Hundred Years’ Peace 100
Summary 101-102
CHAPTER V.
THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE.
§ 1. _The Reunion of the Empire._
Continued existence of the Empire; position of the Teutonic kings 103
Extent of the Empire at the accession of Justinian 104
Conquests of Justinian; their effects 104-106
Provence ceded to the Franks 105
§ 2. _Settlement of the Lombards in Italy._
Early history of the Lombards; Gepidæ, Avars 106-107
Possibility of Teutonic powers on the Danube 107
Lombard conquest of Italy; its partial nature; territory kept
by the Empire 107-108
§ 3. _Rise of the Saracens._
Loss of the Spanish province by the Empire 108
Wars of Chosroes and Heraclius 109
Extension of Roman power on the Euxine 109-110
Relation of the Arabs to Rome and Persia 110
Union of the Arabs under Mahomet; renewed Aryan and Semitic strife 110
Loss of the Eastern and African provinces of Rome 111
Saracen conquest of Persia 111
Conquest of Spain; Saracen province in Gaul 111-112
Effects of the Saracen conquests; distinction between the
Latin, Greek, and Eastern provinces 112
Greatest extent of Saracen provinces 112
Loss of Septimania 113
§ 4. _Settlements of the Slavonic Nations._
Movements of the Slaves; Avars, Magyars, &c. 113-114
Geographical separation of the Slaves 114
Analogy between Teutons and Slaves 114
Slavonic settlements under Heraclius; the Dalmatian cities;
displacement of the Illyrians 115
Slavonic settlements in Greece 115-116
Settlement of the Bulgarians 116
Curtailment of the Empire; moral influence of Constantinople 116-117
§ 5. _The Transfer of the Western Empire to the Franks._
Conquests of the Franks in Germany and Gaul 117-119
Their position in Germany, Northern Gaul, and Southern Gaul 119-120
Division of the Frankish dominion; Austria and Neustria 120-121
Use of the name _Francia_; Teutonic and Latin _Francia_;
modern forms of the name 121
The Karlings; their conquests; German character of their power 121-122
The great powers of the eighth century: Romans, Franks, Saracens 122
Character of the Caliphate; its divisions 122
Relations between the Franks and the Empire 123
Lombard conquest of the Exarchate 123
Conquest of the Lombards by Charles the Great; he holds
Lombardy as a separate kingdom 123
His Roman title of Patrician 123-124
Effects of his Imperial coronation; final division of the Empire 124
The two Empires become severally German and Greek; their
separation and rivalry 124-125
The two Empires and the two Caliphates 125-126
Extent of the Carolingian Empire 126
Conquest of Saxony; dealings with Scandinavia; frontier of
the Eider 126-127
Relations with the Slaves; overthrow of the Avars 127
The Spanish March 128
Divisions of the Empire; kingdoms of Aquitaine and Italy 128
Use of the names _Francia_, _Gallia_, _Germania_ 129
§ 6. _Northern Europe._
Lands beyond the Empire: Scandinavia and Britain 129
Stages of English Conquest in Britain; Teutonic and Celtic
states 129-130
Supremacy of Wessex 130
Denmark; Norway; Sweden 130-131
Different directions of the Scandinavian settlements 131
Summary 131-133
Religious changes 132
Note on the Slavonic settlements 133
CHAPTER VI.
THE BEGINNING OF THE MODERN EUROPEAN STATES.
§ 1. _The Division of the Frankish Empire._
Break-up of the Frankish power; origin of the states of
modern Europe 134
Kingdoms of Italy and Aquitaine 134
Division of 817 135
Union of Neustria and Aquitaine; first glimpses of modern France 135
Division of Verdun; Eastern and Western _Francia_; _Lotharingia_;
the Western Kingdom or Karolingia 137
Middle Kingdom or _Burgundy_ 137
Union under Charles the Fat; division on his deposition 137
No formal titles used; various names for the German Kingdom 138
Connexion between the German Kingdom and the Roman Empire 139
Extent of the German Kingdom; its duchies and _marks_ 139-140
Lotharingia 140-141
Extent of the Western Kingdom 141
Its great fiefs; Aquitaine; France; Normandy cut off from France 142
Origin of the French kingdom and nation; union of the duchy of
France with the Western kingdom 143
New use of the word _France_; title of _Rex Francorum_ 143-144
Paris the kernel of France 144
Various uses of the name _Burgundy_ 144
The French Duchy; the Middle Kingdom; Transjurane and
Cisjurane Burgundy 144-145
Great cities of the Burgundian kingdom 145
Separation of Burgundy from the Frankish kingdom; its union
with Germany 145-146
Its later history; mainly swallowed up by France, but partly
represented by Switzerland 146
Kingdom of Italy; its extent; separate principalities 146-147
Italy represents the Lombard kingdom; Milan its capital 147
Abeyance of the Western Empire; its restoration by Otto the
Great; the three Imperial kingdoms 147-148
Rivalry between France and the Empire 148
§ 2. _The Eastern Empire._
Rivalry of the Eastern and Western Empires and Churches;
Greek character of the Eastern Empire; fluctuations in
its extent 149
The _Themes_; Asiatic Themes 149-151
The European Themes; Hellas; Lombardy; Sicily 151-152
Older Greek names supplanted by new ones 151
Character of the European and Asiatic dominion of the Empire;
its supremacy by sea 152
Losses and gains; Crete; Sicily; Italy; Dalmatia; Greece; Syria;
Bulgaria; Cherson 152-153
Greatness of the Empire under Basil the Second 153
§ 3. _Origin of the Spanish Kingdoms._
Special position of Spain; the Saracen conquest 153-154
Growth of the Christian states 154-155
Castile; Aragon; Portugal 155
Break-up of the Western Caliphate 156
§ 4. _Origin of the Slavonic States._
Slavonic and Turanian invasions of the Eastern Empire;
Bulgarians; Magyars; Great Moravia 156-157
Special character of the Hungarian kingdom; effects of its
religious connexion with the West 157
The Northern and Southern Slaves split asunder by the Magyars 158
The South-eastern Slaves 158
The North-western Slaves; Bohemia; Poland 159
Special position of Russia 159
§ 5. _Northern Europe._
Scandinavian settlements 159-160
Growth of the kingdom of England 160
The Danish invasions; division between Ælfred and Guthrum;
Bernicia; Cumberland 161
Second West-Saxon advance; Wessex grows into England;
submission of Scotland and Strathclyde; Cumberland and Lothian 162
Use of the Imperial titles by the English kings; Northern Empire
of Cnut; England finally united by the Norman Conquest 162-163
Summary 163-165
CHAPTER VII.
THE ECCLESIASTICAL GEOGRAPHY OF WESTERN EUROPE.
Permanence of ecclesiastical divisions; they preserve earlier
divisions; case of Lyons and Rheims 166-167
Patriarchates, Provinces, Dioceses 167
Bishoprics within and without the Empire 167-168
§ 1. _The Great Patriarchates._
The Patriarchates suggested by the Prefectures 168
Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem 168-169
Later Patriarchates 169-170
§ 2. _The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Italy._
Great numbers and smaller importance of the Italian bishoprics 170
Rivals of Rome; Milan, Aquileia, Ravenna 171
The immediate Roman province; other metropolitan sees 171-172
§ 3. _The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Gaul and Germany._
Gaulish and German dioceses 172
Provinces of Southern Gaul; position of Lyons 172-173
New metropolitan sees; Toulouse, Alby, Avignon, Paris;
comparison of civil and ecclesiastical divisions 174
Provinces of Northern Gaul and Germany; history of Mainz 178-179
The archiepiscopal electors; other German provinces; Salzburg,
Bremen, Magdeburg 176-177
Modern arrangements in France, Germany, and the Netherlands 177
§ 4. _The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Spain._
Peculiarities of Spanish ecclesiastical geography; effects of
the Saracen conquest 178
Gothic and later dioceses; neglect of the Pyrenæan barrier 178-179
§ 5. _The Ecclesiastical Divisions of the British Islands._
Analogy between Britain and Spain 179
Tribal nature of the Celtic episcopate 179-180
Scheme of Gregory the Great; the two English provinces;
relation of Scotland to York 180-181
Foundation of the English sees; territorial bishoprics 181
Canterbury and its suffragan; effects of the Norman Conquest 181-182
Province of York; Scotland and Ireland 182-183
§ 6. _The Ecclesiastical Divisions of Northern and Eastern Europe._
The Scandinavian provinces; Lund, Upsala, Trondhjem 184
Poland and neighbouring lands; Gnezna, Riga, Leopol 184-185
Provinces of Hungary and Dalmatia 186
CHAPTER VIII.
THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.
The German Kingdom; its relation to the Western Empire; falling
off of Italy and Burgundy 188-190
Loss of territory by the German kingdom; its extension to the
north-east 190-191
Geographical contrast of the earlier and the later Empire 191
§ 1. _The Kingdom of Germany._
Changes of boundaries and nomenclature in Germany; Saxony;
Bavaria; Austria; Burgundy; Prussia 191-192
Extent of the Kingdom; fluctuations of its western boundary;
Lorraine; Elsass; the left bank of the Rhine 192-194
Fluctuations on the Burgundian frontier; union of Burgundy
with the Empire 194
Frontier of Germany and Italy; union of the crowns 195
Northern and eastern advance of the Empire; the _marks_ 195
Hungarian frontier; marks of Austria, Carinthia, and Carniola 196
Danish frontier; Danish mark; boundary of the Eider 196
The Slavonic frontier 197
The Saxon mark; Slavonic princes of Mecklenburg, Lübeck;
the Hansa 198-199
Marks of Brandenburg, Lausitz, and Meissen 199
Bohemia and Moravia 199
Polish frontier; Pomerania, Silesia 200
Germanization of the Slavonic lands 200-201
Internal geography; growth of the principalities 201
Growth of the marchlands; Brandenburg or Prussia, and Austria;
analogies elsewhere 202
Decline of the duchies; end of the _Gauverfassung_ 202
Growth of the House of Austria; separation of Switzerland and
the Netherlands 203
The Circles 203
Powers holding lands within and without the Empire; Austria;
Sweden; Brandenburg and Prussia; Hannover and Great Britain 203-204
Dissolution of the kingdom; the Confederation 204
Greatness of Prussia and Austria 204
The new Empire 204
Germany under the Saxon and Frankish kings; vanishing of Francia;
analogy of Wessex 205-206
Changes in the twelfth century; beginning of Brandenburg and
Austria; the duchies and the circles 206-207
Duchy of Saxony; its divisions and growth 207
Break-up of the duchy; Westfalia; the new Saxony 207
Duchy of Brunswick; electorate and kingdom of Hannover 208
The new Saxony; Lauenburg; the Saxon Electorate 208-209
The North Mark of Saxony or Mark of Brandenburg 209
House of Hohenzollern; union of Brandenburg and Prussia 210
Advances in Pomerania, Westfalia, &c. 210
German character of the Prussian state; its contrast with
Austria; use of the name _Prussia_ 210-211
Conquest of Silesia; Polish acquisitions of Prussia; East
Friesland 211-212
Saxon Possessions of Denmark and Sweden 212-213
Free cities of Saxony; the Hansa; the cities and the bishoprics 213-214
Duchy of _Francia_; held by the bishops of Würzburg; the
Franconian circle 214
The Rhenish circles; Hessen; Bamberg; Nürnberg; the
ecclesiastical states on the Rhine 214-215
Palatinate of the Rhine; Upper Palatinate 215
Bavaria; its relations towards the Palatinate and towards Austria 215
Archbishopric of Salzburg 215
Lotharingia; falling off from the Empire; the later Lorraine
and Elsass 216
Swabia; ecclesiastical powers 216
Swabian lands of the Confederates 216
Baden and Württemberg 216
Circle of Austria; house of Habsburg 217
Extent of its German lands; Tyrol; Elsass; loss of Swabian lands 217
Bohemia and its dependencies 217
Trent and Brixen 217
Circle of Burgundy; not purely German; its origin 218
§ 2. _The Confederation and Empire of Germany._
Germany changes from a kingdom to a confederation 218
The _Bund_; the new Confederation and Empire; the Empire
still federal 219
Wars of the French Revolution; loss of the left bank of the Rhine 220
Suppression of free cities and ecclesiastical states; new
electorates 220
Peace of Pressburg; new kingdoms; cessions made by Austria 221
Title of ‘Emperor of Austria;’ Confederation of the Rhine; end of
the Western Empire 221
German territories of Denmark and Sweden 221-222
Losses of Prussia and Austria; French annexations 222
Kingdoms of Saxony and Westfalia; Grand duchy of Frankfurt 222
Germany wiped out of the map 222
Losses of Prussia; Danzig; duchy of Warsaw 222-223
The German Confederation; princes holding lands within and
without the Confederation; kingdom of Hanover 223
Increase of Prussian territory; dismemberment of Saxony 224
Lands recovered by Austria; German possessions of Denmark and
the Netherlands; Sweden withdraws from Germany 224-225
Comparison of Prussia and Austria; Hannover 225
Kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg; other German states;
the free cities; Lüttich passes to Belgium 226-227
Revival of German national life 227
Affairs of Luxemburg 228-229
War of Sleswick and Holstein; the duchies ceded to Austria
and Prussia 228
War of 1866; North German Confederation; exclusion of Austria;
great advance of Prussia 228-229
War with France; the new German Empire; recovery of
Elsass-Lothringen 229-230
Comparison of the old kingdom and the new Empire; name
of _Prussia_ 230-231
§ 3. _The Kingdom of Italy._
Small geographical importance of the kingdom; changes on the
Alpine frontier 231-232
Case of Trieste 233
Apulia, Sicily, Venice, no part of the kingdom; their relation
to the Eastern Empire 233-234
Special history of the house of Savoy 234
Extent of the kingdom; Neustria and Austria; Æmilia, Tuscany;
Romagna 234-235
Lombardy proper; the marches 235
Comparison of Germany and Italy; the commonwealths, the
tyrants, the Popes; four stages of Italian history 235-236
Northern Italy; the Marquesses of Montferrat; the Lombard
cities; the Veronese march 236-238
Central Italy; Romagna and the march of Ancona; the Tuscan
commonwealths; Pisa and Genoa; Rome and the Popes 238-239
The tyrannies; Spanish dominion: practical abeyance of the
Empire in Italy; Imperial and Papal fiefs 239-240
Palaiologoi at Montferrat; house of Visconti at Milan; the duchy
of Milan; its dismemberment; duchy of Parma and Piacenza 240-242
Land power of Venice 242-243
Other principalities; duchy of Mantua, of Ferrara and Modena;
difference in their tenure 243-244
Romagna; Bologna; Urbino; advance of the Popes 244
The Tuscan cities; Lucca; rivalry of Pisa and Genoa; Siena;
Florence 245
Duchy of Florence; grand duchy of Tuscany 246
§ 4. _The Later Geography of Italy._
The kingdom practically forgotten; position of Charles the Fifth 246
Italy a geographical expression; changes in the Italian states 246-247
Dominion of the two branches of the house of Austria 247
Italy mapped into larger states; exceptions at Monaco and
San Marino 247
Venice; Milan Spanish and Austrian; its dismemberment in favour
of Savoy; end of Montferrat and Mantua 248-249
Parma and Piacenza; separation of Modena and Ferrara; Genoa
and Lucca; Grand Duchy of Tuscany; advance of the Popes 249
The Norman kingdom of Sicily; Benevento 250
The Two Sicilies; their various unions and divisions; their
relations to the houses of Austria, Savoy and Bourbon 250-251
Use of the name _Sardinia_ 251
Wars of the French Revolution; the new republics; Treaty of
Campo Formio; Piedmont joined to France 251-253
Restoration of the Pope and the King of the Two Sicilies 253
The French kingdoms; Etruria; Italy 253
Various annexations; Rome becomes French; Murat King of Naples 253-254
Italy under French dominion; revival of the Italian name 254-255
Settlement of 1814-1815; the princes restored, but not the
commonwealths 255
Austrian kingdom of Lombardy and Venice; Genoa annexed by
Piedmont 255-256
The smaller states; the Papal states; Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies 256
Union of Italy comes from Piedmont; earlier movements; war of
1859; Kingdom of Italy: Savoy and Nizza ceded to France 257-258
Recovery of Venetia and Rome; parts of the kingdom not recovered 258
Freedom of San Marino 258
§ 5. _The Kingdom of Burgundy._
Union of Burgundy with Germany; dying out of the kingdom;
chiefly swallowed up by France, but represented by
Switzerland 258-259
Boundaries of the kingdom; fluctuation; Romance tongue prevails
in it 259
History of the Burgundian Palatinate; Besançon; Montbeliard 261
The Lesser Burgundy; partly German 261
The Dukes of Zähringen; the ecclesiastical states; the free cities;
the free lands; growth of the Old League of High Germany 262
Growth of Savoy; Burgundian possessions of its counts 263
States between the Palatinate and the Mediterranean; Bresse
and Bugey; principalities and free cities 263
County of Provence; its connexion with France 263-264
Progress of French annexation: 1310-1791: Lyons; the Dauphiny:
Vienne; Valence; Provence; Avignon and Venaissin 264-265
Nizza 265
History of Orange 265-266
States which have split off from the Imperial kingdoms:
Switzerland; Savoy; the duchy of Burgundy by Belgium
and the Netherlands 266-267
The Austrian power; its position as a marchland; its union
with Hungary; its relation to Eastern Europe 267-268
§ 6. _The Swiss Confederation._
German origin of the Confederation; popular errors; sketch
of Swiss history 268-270
The Three Lands; the cities: Luzern, Zürich, Bern; the Eight
Ancient Cantons 270
Allies and subjects; dominion of Zürich and Bern; conquests
from Austria 270-271
Italian conquests; first conquests from Savoy; League of Wallis 271-272
The Thirteen Cantons 272
League of Graubünden; further Italian and Savoyard conquests 272-273
History of Geneva; territory restored to Savoy; division of
Gruyères 273-274
The Allied States; Neufchâtel; Constanz 274
The Confederation independent of the Empire; its position as
a middle state 274-275
Wars of the French Revolution; Helvetic Republic; freedom of
the subject lands; annexations to France 275-276
Act of Mediation; the nineteen cantons 276
The present Swiss Confederation 276
History of Neufchâtel 276
§ 7. _The State of Savoy._
Position and growth of Savoy; three divisions of the Savoyard
lands; popular confusions 277-278
The Savoyard power originally Burgundian; Maurienne; Aosta 278
First Italian possessions 279
Burgundian advance; lands north of the lake 280-281
Relations to Geneva, France, and Bern 281-282
Acquisition of Nizza 282
Italian advance of Savoy; principally of Achaia, of Piedmont;
Saluzzo 283-284
Savoy a middle state 284
French influence and occupation; decline of Savoy 285
Loss of lands north of the lake; further losses to Bern and
her allies; recovery of the lands south of the lake;
the Savoyard power becomes mainly Italian 286
Savoy falls back in Burgundy and advances in Italy; history
of Saluzzo; finally acquired in exchange for Bresse, &c. 287
Duchy of Savoy annexed to France; restored; annexed again 288
French annexation of Nizza; Aosta the one Burgundian remnant 288
Savoyard advance in Italy 289
§ 8. _The Duchy of Burgundy and the Low Countries._
Position of the Valois dukes as a middle power; result of
their twofold vassalage 290
Schemes of a Burgundian kingdom; their final effects; Belgium
and the Netherlands 290-291
History of the duchy of Burgundy; its union with Flanders,
Artois, and the county of Burgundy; relations to France
and the Empire 292-293
The Netherlands; the counts of Flanders; their Imperial fiefs 293
Holland and Friesland 293
Brabant; Hainault; union of Holland and Hainault 294
Common points in all these states; the great cities; Romance
and Teutonic dialects 294-295
South-western states; Liége; Luxemburg; Limburg; duchy
of Geldern 295
Middle position of these states; French influence; union
under the Burgundian dukes 296
Advance under Philip the Good; Namur, Brabant, and Limburg,
Holland and Hainault 296-297
The towns on the Somme; Flanders and Artois released
from homage 297-298
Philip’s last acquisition of Luxemburg; advance under Charles
the Bold and Charles the Fifth; union of the Netherlands 298
The Netherlands pass to Spain; war of independence; its
imperfect results 299
The Seven United Provinces; their independence of the Empire;
their colonies; lack of a name; use of the word _Dutch_ 299-300
The Spanish Netherlands; English possession of Dunkirk;
advance of France; the Spanish Netherlands pass to Austria 301
Annexation by France; kingdom of Holland; all the Burgundian
possessions French 302
Kingdom of the Netherlands; Liége incorporated; relation
of Luxemburg to Germany 303
Division of the Netherlands and Belgium; separation of
Luxemburg from Germany 303
General history and result of the Burgundian power 303-304
§ 9. _The Dominions of Austria._
Origin of the name _Austria_; anomalous position of the
Austrian power; the so-called ‘Empire’ of Austria 305-307
The _Eastern Mark_; becomes a duchy; division of Carinthia;
union of Austria and Styria 307-308
County of Görz 309
Austria, &c., annexed by Bohemia; great power of Ottokar 309
House of Habsburg; their Swabian and Alsatian lands; their loss 309-311
King Rudolf; break-up of the power of Ottokar; Albert duke
of Austria and Styria 310
Relations between Austria and the Empire; division of the
Austrian dominions 311-312
Acquisition of Carinthia and Tyrol; commendation of Trieste;
loss of Thurgau 312-313
Austrian kings and emperors; possessions beyond the Empire 313-315
Union with Bohemia and Hungary 314-317
Consequences of the union with Hungary; slow recovery of
the kingdom 317
Acquisition of Görz; advance towards Italy; Austrian
dominion and influence in Italy 318
Connexion of Austria and Burgundy; the Austrian Netherlands 318-319
Loss of Elsass; of Silesia; acquisition of Poland; Dalmatia 320
Position and dominions of Maria Theresa 320-321
New use of the name _Austria_; the Austrian ‘Empire’ in 1811 321-322
Misuse of the Illyrian name 322
Austria in 1814-1815; recovery of Dalmatia; annexation of
Ragusa; of Cracow 322-323
Separation from Hungary; reconquest; the ‘Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy;’ Bosnia, Herzegovina, Spizza 323-324
CHAPTER IX.
THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE.
Origin and growth of France; comparison with Austria 325
How far Karolingia split off from the Empire 326
France a nation as well as a power 326-327
Use of the name of _France_; its dukes acquire the western
kingdom; extent of their dominion 327-328
Two forms of annexation; first, of fiefs of the crown;
secondly, of lands beyond the kingdom 328
Distinctions among the fiefs; the great vassals; Normandy;
Britanny 328
The Twelve Peers; different position of the bishops in Germany
and Karolingia 328-329
§ 1. _Incorporation of the Vassal States._
The duchy of France in 987; the King cut off from the sea 329-330
The neighbouring states; position of the Parisian kings 330
The kings less powerful than the dukes; advantages of their
kingship; first advances of the kings 331
The House of Anjou; gradual union of Normandy, Anjou, Maine,
Aquitaine, and Gascony 331-333
Acquisition of continental Normandy, Anjou, &c. 333-334
The English kings keep Aquitaine and insular Normandy 334
Sudden greatness of France 334
Fiefs of Aragon in Southern Gaul; counts of Toulouse and
Barcelona 334-335
Effects of the Albigensian war; French annexations;
Roussillon and Barcelona freed from homage 335
Languedoc 335
Other annexations of Saint Lewis 335-336
Annexation of Champagne; temporary possession of Navarre 336-337
The Hundred Years’ War; relations between France and Aquitaine;
momentary possession of Aquitaine by Philip the Fair 337
Peace of Bretigny; Aquitaine and other lands freed from homage 337-338
Peace of Troyes; momentary union of the French and English crowns 338
Final annexation of Aquitaine; beginning of the modern French
kingdom 338-339
Growths of the Dukes of Burgundy; the towns on the Somme;
momentary annexation of Artois and the County of Burgundy 339-340
Annexation of the duchy of Burgundy; Flanders and Artois
released from homage; analogy with Aquitaine 340-343
§ 2. _Foreign Annexations of France._
Relations between France and England; Boulogne; Dunkirk 341-342
Relations between France and Spain; Roussillon; Navarre;
Andorra 342-343
Advance at the cost of the Imperial kingdoms, first Burgundy,
then Germany 343
Effect of the Burgundian conquests of France; relations with
Savoy and Switzerland 344
History of the _Langue d’oc_ 345
French dominion in Italy; slight extent of real annexation 345-346
French annexations from Germany; the Three Bishoprics;
effect of isolated conquests 346
French acquisitions in Elsass; France reaches and passes the
Rhine; increased isolation 347-348
Temporary annexation of Bar; annexation of Roussillon;
advance in the Netherlands 348-349
Annexation of Franche Comté and Besançon; seizure of
Strassburg; annexation of Orange 349-350
Annexation of Lorraine; thorough incorporation of French
conquests; effect of geographical continuity 350-351
Purchase of Corsica; its effects; birth of Buonaparte 351-352
§ 3. _The Colonial Dominion of France._
French colonies in North America; Acadia; Canada; Louisiana 352
Colonial rivalry of France and England; English conquest
of Canada 353
French West India Islands 353
The French power in India; Bourbon and Mauritius 353-354
§ 4. _Acquisitions of France during the Revolutionary Wars._
Distinction between the Republican and ‘Imperial’ Conquests 355-356
First class of annexations; Avignon, Mülhausen, Montbeliard;
Geneva; bishopric of Basel 355
Second zone; traditions of Gaul and the Rhine; Netherlands;
Savoy, &c.; feelings of Buonaparte towards Switzerland 355-356
Character of Buonaparte’s conquests; dependent and incorporated
lands; division of Europe between France and Russia 356-357
The French power in 1811 357-358
Arrangements of 1814-1815 358-359
Later changes; annexation of Savoy, Nizza, and Mentone;
loss of Elsass and Lorraine 359
Losses among the colonies; independence of Hayti; sale of
Louisiana 359-360
Conquest of Algeria; character of African conquests 360
CHAPTER X.
THE EASTERN EMPIRE.
Comparison of the Eastern and Western Empires; the Western
falls to pieces from within; the Eastern is broken to
pieces from without 362-363
Tendencies to separation in the Eastern Empire 363
Closer connexion of the East with the elder Empire; retention
of the Roman name; _Romania_ 363-364
Importance of the distinction of races in the East 364
The original races; Albanians, Greeks, Vlachs 364
Slavonic settlers 364
Turanian invasions from the North; Bulgarians, Magyars, &c. 365
The Saracens 365
The Seljuk and Ottoman Turks; comparison of Bulgarians,
Magyars, and Ottomans 365
The Eastern Empire became nearly conterminous with the Greek
nation; reappearance of the other original races 366
The Latin Conquest, and the revived Byzantine Empire 366-367
States which arose out of the Empire or on its borders;
Sicily; Venice; Bulgaria; Hungary; Asiatic powers 367-368
Distinction between conquest and settlement 368
§ 1. _Changes in the Frontier of the Empire._
Power of revival in the Empire 369
Western possessions of the Empire; losses in the islands;
advance in the mainland 369
Loss of Sardinia; gradual loss and temporary partial recovery
of Sicily 369-370
Fluctuations of the Imperial power in Italy; the Normans 370-371
Loss and recovery of Crete and Cyprus; separation of Cyprus 371-372
Summary of the history of the great islands 372-373
Relations to the Slavonic powers; three Slavonic groups 373
Bulgarian migrations; White Bulgaria; the first Bulgarian
kingdom south of the Danube 373-374
Use of the Bulgarian name 374
The slaves of Macedonia, &c. 375
Relations between the Empire and the Bulgarian kingdom 375
Recovery of Macedonia and Greece; use of the name _Hellênes_ 375-376
Servia, Croatia, and Dalmatia 376
Greatest extent of the first Bulgarian kingdom under Simeon 376-377
First conquest of Bulgaria 377
Second Bulgarian kingdom under Samuel; second conquest 377-378
Venice and Cherson 378
Asiatic conquests; annexation of Armenia 378-379
New enemies; Magyars; Turks 379
Revolt of Servia; loss of Belgrade 379
Advance of the Seljuk Turks; Sultans of _Roum_; loss of Antioch 379-380
Normans advance; loss of Corfu and Durazzo 380
Revival under John and Manuel, Komnênos; recovery of lands in
Asia and Europe 381
Splitting off of distant possessions; loss of Dalmatia; Latin
Kingdom of Cyprus 381
Third Bulgarian kingdom; the Empire more thoroughly Greek 382
Latin conquest of Constantinople; Act of Partition 383
Latin Empire of Romania 383-384
Latin kingdom of Thessalonikê 384-385
Despotat of Epeiros; Greek Empire of Thessalonikê; their
separation 385
Empire of Trebizond; loss of its western dominion 386
The old Empire continued in the Empire of Nikaia; its advance
in Europe and Asia; recovery of Constantinople 386-387
Loss in Asia and advance in Europe; recovery of Peloponnêsos 387-388
Advance in Macedonia and Epeiros 388
Losses in Asia; Knights of Saint John; advance of the Turks 389
Losses towards Servia and Bulgaria; conquests of Stephen Dushan 389-390
Fragmentary dominion of the Empire 390
Advance of the Turks in Europe; loss of Hadrianople; loss
of Philadelphia 390
Recovery of territory after the fall of Bajazet 390-391
Turkish conquest of Constantinople; of Peloponnêsos 391
States which grew out of the Empire; Slavonic, Hungarian,
and Rouman; Greek; Latin; Turkish 391-393
§ 2. _The Kingdom of Sicily._
The Norman Power in Italy and Sicily; its relations to the
Eastern and Western Empires 393
Advance of the Normans in Italy; Aversa and Capua; duchy of
Apulia; Robert Wiscard in Epeiros 394-395
Norman conquest of Sicily 395
Roger King of Sicily; his conquests in Italy, Corfu, and Africa 395-396
Eastern dominion of the two Sicilian crowns; kingdom of
Margarito 396-397
Acre; Malta 398
§ 3. _The Crusading States._
Comparison between Sicily and the crusading states 398
Jerusalem; Cyprus; Armenia 399
Extent of the Kingdom of Jerusalem; other Latin states in Syria;
loss and recovery of Jerusalem, final loss; loss of Acre 399-400
Kingdom of Cyprus; its relations to Jerusalem and Armenia 401
Frank principalities in Greece; possessions of the maritime
commonwealths 401-402
§ 4. _The Eastern Dominion of Venice and Genoa._
The historic position of Venice springs from her relation to
the Eastern Empire 402-403
Connexion of her Greek and Dalmatian rule 402
Comparison between Venice and Sicily 402
Her share in the Act of Partition compared with her real
dominion; her main position Hadriatic 403-405
Venetian possessions not assigned by the partition; Crete;
Cyprus; Thessalonikê 404
Taking of Zara in the fourth crusade 405
Relations of the Dalmatian cities to Servia, Croatia, Venice,
Hungary, and the Empire 405-407
Pagania 406
Magyar Kingdom of Croatia; struggles between Venice and Hungary 407
Independence of Ragusa; Polizza 407
History of Corfu 408
Venetian posts in Peloponnêsos: history of Euboia; loss
of the Ægæan islands 409
Advance of Venice and Dalmatia, Peloponnêsos, and the
Western islands 410
Venice the champion against the Turk; losses of Venice;
fluctuations in the Western Islands 410-412
Conquest and loss of Peloponnêsos 412
Frontier of Ragusa 412
Venetian fiefs; history of the duchy of Naxos 413
Possessions of Genoa; Galata; her dominions in the Euxine 413-414
Genoese fiefs; Lesbos; Chios; the Maona 414
Revolutions of Rhodes; knights of Saint John; their removal
to Malta; revolutions of Malta 414-415
§ 5. _The Principalities of the Greek Mainland._
Greek and Latin states; use of the name _Môraia_ 415-416
Lordship and duchy of Athens; the Catalans; the later
dukes; Ottoman conquest; momentary Venetian occupations 416-417
Salôna and Bodonitza 417
Principality of Achaia; recovery of Peloponnesian lands by
the Empire 417-418
Angevin overlordship in Achaia; dismemberment of the
principality 418
Patras under the Pope 418
Conquests of Constantine Palaiologos 418
Turkish conquest of Peloponnêsos; independence of Maina 419
Revolutions of Epeiros; dismemberment of the despotat;
recovery of Epeiros by the Empire 419
Servian conquests; beginning of the Albanian power; kings
of the house of Thopia 419-420
Servian dynasty in southern Epeiros; kingdom of Thessaly;
Turkish conquest 420
The Buondelmonti in Northern Epeiros; history of the house
of Tocco; _Karlili_; effects of their rule 420-421
Turkish conquest of Albania; revolt of Scanderbeg; Turkish
reconquest 421
Empire of Trebizond; its relations to Constantinople 422
Turkish conquest of Trebizond; of Perateia or Gothia 422-423
§ 6. _The Slavonic States._
Effects of the Latin conquest on the Slavonic states 423
Comparison of Servia and Bulgaria; extent of Servia; its
relation to the Empire; conquest by Manuel Komnênos;
Servia independent 423-424
Relations towards Hungary; shiftings of Rama or Bosnia 424-425
Southern advance of Servia; Empire of Stephen Dushan 425
Break-up of the Servian power; the later Servian kingdom;
conquests and deliverances of Servia 426
Kingdom of Bosnia; loss of Jayce; duchy of Saint Saba or
Herzegovina; Turkish conquest of Bosnia; of Herzegovina 426-427
The Balsa at Skodra; loss of Skodra; beginning of Tzernagora
or Montenegro 428
Loss of Zabljak; establishment of Tzetinje 428
The Vladikas; the lay princes 429
Montenegrin conquests and losses 428-429
Greatest extent of the third Bulgarian kingdom; its decline;
shiftings of the frontier towards the Empire; Philippopolis 429-430
Break-up of the kingdom; principality of Dobrutcha;
Turkish conquest 430-431
§ 7. _The Kingdom of Hungary._
Character and position of the Hungarian kingdom 431-432
Great Moravia overthrown by the Magyars; their relations to
the two Empires 432-433
The two Chrobatias separated by the Magyars; their geographical
position 433-434
Kingdom of Hungary; its relations to Croatia and Slavonia 434
Transsilvania or Siebenbürgen; origin of the name; German
and other colonies 435
Origin of the Roumans; their northern migration 435-436
Rouman element in the third Bulgarian kingdom; occupation
of the lands beyond the Danube; Great and Little Wallachia;
Transsilvania; Moldavia 436-437
Conquests of Lewis the Great; Dalmatia; occupation of Halicz
and Vladimir; pledging of Zips 437
Turkish invasion; disputes for Dalmatia 438
Reign of Matthias Corvinus; extension of Hungary east and west 438
Loss of Belgrade; the Austrian kings; Turkish conquest of
Hungary; fragment kept by the Austrian kings; their tribute
to the Turk; the Rouman lands 438-439
Recovery of Hungary from the Turk; peace of Carlowitz;
of Passarowitz; losses at the peace of Belgrade 439-440
Galicia and Lodomeria; Bukovina; Dalmatia 440-441
Annexation of Spizza; administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina;
renewed vassalage to the Turk 440-441
§ 8. _The Ottoman Power._
The Ottoman Turks; special character of their invasion;
contrast with other Turanian invasions; comparison with
the Saracens in Spain 442-443
Comparison of the Ottoman dominions with the Eastern Empire 443
Effects of the Mongolian invasion; origin of the Ottomans;
their position in Europe and Asia; break-up and reunion
of their dominion; its permanence 443-444
Advance of the Ottomans in Asia; in Europe; dominion of
Bajazet 444-445
Victory of Timour; reunion of the Ottoman power under
Mahomet the First 445-446
Mahomet the Second; taking of Constantinople; extent of
his dominion; taking of Otranto 446
Conquest of Syria and Egypt 447
Reign of Suleiman; his conquests; Hungary; Rhodes; Naxos;
his African overlordship 447
Conquest of Cyprus; decline of the Ottoman power 447-448
Greatest extent of the Ottoman power; Crete and Podolia 448
Ottoman loss of Hungary; loss and recovery of Peloponnêsos;
Bosnia and Herzegovina; union of inland and maritime Illyria 448
English vassalage in Cyprus 449
Relations between Russia and the Turk; Azof; Treaty of
Kainardji; Crim; Jedisan; Bessarabia; shiftings of
the Moldavian frontier 449-450
§ 9. _The Liberated States._
Lands liberated from the Turk; comparison of Hungary
with Greece, Servia, &c. 450
The Servian people the first to revolt 450
The Ionian Islands the first liberated state; the Septinsular
Republic; overlordship of the Turk 451
The Venetian outposts given to the Turk; surrender of Parga;
last Ottoman encroachment 451
The Ionian Islands under British protection 451
The Greek War of Independence; extent of the Greek nation;
extent of the liberated lands 451-452
Kingdom of Greece; addition of the Ionian Islands; promised
addition in Thessaly and Epeiros 452
First deliverance and reconquest of Servia 453
Second deliverance; Servia a tributary principality 452-453
Withdrawal of Turkish garrisons 453
Independence and enlargement of Servia 453
Fourfold division of the Servian nation 453
The Rouman principalities; union of Wallachia and Moldavia 453
Independence and new frontier of Roumania 453-454
Deliverance of part of Bulgaria; the Bulgaria of San Stefano 454
Treaty of Berlin; division of Bulgaria into free, half-free,
and enslaved 454-455
Principality of Bulgaria; Eastern Roumelia 454
General survey 455-460
Note on M. Sathas 460-461
CHAPTER XI.
THE BALTIC LANDS.
Lands beyond the two Empires; the British islands; Scandinavia;
Spain 462-463
_Quasi_-imperial position of certain powers 462-463
Comparison of Scandinavia and Spain; of Aragon and Sweden 463-464
Eastern and Western aspect of Scandinavia 464
General view of the Baltic lands; the Northern Slavonic lands,
their relations to Germany and Hungary 465
Characteristics of Poland and Russia 465
The primitive nations, Aryan and non-Aryan 455-466
Central position of the North-Slavonic lands; barbarian
neighbours of Russia and Scandinavia; Russian conquest
and colonization by land 467
Relation of the Baltic lands to the two Empires; Norway
always independent; relations of Sweden and Denmark
to the Western Empire 467
The Western Empire and the West-Slavonic lands; relations
of Poland to the Western Empire 467
Relations of Russia to the Eastern Church and Empire;
Imperial style of Russia 468
§ 1. _The Scandinavian Lands after the Separation of the Empires._
The Baltic still mainly held by the earlier races; formation
of the Scandinavian kingdom 468-499
Formation of the Danish kingdom; its extent; frontier of
the Eider; the Danish march 469
Use of the name _Northmen_; formation of the kingdom of
Norway 469-470
The Swedes and Gauts; the Swedish kingdom 470
Its fluctuations towards Norway and Denmark; its growth
towards the north 470
Western conquests and settlements of the Danes and Northmen 471
Settlements in Britain and Gaul 471
Settlements in Orkney, Man, Iceland, Ireland, &c. 471
Expeditions to the East; Danish occupation of Samland; Jomsburg 471
Swedish conquest of Curland; Scandinavians in Russia 472
§ 2. _The Lands East and South of the Baltic at the Separation
of the Empires._
Slaves between Elbe and Dnieper; their lack of sea-board 472-473
Kingdom of Samo; Great Moravia 473
Four Slavonic groups 473-474
Polabic group; Sorabi, Leuticii, Obotrites; their relations to
the Empire 474-475
Early conquest of the Sorabi; marks of Meissen and Lusatia;
long resistance of the Leuticians; takings of Branibor;
mark of Brandenburg 475-476
Mark of the Billungs; kingdom of Sclavinia; house of Mecklenburg;
relations to Denmark 476
Bohemia and Moravia; their relations to Poland, Hungary,
and Germany 477
The Polish kingdom; its relations to Germany; rivalry of
Poland and Russia 478
Lechs or Poles; their various tribes 478
Beginning of the Polish state; its conversion and relations
to the Empire 479
Conquests of Boleslaf; union of the Northern Chrobatia with
Poland 479
The Polish state survives, though divided 479-480
Relations of Russia to the Eastern Church and Empire; Russia
created by the Scandinavian settlement; origin of the name 480
First centre at Novgorod; Russian advance; union of the
Eastern Slaves 481
Second centre at Kief; the princes become Slavonic; attacks
on Constantinople and Cherson 481-482
Conquests on the Caspian; isolation of Russia; Russian lands
west of Dnieper 482
Russian principalities; supremacy of Kief 482
Supremacy of the northern Vladimir; commonwealths of Novgorod
and Pskof; various principalities; kingdom of Halicz or Galicia 483
The Cuman power; Mongol invasion; Russia tributary to
the Mongols; Russia represented by Novgorod 483-484
The earlier races; Finns in Livland and Esthland 484
The Lettic nations; Lithuania; Prussia 484
Survey in the twelfth century 485
§ 3. _German Dominion on the Baltic._
Time of Teutonic conquest on the Baltic; comparison of German
and Scandinavian influence; German influence the stronger 485-486
Beginning of Swedish conquest in Finland; German conquest
in Livland; its effect on Lithuania and Russia; the
Military orders 487
Polish gains and losses 487
Character of the _Hansa_ 487
Temporary Swedish possession of Scania; union of Calmar;
division and reunion; abiding union of Denmark and Norway 487-488
Union of Iceland with Norway; loss of the Scandinavian
settlements in the British isles 488
Swedish advance in Finland 488
Temporary greatness of Denmark, settlement of Esthland;
conquest of Sclavinia; Danish advance in Germany;
Holstein, &c.; long retention of Rügen 488-490
Duchy of South-Jutland or Sleswick; its relations to Denmark
and Holstein; royal and ducal lines; conquest
of Ditmarschen 490-491
Effect of the Danish advance on the Slavonic lands; western
losses of Poland; Pomerania; Silesia 491-492
Kingdom of Bohemia; dominion of Ottocar; the Luxemburg kings 492-493
Annexation of Silesia and Lusatia; territory lost to Matthias
Corvinus 493
Union with Austria; later losses 493
German corporations; the Hansa; its nature; not strictly
a territorial power 494-495
The Military Orders; Sword-brothers and Teutonic knights;
their connexion with the Empire; effects of their rule 495
The Sword-brothers in Livland and Esthland; extent of
their dominion 495-496
The Teutonic order in Prussia; union with the Sword-brothers;
acquisition of Culm, Pomerelia, Samogitia, Gotland;
the New Mark 496
Losses of the order; cession of Pomerelia and part of Prussia
to Poland; the remainder a Polish fief 496-497
Advance of Christianity; Lithuania the last heathen power;
its great advance 497-498
Consolidation of Poland; conquests of Casimir the Great;
shiftings of Red Russia 498
Union of Poland and Lithuania; recovery of the Polish
duchies; Lithuanian advance; closer union 498-499
Revival of Russia; power of Moscow; name of _Muscovy_ 499-500
Break-up of the Mongol power; the Khanats of Crim, Kazan,
Siberia, Astrakhan 501
Deliverance of Russia; Crim dependent on the Turk 501
Advance of Moscow; annexation of Novgorod, &c.; Russia
united and independent 501
Survey at the end of the fifteenth century 502
§ 4. _The Growth of Russia and Sweden._
Growth of Russia; creation of Prussia; temporary greatness
of Sweden 503
Separation of the Prussian and Livonian knights; duchy of
Prussia; union of Prussia and Brandenburg; Prussia
independent of Poland 503-504
Fall of the Livonian knights; partition of their dominions;
duchy of Curland; shares of Denmark, Sweden, Poland,
and Russia 504
Greatest Baltic extent of Poland and Lithuania; union of Lublin 505
Advance of Russia; its order; the Euxine reached last 505-506
Recovery of Russian lands from Lithuania; Polish conquest
of Russia; second Russian advance; Peace of Andraszovo;
recovery of Kief 506
Russian superiority over the Cossacks; Podolia ceded to the
Turk 506-507
Comparison of Swedish and Russian advance 507
Advance under and after Gustavus Adolphus; conquests from
Russia and Poland; Ingermanland; Livland 507-508
Conquests from Denmark and Norway; Dago and Oesel;
Scania, &c.; restoration of Trondhjem 508-509
Fiefs of Sweden within the Empire; Pomerania; Bremen and Verden 509
Fluctuations in the duchies; Danish possession of Oldenburg 509
Sweden after the peace of Oliva 510
Eastern advance of Russia; Kasan and Astrakhan; Siberia 511
§ 5. _The Decline of Sweden and Poland._
Decline of Sweden; extinction of Poland; kingdom of Prussia;
empire of Russia 511-512
Russia on the Baltic; conquest of Livland, &c.; foundation
of Saint Petersburg; advance in Finland 512
German losses of Sweden: Bremen, Verden, part of Pomerania 513
Union of the Gottorp lands and Denmark 513
First partition of Poland; recovery of lost lands by Russia;
geographical union of Prussia and Brandenburg; Polish
and Russian lands acquired by Austria 513-514
Second partition: Russian and Prussian shares 514
Third partition: extinction of Poland and Lithuania 514-515
No strictly Polish territory acquired by Russia; the old
Poland passes to Prussia, Chrobatia to Austria 515
Russian advance on the Euxine, Azof; Crim; Jedisan 515-516
Temporary Russian advance on the Caspian; superiority
over Georgia 516
Survey at the end of the eighteenth century 517
§ 6. _The Modern Geography of the Baltic Lands._
Effects of the fall of the Empire; incorporation of the German
lands of Sweden and Denmark 518
Russian conquest of Finland 518
Union of Sweden and Norway; loss of Swedish Pomerania 518-519
Denmark enters the German Confederation for Holstein and
Lauenburg; loss of these duchies and of Sleswick 519
Polish losses of Prussia; commonwealth of Danzig; Duchy
of Warsaw 519-520
Polish territory recovered by Prussia; Russian kingdom of
Poland; commonwealth of Cracow; its annexation by Austria 520
Fluctuation on the Moldavian border 521
Russian advance in the Caucasus and on the Caspian 521
Advance in Turkestan and Eastern Asia; extent and character
of the Russian dominion 522-523
Russian America 523
Final survey of the Baltic lands 523-524
CHAPTER XII.
THE SPANISH PENINSULA AND ITS COLONIES.
Analogy between Spain and Scandinavia; slight relation of
Spain with the Empire; break between its earlier and
later history 525
Comparison of Spain and the Eastern Empire; the Spanish nation
formed by the Saracen wars; analogy between Spain and
Russia 525-526
Extent of West-Gothic and Saracen dominions; two centres
of deliverance, native and Frankish 526-527
History of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal; use of the phrase
‘Spain and Portugal’ 527-528
Navarre 528
§ 1. _The Foundation of the Spanish Kingdoms._
Beginning of the kingdom of Leon 529
The Ommiad emirate; the Spanish March; its divisions 529
Navarre under Sancho the Great 529-530
Break-up of the kingdom of Navarre, and of the Ommiad
caliphate; small Mussulman powers 530
Invasion of the Almoravides; use of the name _Moors_ 530
New kingdoms: Castile, Aragon, and Sobrarbe; union of
Aragon and Sobrarbe 530
Shiftings of Castile, Leon, and Gallicia; final union; Castilian
Empire 531
Decline of Navarre; growth of Aragon; union of Aragon and
Barcelona; end of French superiority 531
County and kingdom of Portugal 532
Advance of Castile; taking of Toledo; checked by the Almoravides 532
Advance of Aragon; taking of Zaragoza 532
Advance of Portugal; taking of Lisbon 533
Second advance of Castile; invasion of the Almohades;
their decline 533
Advance of Aragon and Portugal 533
Final advance of Castile; kingdom of Granada; Gibraltar 534
Geographical position of the Spanish kingdoms 534-535
Title of ‘King of Spain;’ the lesser kingdoms 535-536
§ 2. _Growth and Partition of the Great Spanish Monarchy._
Little geographical change in the peninsula; territories
beyond the peninsula; the great Spanish Monarchy 536
Conquest of Granada; end of Mussulman rule 536-537
Union of Castile and Aragon; loss, recovery, and final loss of
Roussillon; annexation and separation of Portugal 537-538
Gibraltar and Minorca 537
Advance of Aragon beyond the peninsula; union with the
Sicilies and Sardinia 538
Extension of Castile dominion; the Burgundian inheritance;
duchy of Milan 539
Extent of the Spanish Monarchy; loss of the United Netherlands;
lands lost to France 539
Partition of the Spanish Monarchy; later relations with the
Sicilies; duchy of Parma 539-540
§ 3. _The Colonial Dominion of Spain and Portugal._
Character of the outlying dominion of Portugal 540
African conquests of Portugal; kingdom of Algarve beyond
the Sea; Ceuta, Tangier 541
Advance in Africa and the islands; Cape of Good Hope;
dominion in India and Arabia 541-542
Settlement and history of Brazil; the one American monarchy 542
Division of the Indies between Spain and Portugal; African
and insular dominion of Spain 542-543
American dominions of Spain; revolutions of the Spanish
colonies; two Empires of Mexico 543-544
The Spanish West Indies 544
CHAPTER XIII.
THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.
Isolation and independence of Britain; late Roman conquest
and early loss; Britain another world and Empire 545
Shiftings of the Celtic and Teutonic kingdoms; little geographical
change in later times 546
English settlements beyond sea; new English nations 547
§ 1. _The Kingdom of Scotland._
Greatness of Scotland due to its English elements; two English
kingdoms in Britain 548
Use of the Scottish name 549
Analogy with Switzerland 549
The three elements in the later Scotland; English, British,
Irish; Lothian, Strathclyde, Scotland 549
The Picts; their union with the Scots; Scottish Strathclyde;
Galloway 550
Scandinavian settlements; Caithness and Sutherland 550
English supremacy; taking of Edinburgh; grants of Cumberland
and Lothian 550-551
Difference of tenure gradually forgotten 551
Effects of the grant of Lothian; shiftings of Cumberland,
Carlisle, and Northumberland 551-552
Boundary of England and Scotland; relations between the kingdoms 552
Struggle with the Northmen; recovery of Caithness, Galloway,
and the Sudereys 553
History of Man; of Orkney 553
§ 2. _The Kingdom of England._
Changes of boundary toward Wales; conquests of Harold 553
Norman conquest of North Wales 554
Princes of North Wales; English conquest 554
The principality of Wales; full incorporation with England 554-555
The English shires; two classes of shires; ancient
principalities; shires mapped out in the tenth century 555
The new shires; Cumberland, Westmoreland, Lancashire, Rutland 555-556
§ 3. _Ireland._
Ireland the first Scotland; its provinces 556
Settlements of the Ostmen; increasing connexion with England;
the English conquest; fluctuations of the Pale 556-557
Lordship and kingdom of Ireland; its relations to England
and Great Britain 557
§ 4. _Outlying European Possessions of England._
The Norman Islands; Aquitaine, Calais, &c. 558
Outposts and islands 558
Greek possessions; the Ionian Islands; Cyprus 558-559
§ 5. _The American Colonies of England._
The United States of America 559
First English settlements; Virginia; the New England States;
Maryland; Carolina 559-561
Settlements of the United Provinces and Sweden; New
Netherlands; New Sweden; New York 561
The Jerseys; Pennsylvania; Delaware; Georgia 561-562
The thirteen Colonies; their independence 562
Nova Scotia; Canada; Louisiana; Florida 562-563
A new English nation formed; lack of a name; use of the
name _America_ 563-564
Second English nation in North America; the Canadian
confederation 564
The West India Islands, &c. 565
§ 6. _Other Colonies and Possessions of England._
The Australian colonies 565-566
The South-African colonies 566
Europe extended by colonization; contrast with barbaric
dominion; Empire of India 567
Summary 568-569
INDEX 571
* * * * *
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
[Transcriber’s note: These additions and corrections have not been made
in this electronic version of the text. Page numbers and line numbers
reflect the pagination of the original text and may not reflect the
structure of this version.]
P. 19, l. 10. Latterly the name _Balkan Peninsula_ has come into more
general use.
P. 38, side-note. For ‘Cities of independent state’ read ‘Growth of
independent states.’
P. 41, l. 10 from bottom. This is true in a rough practical way.
But when I wrote this, I hardly took in the fact that not a few
Greek cities, though practically subject to the Empire, were not
finally incorporated with it till ages later, perhaps never formally
incorporated at all.
P. 55, l. 7. For ‘south-east’ read ‘south-west.’
P. 55, l. 8. For ‘north-west’ read ‘north-east.’
P. 71. When I wrote this, I had not taken in the true history of the
Rouman people. See below, p. 435.
P. 88, l. 14. Since this was written, I wrote the article ‘Goths,’ in
the Encyclopædia Britannica, where I have gone rather more fully into
their history from later and minuter study.
P. 90, l. 4 from the bottom. I believe the existence of a _Gothia_
by that name in Spain is a little doubtful. As to the _Gothia_ in
Gaul, otherwise _Septimania_, and the other _Gothia_ in the Tauric
Chersonêsos, there is no doubt.
P. 105, l. 14 from bottom. I believe however that the coins of some of
the Provençal cities point to a retention of allegiance to the Empire
much later. Still there is no doubt as to the formal cession.
P. 115, l. 5 from bottom. I now see no reason to believe in any
Albanian migrations into Greece till long afterwards. But I still have
no doubt that the Albanians strictly represent the old Illyrians.
P. 119. Dele side-note, ‘The cession of Gaulish possessions.’
P. 126, l. 6. For ‘_the_ great Mahometan powers’ read ‘_the two_ great
Mahometan powers.’
P. 138, l. 9. Dele ‘much as.’
P. 154. The growth of the Christian states in Spain will be found more
fully and accurately given in the specially Spanish chapter, Chapter
XII.
P. 156, l. 4. It will be at once seen that this was written before
the events of 1877-8. The later changes in these lands will be found
described in Chapter X.
P. 167, l. 10. For ‘division’ read ‘divisions.’
P. 172, side-note. For ‘province’ read ‘provinces.’
P. 180, side-note. For ‘schemes’ read ‘scheme.’
P. 189, l. 12. For ‘were’ read ‘some were.’
P. 216, side-note. For ‘ecclesiastical towns’ read ‘ecclesiastical
powers.’
P. 221, side-note. For ‘kingdom’ read ‘kingdoms.’
P. 258, l. 14. I was here speaking purely geographically, before much,
if anything, had been heard of the cry of _Italia irredenta_. How far I
go with that cry, how far not, I have explained in Historical Essays,
Third Series, p. 206.
P. 261, l. 1. For ‘Montbeilliard,’ read ‘Montbeliard.’
P. 263, side-note. For ‘Burgundian possession of its county’ read
‘Burgundian possessions of its counts.’
P. 267, l. 1. For ‘maps’ read ‘map.’
P. 288, l. 11 from bottom. For ‘High and Low Savoy’ read ‘Savoy and
High Savoy.’
P. 300, side-note. For ‘1662’ read ‘1663.’
P. 306, l. 8. At present it would seem that this mysterious name takes
in all those kingdoms, counties, lordships, &c., which are held by
the Archduke of Austria, and which do not form part of the kingdom of
Hungary and its _partes annexæ_. For these I have elsewhere, according
to an old analogy, suggested the more intelligible name of _Nungary_.
P. 319, l. 3. That is Philip ‘the Handsome,’ son of Maximilian and
father of Charles the Fifth.
P. 334, l. 9. Aquitaine, the inheritance of Eleanor, did not come under
the forfeiture of the fiefs actually held by John.
P. 340, l. 4 from bottom. Roussillon is another case of a land freed
from homage and afterwards annexed as a foreign conquest.
P. 369, l. 17. For ‘farther’ read ‘further.’
P. 389, side-note. For ‘conquest’ read ‘conquests of.’
P. 408, side-note. For ‘final’ read ‘first.’
P. 413, side-note. For ‘possession of Venetian cities’ read
‘possessions of Venetian families.’
P. 429, l. 15. Since this was printed, Dulcigno has been restored to
Montenegro, in exchange for some inland Albanian territory given back
to the Turk. The formation of the Albanian League is not unlikely to
affect the geography of Herzegovina; but no change has yet (January
1881) taken place which can be shown on the map.
P. 441, l. 8. How unpleasant this truth is felt to be in certain
quarters, is shown by a small incident of last year. I sent a set of
manuscript maps of Dalmatia to Mr. Arthur Evans for his suggestions.
Those maps vanished in the Imperial, Royal, and Apostolic post-office,
and never reached his address at Ragusa. If therefore the revolutions
of Dalmatian geography are less accurately marked in this book than
they should be, the fault is not mine. In Imperial, Royal, and
Apostolic quarters it is doubtless inconvenient to allow any memory
of days when free Ragusa had not bowed to any self-styled Emperor,
either from Corsica or from Lorraine, or of still later days when free
Tzernagora reached to her own sea at Cattaro. Those who have made it
their business to filch the substance may naturally enough think it
their business to filch the picture also.
P. 450, l. 5 from bottom. It is quite accurate to say that the Turk
has never ruled at Tzetinje. It is perfectly true that the Turk has
more than once harried Montenegro and Tzetinje itself; the Turk
has professed to consider the land as included in a pashalik; but
Montenegro has never been a regularly and avowedly tributary state, as
Servia and Roumania were, as free Bulgaria is still.
P. 452, l. 7 from bottom. The promises of Europe on this head still
remain unfulfilled (January 1881). It is hardly needful to notice the
diplomatic quibble that the European order for the liberation of these
lands was not contained in the document strictly called the Treaty of
Berlin, but in another paper signed at the same time and place. The
order has been renewed during the present year at the Second Berlin
Conference.
P. 492, side-note. For ‘and’ read ‘under.’
P. 529, l. 9 from bottom. For ‘western’ read ‘eastern.’
P. 554, side-note. For ‘Northerners,’ read ‘Northmen.’
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
♦Definition of Historical Geography.♦
The work which we have now before us is to trace out the extent of
territory which the different states and nations of Europe and the
neighbouring lands have held at different times in the world’s history,
to mark the different boundaries which the same country has had, and
the different meanings in which the same name has been used. It is of
great importance carefully to make these distinctions, because great
mistakes as to the facts of history are often caused through men
thinking and speaking as if the names of different countries, say for
instance England, France, Burgundy, Austria, have always meant exactly
the same extent of territory. Historical geography, in this sense,
differs from physical geography which regards the natural features of
the earth’s surface. It differs also from studies like ethnology and
comparative philology, which have to do directly with the differences
between one nation and another, with their movements from one part
of the world to another, and with the relations to be found among
the languages spoken by them. But, though it is distinct from these
studies, it makes much use of them. For the physical geography of a
country always has a great effect upon its political history, and
the dispersions and movements of different nations are exactly those
parts of history which have most to do with fixing the names and the
boundaries of different countries at different times. _England_, for
instance, is, in strictness, the land of the English wherever they
may settle, whether in their old home on the European continent,
or in the isle of Britain, or in New England beyond the Ocean. But
the extent of territory which was in this way to become England was
largely determined by the physical circumstances of the countries in
which the English settled. And the history of the English nation has
been influenced, above all things, by the fact that the great English
settlement which has made the English name famous was made in an
island. But, when England had become the name of a distinct political
dominion, its meaning was liable to change as that dominion advanced
or went back. Thus the borders of England and Scotland have greatly
changed at different times, and forgetfulness of this has led to many
misunderstandings in reading the history of the two countries. And so
with all other cases of the kind; the physical nature of the country,
and the settlements of the different nations which have occupied it,
have always been the determining causes of its political divisions.
But it is with the political divisions that historical geography has
to deal in the first place. With the nature of the land, and with
the people who occupy it, it has to deal only so far as they have
influenced the political divisions. Our present business in short is,
first to draw the map of the countries with which we are concerned as
it appeared after each of the different changes which they have gone
through, and then to point out the historical causes which have led to
the changes on the map. In this way we shall always see what was the
meaning of any geographical name at any particular time, and we shall
thus avoid mistakes, some of which have often led to really important
practical consequences.
♦Distinction of Geographical and Political Names.♦
From this it follows that, in looking at the geography of Europe
for our present purpose, we must look first at the land itself, and
then at the nations which occupy it. And, in so doing, it may be
well first of all to distinguish between two kinds of names which we
shall have to use. Some names of countries are strictly geographical;
they really mean a certain part of the earth’s surface marked out by
boundaries which cannot well be changed. Others simply mean the extent
of country which is occupied at any time by a particular nation, and
whose boundaries may easily be changed. Thus _Britain_ is a strictly
geographical name, meaning an island whose shape and boundaries
must always be nearly the same. _England_, _Scotland_, _Wales_, are
names of parts of that island, called after different nations which
have settled in it, and the boundaries of all of which have differed
greatly at different times. _Spain_ again is the geographical name
of a peninsula which is almost as well marked out by nature as the
island of Britain. _Castile_, _Aragon_, _Portugal_, are political
names of parts of the peninsula of Spain. They are the names of states
whose boundaries have greatly varied, and which have sometimes formed
separate governments and sometimes have been joined together.[1]
_Gaul_ again is the geographical name of a country which is not so
clearly marked out all round by nature as the island of Britain and
the peninsula of Spain, but which is well marked on three sides, to
the north, south, and west. Within the limits of Gaul, names like
_France_, _Flanders_, _Britanny_, _Burgundy_, and _Aquitaine_, are
political names of parts of the country, whose limits have varied as
much at different times as those of the different parts of Britain and
Spain. This is the difference between strictly geographical names which
do not alter and political names which do alter. No doubt _Gaul_ and
_Britain_ were in the beginning political names, names given to the
land from those who occupied it, just as much as the names _France_ and
_England_. But the settlements from which those lands took the names of
Gaul and Britain took place long before the beginning of trustworthy
history, while the settlements from which parts of those lands took the
names of France and England happened in times long after trustworthy
history began, and for which we are therefore ready with dates and
names. Thus Gaul and Britain are the oldest received names of those
lands; they are the names which those lands bore when we first hear
of them. It is therefore convenient to keep them in use as strictly
geographical names, as always meaning that part of the earth’s surface
which they meant when we first hear of them. In this book therefore,
_Gaul_, _Britain_, _Spain_, and other names of the same kind, will
always be used to mean a certain space on the map, whoever may be its
inhabitants, or whatever may be its government, at any particular time.
But names like _France_, _England_, _Castile_, will be used to mean
the territory to which they were politically applied at the time of
which we may be speaking, a territory which has been greater and less
at different times. Thus, the cities of Carlisle and Edinburgh have
always been in _Britain_ since they were built. They have sometimes
been in _England_ and sometimes not. The cities of Marseilles, Geneva,
Strassburg, and Arras have always been in _Gaul_ ever since they
were built. They have sometimes been in _France_ and sometimes not,
according to political changes.
§ 1. _Geographical Aspect of Europe._
Our present business is with the Historical Geography of Europe, and
with that of other parts of the world only so far as they concern
the geography of Europe. But we shall have to speak of all the three
divisions of the Old World, Europe, Asia, and Africa, in those parts
of the three which come nearest to one another, and in which the real
history of the world begins. ♦The Mediterranean Lands.♦ These are those
parts of all three which lie round the Mediterranean sea, the lands
which gradually came to form the Empire of Rome. In these lands the
boundaries between the three great divisions are very easily marked.
Modern maps do not all place the boundary between Europe and Asia at
the same point; some make the river Don the boundary and some the
Volga. But this question is of little importance for history. In the
earliest historical times, when we have to do only with the countries
round the Mediterranean sea, there can be no doubt how much is Europe
and how much is Asia and Africa. Europe is the land to the north of the
Mediterranean sea and of the great gulfs which run out of it. If an
exact boundary is needed in the barbarous lands north of the Euxine,
the Tanais or Don is clearly the boundary which should be taken. In
all these lands the Mediterranean and its gulfs divide Europe from
Asia. But the northern parts of the two continents really form one
geographical whole, the boundary between them being one merely of
convenience. A vast central mass of land, stretching right across the
inland parts of the two continents, sends forth a system of peninsulas
and islands, to the north and south. And it is in the peninsular lands
of Europe that European history begins.
Alike in Europe and in Asia, the southern or peninsular part of the
continent is cut off from the central mass by a mountain chain, which
in Europe is nearly unbroken. ♦The peninsulas of Europe and Asia.♦ Thus
the southern part of Europe consists of the three great peninsulas of
_Spain_, _Italy_, and what we may, in a wide sense, call _Greece_.
These answer in some sort to the three great Oceanic peninsulas of
Asia, those of _Arabia_, _India_, and _India_ beyond the _Ganges_. But
the part of Asia which has historically had most to do with Europe
is its Mediterranean peninsula, the land known as _Asia Minor_. In
the northern part of each continent we find another system of great
gulfs or inland seas; but those in Asia have been hindered by the cold
from ever being of any importance, while in Europe the Baltic sea and
the gulfs which run out of it may be looked on as forming a kind of
secondary Mediterranean. We may thus say that Europe consists of two
insular and peninsular regions, north and south, with a great unbroken
mass of land between them. But there are some parts of Europe which
seem as it were connecting links between the three main divisions of
the continent. Thus we said that the three great peninsulas are cut
off from the central mass by a nearly unbroken mountain chain. But the
connexion of the central peninsula, that of Italy, with the eastern
one or Greece, is far closer than its connexion with the western
one, or Spain. Italy and Spain are much further apart than Italy and
Greece, and between the Alps and the Pyrenees the mountain chain is
nearly lost. We might almost say that a piece of central Europe breaks
through at this point and comes down to the Mediterranean. This is the
south-eastern part of Gaul; and Gaul may in this way be looked on as a
land which joins together the central and the southern parts of Europe.
But this is not all; in the north-western corner of Europe lies that
great group of islands, two large ones and many small, of which our own
Britain is the greatest. The British islands are closely connected in
their geography and history with Gaul on one side, and with the islands
and peninsulas of the North on the other. In this way we may say that
all the three divisions of Europe are brought closely together on the
western side of the continent, and that the lands of Gaul and Britain
are the connecting links which bind them together.
§ 2. _Effect of Geography on History._
♦Beginning of history in the European peninsulas.♦
Now this geographical aspect of the chief lands of Europe has had its
direct effect on their history. We might almost take for granted that
the history of Europe should begin in the two more eastern among the
three great southern peninsulas. Of these two, Italy and Greece,
each has its own character. Greece, though it is the part of Europe
which lies nearest to Asia, is in a certain sense the most European
of European lands. The characteristic of Europe is to be more full of
peninsulas and islands and inland seas than the rest of the Old World.
♦Characteristics of Greece;♦ And Greece, the peninsula itself and the
neighbouring lands, are fuller of islands and promontories and inland
seas than any other part of Europe. On the other hand, Italy is the
central land of all southern Europe, and indeed of all the land round
the Mediterranean. It was therefore only natural that Greece should be
the part of Europe in which all that is most distinctively European
first grew up and influenced other lands. ♦of Italy.♦ And so, if any
one land or city among the Mediterranean lands was to rule over all the
rest, it is in Italy, as the central land, that we should naturally
look for the place of dominion. The destinies of the two peninsulas and
their relations to the rest of the world were thus impressed on them by
their geographical position.
If we turn to recorded history, we find that it is only a working out
of the consequences of these physical facts. Greece was the first part
of Europe to become civilized and to play a part in history; but it was
Italy, and in Italy it was its most central city, Rome, which came to
have the dominion over the civilized world of early times—that is, over
the lands around the Mediterranean. These two peninsulas have, each
in its own way, ruled and influenced the rest of Europe as no other
parts have done. All the other parts have been, in one way or another,
their subjects or disciples. ♦Advance of the Roman dominion.♦ The
effect of the geographical position of these countries is also marked
in the stages by which Rome advanced to the general dominion of the
Mediterranean lands. She first subdued Italy; then she had to strive
for the mastery with her great rival Carthage, a city which held nearly
the same central position on the southern coast of the Mediterranean
which she herself did on the northern. Then she subdued, step by
step, the peninsulas on each side of her and the other coast lands of
the Mediterranean—European, Asiatic, and African. Into the central
division of Europe she did not press far, never having any firm or
lasting dominion beyond the Rhine and the Danube. Into Northern Europe,
properly so called, her power never reached at all. But she subdued the
lands which we have seen act as a kind of connecting link between the
different parts of Europe, namely Gaul and the greater part of Britain.
Thus the Roman Empire, at its greatest extent, consisted of the lands
round the Mediterranean, together with Gaul and Britain. For the
possession of the Mediterranean land would have been imperfect without
the possession of Gaul, and the possession of Gaul naturally led to the
possession of Britain.
♦Effect of the geographical position of♦
In this way the early history of Greece and Italy, and the formation of
the Roman Empire, were affected by the geographical character of the
countries themselves. The same was the case with the other European
lands when they came to share in that importance which once belonged
to Greece and Italy only. ♦Germany,♦ Thus Germany, as being the most
central part of Europe, came at one time to fill something like the
same position which Italy had once held. It came to be the country
which had to do with all parts of Europe, east, west, north, and south,
and even to be a ruler over some of them. ♦France,♦ So, as France
became the chief state of Gaul, it took upon it something like the old
position of Gaul as a means of communication between the different
parts of Western Europe. ♦Spain and Scandinavia.♦ Meanwhile, as the
Scandinavian and Spanish peninsulas are both cut off in such a marked
way from the mainland of Europe, each of them has often formed a kind
of world of its own, having much less to do with other countries than
Germany, France, and Italy had. The same was for a long time the case
with our own island. Britain was looked on as lying outside the world.
Thus the geographical position of the European lands influenced their
history while their history was still purely European. And when Europe
began to send forth colonies to other continents, the working of
geographical causes came out no less strongly. Thus the position of
Spain on the Ocean led Castile and Portugal to be foremost among the
colonizing nations of Europe. For the same reason, our own country was
one of the chief in following their example, and so was France also for
a long time. ♦The colonizing powers.♦ Holland too, when it rose into
importance, became a great colonizing power, and so did Denmark and
Sweden to some extent. But an Italian colony beyond the Ocean was never
heard of, nor has there ever been a German colony in the same sense
in which there have been Spanish and English colonies. Meanwhile, the
north-eastern part of Europe, which in early times was not known at
all, has always lagged behind the rest, and has become of importance
only in later times. This is mainly because its geographical position
has almost wholly cut it off both from the Mediterranean and from the
Ocean.
Thus we see how, in all these ways, both in earlier and in later
times, the history of every country has been influenced by its
geography. ♦Influence of national character.♦ No doubt the history
of each country has also been largely influenced by the disposition
of the people who have settled in it, by what is called the national
character. But then the geographical position itself has often had
something to do with forming the national character, and in all cases
it has had an influence upon it, by giving it a better or a worse field
for working and showing itself. Thus it has been well said that neither
the Greeks in any other country nor any other people in Greece could
have been what the Greeks in Greece really were. The nature of the
country and the nature of the people helped one another, and caused
Greece to become all that it was in the early times of Europe. It is
always useful to mark the points both of likeness and unlikeness of
the different nations whose history we study. And of this likeness and
unlikeness we shall always find that the geographical character, though
only one cause out of several, is always one of the chief causes.
§ 3. _Geographical Distribution of Races._
Our present business then is with geography as influenced by history,
and with history as influenced by geography. With ethnology, with the
relations of nations and races to one another, we have to deal only so
far as they form one of the agents in history. And it will be well to
avoid, as far as may be, all obscure or controverted points of this
kind. But the great results of comparative philology may now be taken
for granted, and a general view of the geographical disposition of the
great European races is needful as an introduction to the changes which
historical causes have wrought in the geography of the several parts of
Europe.
In European ethnology one main feature is that the population of
Europe is, and from the very beginnings of history has been, more
nearly homogeneous, at least more palpably homogeneous, than that of
any other great division of the world. ♦Europe an Aryan continent.♦
Whether we look at Europe now, or whether we look at it at the earliest
times of which we have any glimmerings, it is pre-eminently an Aryan
continent. Everything non-Aryan is at once marked as exceptional. We
cannot say this of Asia, where, among several great ethnical elements,
none is so clearly predominant as the Aryan element is in Europe.
♦Non-Aryan remnants.♦ There are in Europe non-Aryan elements, both
earlier and later than the Aryan settlement; but they have, as a rule,
been assimilated to the prevailing Aryan mass. The earlier non-Aryan
element consists of the remnants which still remain of the races which
the Aryan settlers found in Europe, and which they either exterminated
or assimilated to themselves. The later elements consist of non-Aryan
races which have made their way into Europe within historical times,
in whose case the work of assimilation has been much less complete. It
follows almost naturally from the position of Europe that the primæval
non-Aryan element has survived in the west and in the north, while
the later or intrusive non-Aryan element has made its way into the
east and the south. In the mountains of the western peninsula, in the
border lands of Spain and Gaul, the non-Aryan tongue of the _Basque_
still survives. In the extreme north of Europe the non-Aryan tongue of
the _Fins_ and _Laps_ still survives. The possible relations of these
tongues either to one another or to other non-Aryan tongues beyond
the bounds of Europe is a question of purely philological concern,
and does not touch historical geography. But historical geography is
touched by the probability, rising almost to moral certainty, that the
isolated populations by whom these primitive tongues are still spoken
are mere remnants of the primitive races which formed the population
of Europe at the time when the Aryans first made their way into that
continent. Everything tends to show that the _Basques_ are but the
remnant of a great people whom we may set down with certainty as the
præ-Aryan inhabitants of Spain and a large part of Gaul, and whose
range we may, with great probability, extend over Sicily, over part
at least of Italy, and perhaps as far north as our own island. Their
possible connexion with the early inhabitants of northern Africa hardly
concerns us. The probability that they were themselves preceded by
an earlier and far lower race concerns us not at all. The earliest
historical inhabitants of south-western Europe are those of whom the
Basques are the surviving remnant, those who, under the names of
_Iberians_ and _Ligurians_, fill a not unimportant place in European
history.
♦Order of the Aryan settlement.♦
When we come to the Aryan settlements, we cannot positively determine
which among the Aryan races of Europe were the earliest settlers in
point of time. ♦Greeks and Italians.♦ The great race which, in its
many sub-divisions, contains the _Greeks_, the _Italians_, and the
nations more immediately akin to them, are the first among the European
Aryans to show themselves in the light of history; but it does not
necessarily follow that they were actually the first in point of
settlement. ♦Celts.♦ It may be that, while they were pressing through
the Mediterranean peninsulas and islands, the _Celts_ were pressing
their way through the solid central land of Europe. The Celts were
clearly the vanguard of the Aryan migration within their own range, the
first swarm which made its way to the shores of the Ocean. Partially in
Spain, more completely in Gaul and the British Islands, they displaced
or assimilated the earlier inhabitants, who, under their pressure and
that of later conquerors, have been gradually shut up in the small
mountainous region which they still keep. Of the Celtic migration we
have no historical accounts, but all probability would lead us to think
that the Celts whom in historic times we find on the Danube and south
of the Alps were not emigrants who had followed a backward course from
the great settlement in Transalpine Gaul, but rather detachments which
had been left behind on the westward journey. Without attempting to
settle questions as to the traces of Celtic occupancy to be found in
other lands, it is enough for our purpose that, at the beginnings of
their history, we find the Celts the chief inhabitants of a region
stretching from the Rubico to the furthest known points of Britain.
Gaul, Cisalpine and Transalpine, is their great central land, though
even here they are not exclusive possessors; they share the land with
a non-Aryan remnant to the south-west, and with the next wave of Aryan
new-comers to the north-east.
The settlements of these two great Aryan races come before authentic
history. After them came the _Teutonic_ races, who pressed on the Celts
from the east; and in their wake, to judge from their place on the map,
must have come the vast family of the _Slavonic_ nations. ♦Teutons and
Slaves.♦ But the migrations of the Teutons and Slaves come, for the
most part, within the range of recorded history. Our first glimpse of
the Teutons shows them in their central German land, already occupying
both sides of the Rhine, though seemingly not very old settlers on its
left bank. The long wanderings of the various Teutonic and Slavonic
tribes over all parts of central Europe, their settlements in the
southern and western lands, are all matters of history. So is the great
Teutonic settlement in the British islands, which partly exterminated,
partly assimilated, their Celtic inhabitants, so as to leave them as
mere a remnant, though a greater remnant, as they themselves had made
the Basques. And, as the process which made the north-western islands
of Europe Teutonic is a matter of history, so also are the later
stages of the process which made the northern peninsulas Teutonic.
But it is only the later stages which are historical; we know that in
the strictly Scandinavian peninsula the Teutonic invaders displaced
non-Aryan Fins; we have only to guess that in the Cimbric Chersonêsos
they displaced Aryan Celts. ♦Lithuanians.♦ But beyond the Teutons
and Slaves lies yet another Aryan settlement, one which, in a purely
philological view, is the most interesting of all, the small and
fast vanishing group which still survives in _Lithuania_ and the
neighbouring lands. Of these there is historically really nothing to be
said. On the eastern shores of the Baltic we find people whose tongue
comes nearer than any other European tongue to the common Aryan model;
but we can only guess alike at the date when they came thither and at
the road by which they came.
These races then, Aryan and non-Aryan, make up the immemorial
population of Europe. The remnants of the older non-Aryan races,
and the successive waves of Aryan settlement, are all immemorial
facts which we must accept as the groundwork of our history and
our geography. ♦Movements among the Aryan races.♦ They must be
distinguished from other movements which are strictly matters of
written history, both movements among the Aryan nations themselves
and later intrusions of non-Aryan nations. Thus the Greek colonies
and the conquests of the Hellenized Macedonians Hellenized large
districts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, partly by displacement, partly
by assimilation. The conquests of Rome, and the Teutonic settlements
within the Roman Empire, brought about but little in the way of
displacement, but a great deal in the way of assimilation. The
process indeed was opposite in the two cases. The Roman conqueror
assimilated the conquered to himself; the Teutonic conqueror was
himself assimilated by those whom he conquered. Britain and the
Rhenish and Danubian lands stand out as marked exceptions. The
Slavonic settlements in the East wrought far more of displacement than
the Teutonic settlements in the West. Vast regions, once Illyrian
or Thracian—that is, most likely, more or less nearly akin to the
Greeks—are now wholly Slavonic. ♦Later intrusion of Non-Aryan races.♦
Lastly come the incursions on European lands made by non-Aryan
settlers in historic times. Their results have been widely different
in different cases. ♦Semitic.♦ The Semitic _Saracens_ settled in Spain
and Sicily, bringing with them and after them their African converts,
men possibly of originally kindred race with the first inhabitants
both of the peninsula and of the island. These non-Aryan settlers
have vanished. The displacement of large bodies of them is a fact of
comparatively recent history, but it can hardly fail that some degree
of assimilation must also have taken place. Then come the settlements,
chiefly in eastern Europe, of those whom for our purpose it is enough
to group together as the Turanian nations. The _Huns_ of Attila have
left only a name. The more lasting settlement of the _Avars_ has
vanished, how far by displacement, how far by assimilation, it might be
hard to say. _Chozars_, _Patzinaks_, a crowd of other barbarian races,
have left no sign of their presence. ♦Turanian.♦ The _Bulgarians_,
originally Turanian conquerors, have been assimilated by their Slavonic
subjects. The Finnish _Magyars_ have received a political and religious
assimilation; their kingdom became a member of the commonwealth of
Christian Europe, though they still keep their old Turanian language.
The latest intruders of all, the _Ottoman Turks_, still remain as
they were when they first came, aliens on Aryan and Christian ground.
But here again is a case of assimilation the other way; the Ottoman
Turks are an artificial nation which has been kept up by the constant
incorporation of European renegades who have thrown aside the speech,
the creed, and the civilization of Europe.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] In modern use we speak of _Spain_ as only one part, though much the
larger part, of the peninsula, and of _Portugal_ as another part. But
this simply comes from the accident that, for some centuries past, all
the other Spanish kingdoms have been joined under one government, while
Portugal has remained separate. In speaking of any time till near the
end of the fifteenth century of our æra, the word _Spain_ must always
be used in the geographical sense, as the name of the whole peninsula.