Transcriber Notes
Text emphasis shown as =Bold= and _Italics_.
Whole and fractional parts of numbers displayed as 17-5/8.
Issued May 23, 1911
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
=FARMERS' BULLETIN 447.=
=BEES.=
BY
E. F. PHILLIPS, Ph. D.,
_In Charge of Bee Culture, Bureau of Entomology._
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1911.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. S. Department or Agriculture,
Bureau of Entomology,
_Washington. D. C., March 4, 1911._
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled "Bees,"
by E. F. Phillips, Ph. D., in charge of bee culture in this bureau.
This paper will supersede Farmers' Bulletins 59 and 397, A few new
illustrations which add greatly to the value of the paper and some minor
alterations in the text are the only changes in this from Farmers'
Bulletin 397; but since it is not now the policy of the department to
issue revised editions, it is recommended that this bulletin be issued
under a new serial number.
In the preparation of this paper the aim has been to give briefly such
information as is needed by persons engaged in the keeping of bees, and
to answer inquiries such as are frequently received from correspondents
of the department. No attempt has been made to include discussions of
bee anatomy, honey plants, or the more special manipulations sometimes
practiced, such as queen rearing. The discussion of apparatus is
necessarily brief.
Respectfully,
L. O. Howard,
_Entomologist and Chief of Bureau._
Hon, James Wilson,
_Secretary of Agriculture._
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introduction 5
Location of the apiary 6
Equipment in apparatus 9
Workshop 9
Hives. 9
Hive stands 11
Other apparatus 11
Equipment in bees 12
Bee behavior 15
Directions for general manipulations 19
Transferring 22
Uniting 24
Preventing robbing in the apiary 25
Feeding 26
Spring management 26
Swarm management and increase 29
Artificial swarming 31
Prevention of swarming 32
Preparation for the harvest 33
The production of honey 33
Extracted honey 34
Comb honey 36
The production of wax 39
Preparations for wintering 40
Diseases and enemies 42
General information 44
Breeders of queens 44
Introducing queens 44
Dealers in bee keepers' supplies 45
Bee keepers' associations 45
Laws affecting beekeeping 45
Disease inspection 45
Laws against spraying fruit trees while in bloom 46
Laws against the adulteration of honey 46
When bees are a nuisance 46
Supposed injury of crops by bees 46
Journals and books on beekeeping 46
Publications of the Department of Agriculture on beekeeping 47
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
Fig. 1. A well-arranged apiary 7
2. A ten-frame hive with comb honey super and
perforated zinc queen excluder 10
3. Smoker 11
4. Bee veil with silk-tulle front 11
5 Hive tools 12
6. Drone and queen trap on hive entrance 12
7. Bee escape for removing bees from supers 13
8. Spring bee escape 13
9. Bee brush 14
10. Worker, queen, and drone 16
11. Comb architecture 17
12. Egg, larvæ, and pupa 18
13. Queen cells 18
14. Handling the frame: First position 21
15. Handling the frame: Second position 21
16. Handling the frame : Third position 22
17. Division-board feeder to be hung in hive in place of frame 27
18. Feeder set in collar under hive body 27
19. "Pepper-box" feeder for use on top of frames 28
20. Pan in super arranged for feeding 28
21. Knives for uncapping honey 34
22. Honey extractor 35
23. Perforated zinc queen excluder 38
24. Shipping cases for comb honey 38
25. Queen mailing cage 45
BEES.
=INTRODUCTION.=
Beekeeping for pleasure and profit is carried on by many thousands of
people in all parts of the United States. As a rule, it is not the sole
occupation. There are, however, many places where an experienced bee
keeper can make a good living by devoting his entire time and attention
to this line of work. It is usually unwise to undertake extensive
beekeeping without considerable previous experience on a small scale,
since there are so many minor details which go to make up success in the
work. It is a good plan to begin on a small scale, make the bees pay for
themselves and for all additional apparatus, as well as some profit, and
gradually to increase as far as the local conditions or the desires of
the individual permit.
Bee culture is the means of obtaining for human use a natural product
which is abundant in almost all parts of the country, and which would
be lost to us were it not for the honey bee. The annual production of
honey and wax in the United States makes apiculture a profitable minor
industry of the country. From its very nature it can never become one of
the leading agricultural pursuits, but that there is abundant opportunity
for its growth can not be doubted. Not only is the honey bee valuable
as a producer, but it is also one of the most beneficial of insects in
cross-pollinating the flowers of various economic plants.
Beekeeping is also extremely fascinating to the majority of people as a
pastime, furnishing outdoor exercise as well as intimacy with an insect
whose activity has been a subject of absorbing study from the earliest
times. It has the advantage of being a recreation which pays its own way
and often produces no mean profit.
It is a mistake, however, to paint only the bright side of the picture
and leave it to the new bee keeper to discover that there is often
another side. Where any financial profit is derived, beekeeping requires
hard work and work at just the proper time, otherwise the surplus of
honey may be diminished or lost. Few lines of work require more study to
insure success. In years when the available nectar is limited, surplus
honey is secured only by judicious manipulations, and it is only through
considerable experience and often by expensive reverses that the bee
keeper is able to manipulate properly to save his crop. Anyone can
produce honey in seasons of plenty, but these do not come every year in
most locations, and it takes a good bee keeper to make the most of poor
years. When, even with the best of manipulations, the crop is a failure
through lack of nectar, the bees must be fed to keep them from starvation.
The average annual honey yield per colony for the entire country, under
good management, will probably be 25 to 30 pounds of comb honey or 40
to 50 pounds of extracted honey. The money return to be obtained from
the crop depends entirely on the market and the method of selling the
honey. If sold direct to the consumer, extracted honey brings from 10 to
20 cents per pound, and comb honey from 15 to 25 cents per section. If
sold to dealers, the price varies from 6 to 10 cents for extracted honey
and from 10 to 15 cents for comb honey. All of these estimates depend
largely on the quality and neatness of the product. From the gross return
must be deducted from 50 cents to $1 per colony for expenses other than
labor, including foundation, sections, occasional new frames and hives,
and other incidentals. This estimate of expense does not include the cost
of new hives and other apparatus needed in providing for increase in the
size of the apiary.
Above all it should be emphasized that the only way to make beekeeping
a profitable business is to produce only a first-class article. We can
not control what the bees bring to the hive to any great extent, but by
proper manipulations we can get them to produce fancy comb honey, or if
extracted honey is produced it can be carefully cared for and neatly
packed to appeal to the fancy trade. Too many bee keepers, in fact, the
majority, pay too little attention to making their goods attractive. They
should recognize the fact that of two jars of honey, one in an ordinary
fruit jar or tin can with a poorly printed label, and the other in a
neat glass jar of artistic design with a pleasing, attractive label, the
latter will bring double or more the extra cost of the better package. It
is perhaps unfortunate, but nevertheless a fact, that honey sells largely
on appearance, and a progressive bee keeper will appeal as strongly as
possible to the eye of his customer.
=LOCATION OF THE APIARY.=
In choosing a section in which to keep bees on an extensive scale it is
essential that the resources of the country be known. Beekeeping is more
or less profitable in almost all parts of the United States, but it is
not profitable to practice extensive beekeeping in localities where the
plants do not yield nectar in large quantities. A man who desires to make
honey production his business may find that it does not pay to increase
the apiaries in his present location. It may be better to move to another
part of the country where nectar is more abundant.
[Illustration: <sc>Fig. 1.</sc>--A well-arranged apiary.]
The location of the hives is a matter of considerable importance. As a
rule it is better for hives to face away from the prevailing wind and to
be protected from high winds. In the North, a south slope is desirable.
It is advisable for hives to be so placed that the sun will strike them
early in the morning, so that the bees become active early in the day,
and thus gain an advantage by getting the first supply of nectar. It is
also advantageous to have the hives shaded during the hottest part of the
day, so that the bees will not hang out in front of the hive instead of
working. They should be so placed that the bees will not prove a nuisance
to passers-by or disturb live stock. This latter precaution may save the
bee keeper considerable trouble, for bees sometimes prove dangerous,
especially to horses. Bees are also sometimes annoying in the early
spring, for on their first flights they sometimes spot clothes hung out
to dry. This may be remedied by having the apiary some distance from the
clothes-drying yard, or by removing the bees from the cellars on days
when no clothes are to be hung out.
The plot on which the hives are placed should be kept free from weeds,
especially in front of the entrances. The grass may be cut with a lawn
mower, but it will often be found more convenient and as efficient to
pasture one or more head of sheep in the apiary inclosure.
The hives should be far enough apart to permit of free manipulation. If
hives are too close together there is danger of bees entering the wrong
hive on returning, especially in the spring.
These conditions, which may be considered as ideal, need not all be
followed. When necessary, bees may be kept on housetops, in the back
part of city lots, in the woods, or in many other places where the ideal
conditions are not found. As a matter of fact, few apiaries are perfectly
located; nevertheless, the location should be carefully planned,
especially when a large number of colonies are kept primarily for profit.
As a rule, it is not considered best to keep more than 100 colonies in
one apiary, and apiaries should be at least 2 miles apart. There are so
many factors to be considered, however, that no general rule can be laid
down. The only way to learn how many colonies any given locality will
sustain is to study the honey flora and the record of that place until
the bee keeper can decide for himself the best number to be kept and
where they shall be placed.
The experience of a relatively small number of good bee keepers in
keeping unusually large apiaries indicates that the capabilities of the
average locality are usually underestimated. The determination of the
size of extensive apiaries is worthy of considerable study, for it is
obviously desirable to keep bees in as few places as possible, to save
time in going to them and also expense in duplicated apparatus. To the
majority of bee keepers this problem is not important, for most persons
keep but a small number of colonies. This is perhaps a misfortune to the
industry as a whole, for with fewer apiaries of larger size under the
management of careful, trained bee keepers the honev production of the
country would be marvelously increased. For this reason, professional
bee keepers are not favorably inclined to the making of thousands of
amateurs, who often spoil the location for the honey producer and more
often spoil his market by the injudicious selling of honey for less than
it is worth or by putting an inferior article on the market.
Out apiaries, or those located away from the main apiary, should be so
located that transportation will be as easy as possible. The primary
consideration, however, must be the available nectar supply and the
number of colonies of bees already near enough to draw on the resources.
The out apiary should also be near to some friendly person, so that
it may be protected against depredation and so that the owner may be
notified if anything goes wrong. It is especially desirable to have it in
the partial care of some person who can hive swarms or do other similar
things that may arise in an emergency. The terms under which the apiary
is placed on land belonging to some one else is a matter for mutual
agreement. There is no general usage in this regard.
=EQUIPMENT IN APPARATUS.=
It can not be insisted too strongly that the only profitable way to keep
bees is in hives with movable frames. The bees build their combs in these
frames, which can then be manipulated by the bee keeper as necessary.
The keeping of bees in boxes, hollow logs, or straw '"skeps"' is not
profitable, is often a menace to progressive bee keepers, and should be
strongly condemned. Bees in box hives (plain boxes with no frames and
with combs built at the will of the bees) are too often seen in all parts
of the country. The owners may obtain from them a few pounds of inferior
honey a year and carelessly continue in the antiquated practice. In some
cases this type of beekeeping does little harm to others, but where
diseases of the brood are present the box hive is a serious nuisance and
should be abolished.
=WORKSHOP.=
It is desirable to have a workshop in the apiary where the crop may be
cared for and supplies may be prepared. If the ground on which the hives
are located is not level, it is usually better to have the shop on the
lower side so that the heavier loads will be carried down grade. The
windows and doors should be screened to prevent the entrance of bees.
The wire-cloth should be placed on the outside of the window frames and
should be extended about 6 inches above the opening. This upper border
should be held away from the frame with narrow wooden strips one-fourth
inch in thickness so as to provide exits for bees which accidentally get
into the house. Bees do not enter at such openings, and any bees which
are carried into the house fly at once to the windows and then crawl
upward, soon clearing the house of all bees. The windows should be so
arranged that the glass may be slid entirely away from the openings to
prevent bees from being imprisoned. The equipment of benches and racks
for tools and supplies can be arranged as is best suited to the house. It
is a good plan to provide racks for surplus combs, the combs being hung
from strips separated the distance of the inside length of the hive.
=HIVES.=
It is not the purpose of this bulletin to advocate the use of any
particular make of hive or other apparatus. Some general statements may
be made, however, which may help the beginner in his choice.
The type of hive most generally used in this country (fig. 2) was
invented by Langstroth in 1851. It consists of a plain wooden box holding
frames hung from a rabbet at the top and not touching the sides, top, or
bottom. Hives of this type are made to hold eight, ten, or more frames.
The size of frame in general use, known as the Langstroth (or L) frame
(9-1/8 by 17-5/8 inches), is more widely used than all others combined.
One of the best features in hive manufacture developed by Langstroth
is the making of the spaces between frames, side walls, and supers
accurately, so that there is just room for the easy passage of bees. In
a space of this size (called a "bee space") bees rarely build comb or
deposit propolis.
The number of frames used depends on the kind of honey produced (whether
comb or extracted) and on the length of honey flow and other local
factors. There are other hives used which have points of superiority.
These will be found discussed in the various books on beekeeping and in
the catalogues of dealers in bee keepers' supplies. Whatever hive is
chosen, there are certain important points which should be insisted on.
The material should be of the best; the parts must be accurately made,
so that all frames or hives in the apiary are interchangeable. All hives
should be of the same style and size; they should be as simple as it is
possible to make them, to facilitate operation. Simple frames diminish
the amount of propolis, which will interfere with manipulation. As a
rule, it is better to buy hives and frames from a manufacturer of such
goods rather than to try to make them, unless one is an expert woodworker.
The choice of a hive, while important, is usually given undue prominence
in books on bees. In actual practice experienced bee keepers with
different sizes and makes of hives under similar conditions do not find
as much difference in their honey crop as one would be led to believe
from the various published accounts.
[Illustration: <sc>Fig. 2.</sc>--A 10-frame hive with comb honey super
and perforated zinc queen excluder.]
Hives should be painted to protect them from the weather. It is usually
desirable to use white paint to prevent excessive heat in the colony
during hot weather. Other light colors are satisfactory, but it is best
to avoid red or black.
=HIVE STANDS.=
Generally it is best to have each hive on a separate stand. The entrance
should be lower than any other part of the hive. Stands of wood, bricks,
tile (fig. 2), concrete blocks, or any other convenient material will
answer the purpose. The hive should be raised above the ground, so that
the bottom will not rot. It is usually not necessary to raise the hive
more than a few inches. Where ants are a nuisance special hive stands are
sometimes necessary.
[Illustration: <sc>Fig. 3.</sc>--Smoker.]
[Illustration: <sc>Fig. 4.</sc>--Bee veil with silk-tulle front.]
=OTHER APPARATUS.=
In addition to the hives in which the bees are kept some other apparatus
is necessary. A good smoker to quiet the bees (fig. 3), consisting of a
tin or copper receptacle to hold burning rotten wood or other material,
with a bellows attached, is indispensable. A veil of black material,
preferably with a black silk-tulle front (fig. 4), should be used. Black
wire-cloth veils are also excellent. Even if a veil is not always used,
it is desirable to have one at hand in case the bees become cross. Cloth
or leather gloves are sometimes used to protect the hands, but they
hinder most manipulations. Some sort of tool (fig. 5) to pry hive covers
loose and frames apart is desirable. A screwdriver will answer, but any
of the tools made especially for that purpose is perhaps better. Division
boards drone traps (fig. 6), bee escapes (figs. 7 and 8), feeders
(figs. 17, 18, 19, 20), foundation fasteners, wax extractors, bee brushes
(fig. 9), queen-rearing outfits, and apparatus for producing comb or
extracted honey (figs. 2, 21, 22) will be found described in catalogues
of supplies: a full discussion of these implements would require too much
space in this bulletin. A few of these things are illustrated, and their
use will be evident to the bee keeper. It is best to have the frames
filled with foundation to insure straight combs composed of worker cells
only. Foundation is made from thin sheets of pure beeswax on which are
impressed the bases of the cells of the comb. On this as a guide the
worker bees construct the combs. When sheets of foundation are inserted
they should be supported by wires stretched across the frames. Frames
purchased from supply dealers are usually pierced for wiring. It should
be remembered that manipulation based on a knowledge of bee behavior
is of far greater importance than any particular style of apparatus.
In a short discussion like the present it is best to omit descriptions
of appliances, since supply dealers will be glad to furnish whatever
information is desired concerning apparatus.
[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Hive tools.]
[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Drone and queen trap on hive entrance.]
=EQUIPMENT IN BEES.=
As stated previously, it is desirable to begin beekeeping with a small
number of colonies. In purchasing these it is usually best to obtain them
near at home rather than to send to a distance, for there is considerable
liability of loss in shipment. Whenever possible it is better to get
bees already domiciled in the particular hive chosen by the bee keeper,
but if this is not practicable then bees in any hives or in box hives
may be purchased and transferred. It is a matter of small importance
what race of bees is purchased, for queens of any race may be obtained
and introduced in place of the original queen, and in a short time the
workers will all be of the same race as the introduced queen. This is
due to the fact that during the honey season worker bees die rapidly, and
after requeening they are replaced by the offspring of the new queen.
[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Bee escape for removing bees from
supers.]
A most important consideration in purchasing colonies of bees is to
see to it that they are free from disease. In many States and counties
there are inspectors of apiaries who can be consulted on this point, but
if this is not possible even a novice can tell whether or not there is
anything wrong with the brood, and it is always safest to refuse hives
containing dead brood.
The best time of the year to begin beekeeping is in the spring, for
during the first few months of ownership the bee keeper can study the
subject and learn what to do, so that he is not so likely to make a
mistake which will end in loss of bees. It is usually best to buy good
strong colonies with plenty of brood for that season of the year, but
if this is not practicable, then smaller colonies, or nuclei, may be
purchased and built up during the summer season. Of course, no surplus
honey can be expected if all the honey gathered goes into the making of
additional bees. It is desirable to get as little drone comb as possible
and a good supply of honey in the colonies purchased.
[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Spring bee escape.]
The question as to what race and strain of bees is to be kept is
important. If poor stock has been purchased locally, the bee keeper
should send to some reliable queen breeder for good queens as a
foundation for his apiary. Queens may be purchased for $1 each for
"untested" to several dollars each for "selected" breeding queens.
Usually it will not pay beginners to buy "selected" breeding queens, for
they are not yet prepared to make the best use of such stock. "Untested"
or "tested" queens are usually as good a quality as are profitable for a
year or so, and there is also less danger in mailing "untested" (young)
queens.
Various races of bees have been imported into the United States and among
experienced bee keepers there are ardent advocates of almost all of
them. The black or German race was the first imported, very early in the
history of the country, and is found everywhere, but usually not entirely
pure. As a rule this race is not desirable. No attention has been paid to
breeding it for improvement in this country, and it is usually found in
the hands of careless bee keepers. As a result it is inferior, although
it often produces beautiful comb honey.
The Italian bees, the next introduced, are the most popular race among
the best bee keepers in this country, and with good reason. They are
vigorous workers and good honey gatherers, defend their hives well, and
above all have been more carefully selected by American breeders than any
other race. Especially for the last reason it is usually desirable to
keep this race. That almost any other race of bees known could be bred to
as high a point as the Italians, and perhaps higher, can not be doubted,
but the bee keeper now gets the benefit of what has been done for this
race. It should not be understood from this that the efforts at breeding
have been highly successful. On the contrary, bee breeding will compare
very unfavorably with the improvement of other animals or plants which
have been the subject of breeding investigations.
[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Bee brush.]
Italian bees have been carefully selected for color by some breeders
to increase the area of yellow on the abdomen, until we now have what
are known as "five-banded" bees. These are very beautiful, but it can
scarcely be claimed that they are improved as honey producers or in
regard to gentleness. They are kept mostly by amateurs. Some breeders
have claimed to select Italians for greater length of tongue, with the
object of getting a bee which could obtain the abundance of nectar
from red clover. If any gain is ever made in this respect, it is soon
lost. The terms "red-clover bees" or "long-tongued bees" are somewhat
misleading, but are ordinarily used as indicating good honey producers.
Caucasian bees, formerly distributed throughout the country by
this department, are the most gentle race of bees known. They are
not stingless, however, as is often stated in newspapers and other
periodicals. Many report them as good honey gatherers. They are more
prolific than Italians and may possibly become popular. Their worst
characteristic is that they gather great quantities of propolis and build
burr and brace combs very freely. They are most desirable bees for the
amateur or for experimental purposes.
Carniolan and Banat bees have some advocates, and are desirable in that
they are gentle. Little is known of Banats in this country, Carniolans
swarm excessively unless in' large hives. Cyprians were formerly used
somewhat, but are now rarely found pure, and are undesirable either
pure or in crosses because of the fact that they sting with the least
provocation and are not manageable with smoke. They are good honey
gatherers, but their undesirable qualities have caused them to be
discarded by American bee keepers. ''Holy-land," Egyptian, and Punic
(Tunisian) bees have also been tried and have been universally abandoned.
The Department of Agriculture does not now distribute or sell queen bees
or colonies of bees of any race.
=BEE BEHAVIOR.=
The successful manipulation of bees depends entirely on a knowledge
of their habits. This is not generally recognized, and most of the
literature on practical beekeeping consists of sets of rules to guide
manipulations. This is too true of the present paper, but is due to a
desire to make the bulletin short and concise. While this method usually
answers, it is nevertheless faulty, in that, without a knowledge of
fundamental principles of behavior, the bee keeper is unable to recognize
the seemingly abnormal phases of activity, and does not know what to do
under such circumstances. Rules must, of course, be based on the usual
behavior. By years of association the bee keeper almost unconsciously
acquires a wide knowledge of bee behavior, and consequently is better
able to solve the problems which constantly arise. However, it would save
an infinite number of mistakes and would add greatly to the interest of
the work if more time were expended on a study of behavior; then the
knowledge gained could be applied to practical manipulation.
A colony of bees consists normally of one queen bee (fig. 10, _b_), the
mother of the colony, and thousands of sexually undeveloped females
called workers (fig. 10, _a_), which normally lay no eggs, but build
the comb, gather the stores, keep the hive clean, feed the young, and
do the other work of the hive. During part of the year there are also
present some hundreds of males (fig. 10, _c_) or drones (often removed or
restricted in numbers by the bee keeper), whose only service is to mate
with young queens. These three types are easily recognized, even by a
novice. In nature the colony lives in a hollow tree or other cavity, but
under manipulation thrives in the artificial hives provided. The combs
which form their abode are composed of wax secreted by the workers. The
hexagonal cells of the two vertical layers constituting each comb have
interplaced ends on a common septum. In the cells of these combs are
reared the developing bees, and honey and pollen for food are also stored
here.
The cells built naturally are not all of the same size, those used in
rearing worker bees being about one-fifth of an inch across, and those
used in rearing drones and in storing honey about one-fourth of an inch
across (fig. 11). The upper cells in natural combs are more irregular,
and generally curve upward at the outer end. They are used chiefly
for the storage of honey. Under manipulation the size of the cells is
controlled by the bee keeper by the use of comb foundation--sheets of
pure beeswax on which are impressed the bases of cells and on which the
bees build the side walls.
[Illustration: Fig. 10.--The honey bee: _a_, Worker; _b_, queen; _c_,
drone. Twice natural size.]
In the North, when the activity of the spring begins, the normal colony
consists of the queen and some thousands of workers. As the outside
temperature raises, the queen begins to lay eggs (fig. 12, _a_) in the
worker cells. These in time develop into white larvæ (fig. 12, _b_, _c_),
which grow to fill the cells. They are then capped over and transform
first into pupæ (fig. 12, _d_) and then into adult worker bees. As the
weather grows warmer, and the colony increases in size by the emergence
of the young bees, the quantity of brood is increased. The workers
continue to bring in pollen, nectar to be made into honey, and water
for brood rearing. When the hive is nearly filled with bees and stores,
or when a heavy honey flow is on, the queen begins to lay eggs in the
larger cells, and these develop into drones or males. Continued increase
of the colony would result in the formation of enormous, colonies, and
unless some division takes place no increase in the number of colonies
will result. Finally, however, the workers begin to build queen cells
(fig. 13). These are larger than any other cells In the hive and hang on
the comb vertically. In size and shape they may be likened to a peanut,
and are also rough on the outside. In preparing for swarming the queen
sometimes lays eggs in partly constructed queen cells, but when a colony
becomes queenless the cells are built around female larvæ. The larvæ in
these cells receive special food, and when they have grown to full size
they, too, are sealed up, and the colony is then ready for swarming.
[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Comb architecture: _a_, Vertical section
at top of comb; _b_, vertical section showing transition from worker to
drone cells; _c_, horizontal section at side of comb showing end bar of
frame; _d_, horizontal section of worker brood cells; e, diagram showing
transition cells. Natural size.]
The issuing of the first swarm from a colony consists of the departure
of the original queen with part of the workers. They leave behind the
honev stores, except such as they can carry in their honey stomachs, the
brood, some workers, drones, several queen cells, from which will later
emerge young queens, but no adult queen. By this interesting process the
original colony is divided into two.
The swarm finds a new location in some place, such as a hollow tree, or,
if cared for by the bee keeper, in a hive. The workers build new combs,
the queen begins laying, and in a short time the swarm becomes a normal
colony.
[Illustration: Fig. 12.--The honey bee: _a_, Egg; _b_, young larva;
_c_, old larva; _d_, pupa. Three times natural size.]
The colony on the old stand (parent colony) is increased by the bees
emerging from the brood. After a time (usually about seven or eight days)
the queens in their cells are ready to emerge. If the colony is only
moderately strong the first queen to emerge is allowed by the workers to
tear down the other queen cells and kill the queens not yet emerged, but
if a "second swarm" is to be given off the queen cells are protected.
If the weather permits, when from 5 to 8 days old, the young queen flies
from the hive to mate with a drone. Mating usually occurs but once during
the life of the queen and always takes place on the wing. In mating she
receives enough spermatozoa (male sex cells) to last throughout her life.
She returns to the hive after mating, and in about two days begins egg
laying. The queen never leaves the hive except at mating time or with
a swarm, and her sole duty in the colony is to lay eggs to keep up the
population.
When the flowers which furnish most nectar are in bloom, the bees usually
gather more honey than they need for their own use, and this the bee
keeper can safely remove. They continue the collection of honey and other
activities until cold weather comes on in the fall, when brood rearing
ceases; they then become relatively quiet, remaining in the hive all
winter, except for short flights on warm days. When the main honey flow
is over, the drones are usually driven from the hive. By that time the
virgin queens have been mated and drones are of no further use. They are
not usually stung to death, but are merely carried or driven from the
hive by the workers and starve. A colony of bees which for any reason is
without a queen does not expel the drones.
[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Queen cells. Natural size.]
Many abnormal conditions may arise in the activity of a colony, and it is
therefore necessary for the bee keeper to understand most of these, so
that when they occur he may overcome them. If a virgin queen is prevented
from mating she generally dies, but occasionally begins to lay eggs
after about four weeks. In this event, however, all of the eggs which
develop become males. Such a queen is commonly called a "drone layer."
If the virgin queen is lost while on her flight, or the colony at any
other time is left queenless without means of rearing additional queens,
it sometimes happens that some of the workers begin to lay eggs. These
eggs also develop only into drones.
It also happens at times that when a queen becomes old her supply of
spermatozoa is exhausted, at which tune her eggs also develop only into
drones. These facts are the basis of the theory that the drone of the
bee is developed from an unfertilized egg or is partheno-genetic. A full
discussion of this point is impossible in this place.
The work of the hive is very nicely apportioned among the inmates,
so that there is little lost effort. As has been stated, the rearing
of young is accomplished by having one individual to lay eggs and
numerous others (immature females or workers) to care for the larvæ.
In like manner all work of the colony is apportioned. In general, it
may be stated that all inside work--wax building, care of brood, and
cleaning--is done by the younger workers, those less than 17 days old,
while the outside work of collecting pollen and nectar to be made into
honey is done by the older workers. This plan may be changed by special
conditions. For example, if the colony has been queenless for a tune and
a queen is then given, old workers may begin the inside work of feeding
larvæ, and these may also secrete wax. Or, if the old workers are all
removed, the younger bees may begin outside work. As a rule, however, the
general plan of division of labor according to age is probably followed
rather closely.
=DIRECTIONS FOR GENERAL MANIPULATIONS.=
Bees should be handled so that they will be little disturbed in their
work. As much as possible, stings should be avoided during manipulation.
This is true, not so much because they are painful to the operator, but
because the odor of poison which gets into the air irritates the other
bees and makes them more difficult to manage. For this reason it is most
advisable to wear a black veil (fig. 4) over a wide-brimmed hat and
to have a good smoker (fig. 3). Gloves, however, are usually more an
inconvenience than otherwise. Gauntlets or rubber bands around the cuffs
keep the bees from crawling up the sleeve. It is best to avoid black
clothing, since that color seems to excite bees; a black felt hat is
especially to be avoided.
Superfluous quick movements tend to irritate the bees. The hive should
not be jarred or disturbed any more than necessary. Rapid movements are
objectionable, because with their peculiar eye structure bees probably
perceive motion more readily than they do objects. Persons not accustomed
to bees, on approaching a hive, often strike at bees which fly toward
them or make some quick movement of the head or hand to avoid the sting
which they fear is to follow. This should not be done, for the rapid
movement, even if not toward the bee, is far more likely to be followed
by a sting than remaining quiet.
The best time to handle bees is during the middle of warm days,
particularly during a honey flow. Never handle bees at night or on cold,
wet days unless absolutely necessary. The work of a beginner may be
made much easier and more pleasant by keeping gentle bees. Caucasians,
Carniolans, Banats, and some strains of Italians ordinarily do not sting
much unless unusually provoked or except in bad weather. Common black
bees or crosses of blacks with other races are more irritable. It may be
well worth while for the beginner to procure gentle bees while gaining
experience in manipulation. Later on, this is less important, for the
bee keeper learns to handle bees with little inconvenience to himself or
to the bees. Various remedies for bee stings have been advocated, but
they are all useless. The puncture made by the sting is so small that
it closes when the sting is removed and liquids can not be expected to
enter. The best thing to do when stung is to remove the sting as soon as
possible without squeezing the poison sac, which is usually attached.
This can be done by scraping it out with a knife or finger nail. After
this is done the injured spot should be let alone and not rubbed with any
liniment. The intense itching will soon disappear; any irritation only
serves to increase the afterswelling.
Before opening a hive the smoker should be lighted and the veil put on.
A few puffs of smoke directed into the entrance will cause the bees to
fill themselves with honey and will drive back the guards. The hive
cover should be raised gently, if necessary being pried loose with a
screwdriver or special hive tool. When slightly raised, a little more
smoke should be blown in vigorously on the tops of the frames, or if a
mat covering for the frames is used, the cover should be entirely removed
and one corner of the mat lifted to admit smoke. It is not desirable to
use any more smoke than just enough to subdue the bees and keep them down
on the frames. If at any time during manipulation they become excited,
more smoke may be necessary. Do not stand in front of the entrance, but
at one side or the back.
After the frames are exposed they may be loosened by prying gently with
the hive tool and crowded together a little so as to give room for the
removal of one frame. In cool weather the propolis (bee glue) may be
brittle. Care should be exercised not to loosen this propolis with a
jar. The first frame removed can be leaned against the hive, so that
there will be more room inside for handling the others. During all
manipulations bees must not be mashed or crowded, for it irritates the
colony greatly and may make it necessary to discontinue operations.
Undue crowding may also crush the queen. If bees crawl on the hands, they
may be gently brushed off or thrown off.
[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Handling the frame: First position.]
In examining a frame hold it over the hive if possible, so that any bees
or queen which fall may drop into it. Freshly gathered honey also often
drops from the frame, and if it falls in the hive the bees can quickly
clean it up, whereas if it drops outside it is untidy and may cause
robbing. If a frame is temporarily leaned against the hive, it should be
placed in a nearly upright position to prevent breakage and leaking of
honey. The frame on which the queen is located should not be placed on
the ground, for fear she may crawl away and be lost. It is best to lean
the frame on the side of the hive away from the operator, so that bees
will not crawl up his legs.
[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Handling the frame: Second position.]
In hanging frames the comb should always be held in a vertical position,
especially if it contains much honey. When a frame is lifted from the
hive by the top bar, the comb is vertical with one side toward the
operator (fig. 14). To examine the reverse side, raise one end of the top
bar until it is perpendicular (fig. 15), turn the frame on the top bar as
an axis until the reverse side is in view, and then lower to a horizontal
position with the top bar below (fig. 16). In this way there is no extra
strain on the comb and the bees are not irritated. This care is not so
necessary with wired combs, but it is a good habit to form in handling
frames.
It is desirable to have combs composed entirely of worker cells in
order to reduce the amount of drone brood. The use of full sheets of
foundation will bring this about and is also of value in making the
combs straight, so that bees are not mashed in removing the frame. It
is extremely difficult to remove combs built crosswise in the hive, and
this should never be allowed to occur. Such a hive is even worse than a
plain box hive. Superfluous inside fixtures should be avoided, as they
tend only to impede manipulation. The hive should also be placed so that
the entrance is perfectly horizontal and a little lower than the back
of the hive. The frames will then hang in a vertical position, and the
outer ones will not be fastened by the bees to the hive body if properly
spaced at the top.
[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Handling the frame: Third position.]
In placing frames in the hive great care should be exercised that they
are properly spaced. Some frames are self-spacing, having projections on
the side, so that when placed as close as possible they are the correct
distance apart. These are good for beginners or persons who do not judge
distances well and are preferred by many professional bee keepers. If
unspaced frames are used, the brood frames should be 1-3/8 inches from
center to center. A little practice will usually enable anyone to space
quickly and accurately. Careful spacing is necessary to prevent the
building of combs of irregular thickness and to retard the building of
pieces of comb from one frame to another.
A beginner in beekeeping should by all means, if possible, visit some
experienced bee keeper to get suggestions in handling bees. More can be
learned in a short visit than in a considerably longer time in reading
directions, and numerous short cuts which are acquired by experience will
well repay the trouble or expense of such a visit. Not all professional
bee keepers manipulate in the very best way, but later personal
experience will correct any erroneous information. Above all, personal
experimentation and a study of bee activity are absolute necessities in
the practical handling of bees.
=TRANSFERRING.=
In increasing the apiary it is sometimes best to buy colonies in box
hives on account of their smaller cost and to transfer them to hives with
movable frames. This should be done as soon as possible, for box hive
colonies are of small value as producers. The best time to transfer is in
the spring (during fruit bloom in the North) when the amount of honey and
the population of the colony are at a minimum.
Transferring should not be delayed until spring merely because that
season is best for the work. It may be done at any time during the
active season, but, whenever possible, during a honey flow, to prevent
robbing. If necessary, it may be done in a tent such as is often used in
manipulating colonies. By choosing a time of the day when the largest
number of bees are in the field the work will be lessened.
=Plan 1.=--The box hive should be moved a few feet from its stand and
in its place should be put a hive with movable frames containing full
sheets of foundation. The box hive should be turned upside down and a
small, empty box inverted over it. By drumming continuously on the box
hive with sticks for a considerable time the bees will be made to desert
their combs and go to the upper box, and when most of them are clustered
above, the bees may be dumped in front of the entrance of the hive which
is to house them. The queen will usually be seen as the bees enter the
hive, but, in case she has not left the old combs, more drumming will
induce her to do so. It is necessary that the queen be in the hive before
this manipulation is finished. The old box hive containing brood may
now be placed right side up in a new location and in 21 days all of the
worker brood will have emerged and probably some new queens will have
been reared. These bees may then be drummed out and united with their
former hive mates by vigorously smoking the colony and the drummed bees
and allowing the latter to enter the hive through a perforated zinc to
keep out the young queens. The comb in the box hive may then be melted up
and any honey which it may contain used as the bee keeper sees fit. By
this method good straight combs are obtained. If little honey is being
gathered, the colony in the hive must be provided with food.
=Plan 2.=--If, on the other hand, the operator desires to save the combs
of the box hive, the bees may be drummed into a box and the brood combs
and other fairly good combs cut to fit frames and tied in place or held
with rubber bands, strings, or strips of wood until the bees can repair
the damage and fill up the breaks. These frames can then be hung in a
hive on the old stand and the bees allowed to go in. The cutting of
combs containing brood with more or less bees on them is a disagreeable
job, and, since the combs so obtained are usually of little value in an
apiary, the first method is recommended.
=Plan 3.=--Another good plan is to wait until the colony swarms and then
move the box hive to one side. A movable frame hive is now placed in the
former location of the box hive and the swarm is hived in it. In this
way all returning field bees are forced to join the swarm. In 21 days
all of the worker brood in the box hive will have emerged. These young
bees may then be united with the bees in the frame hive and the box hive
destroyed.
Colonies often take up their abode in walls of houses and it is often
necessary to remove them to prevent damage from melting combs. If
the cavity in which the combs are built can be reached, the method
of procedure is like that of transferring, except that drumming is
impractical and the bees must simply be subdued with smoke and the combs
cut out with the bees on them.
Another method which is often better is to place a bee escape over the
entrance to the cavity, so that the bees can come out, but can not
return. A cone of wire cloth about 8 inches high with a hole at the apex
just large enough for one bee to pass will serve as a bee escape, or
regular bee escapes (fig. 8) such as are sold by dealers may be used.
A hive which they can enter is then placed beside the entrance. The
queen is not obtained in this way and, of course, goes right on laying
eggs, but as the colony is rapidly reduced in size the amount of brood
decreases. As brood emerges, the younger bees leave the cavity and join
the bees in the hive, until finally the queen is left practically alone.
A new queen should be given to the bees in the hive as soon as possible,
and in a short time they are fully established in their new quarters.
After about four weeks, when all or nearly all of the brood in the cavity
has emerged, the bee escape should be removed and as large a hole made
at the entrance of the cavity as possible. The bees will then go in and
rob out the honey and carry it to the hive, leaving only empty combs. The
empty combs will probably do no damage, as moths usually soon destroy
them and they may be left in the cavity and the old entrance carefully
closed to prevent another swarm from taking up quarters there.
In transferring bees from a hollow tree the method will depend on the
accessibility of the cavity. Usually it is difficult to drum out the bees
and the combs can be cut out after subduing the colony with smoke.
=UNITING.=