Since the discovery of the multiplying galvanometer, we know for an
absolute certainty that in every chemical action there is a production
of electricity in a more or less notable quantity, according to the
nature of the bodies in presence. Though, in the play of _affinity_,
there is a manifestation of electricity, is it the same with
_cohesion_, which also is a chemical force?
We know, on another hand, that, on causing electricity to intervene,
we bring about the crystallization of a large number of substances.
But is the converse true? Is spontaneous crystallization accompanied
with an appreciable manifestation of electricity? If we consult the
annals of science and works treating on electricity in regard to this
subject, we find very few examples and experiments proper to elucidate
the question.
Mr. Mascart is content to say: "Some experiments seem to indicate that
the solidification of a body produces electricity." Mr. Becquerel does
more than doubt--he denies: "As regards the disengagement of
electricity in the changing of the state of bodies, we find none."
This assertion is too sweeping, for further along we shall cite facts
that prove, on the contrary, that in the phenomena of crystallization
(to speak of this change of state only) there is an unequivocal
production of electricity. Let us remark, in the first place, that
when a number of phenomena of physical and chemical order
incontestably testify to the very intimate correlation that exists
between the molecular motions of bodies and their electrical state, it
would not be very logical to grant that electricity is absent in
crystallization.
Thus, to select an example from among physical effects, the vibratory
phenomena that occur in telephone transmissions, under the influence
of a very feeble electric current, show us that the molecular
constitution of a solid body is extremely variable, although within
slight limits. The feeblest modification in the electric current may
be shown by molecular motions capable of propagating themselves to
considerable distances in the conducting wire. Conversely, it is
logical to suppose that a modification in the molecular state of a
body must bring electricity into play. If, in the phenomena of
solidification, and particularly of crystallization, we collect but
small quantities of electricity, that may be due to the fact that,
under the experimental conditions involved, the electricity is more or
less completely absorbed by the work of crystal building.
On another hand, the behavior of electricity shows in advance the
multiple role that this agent may play in the various physical,
chemical, and mechanical phenomena.
There is no doubt that electricity exists immovable or in circulation
everywhere, latent or imperceptible, around us, and within ourselves,
and that it enters as a cause into the majority of the chemical,
physical, and mechanical phenomena that are constantly taking place
before our eyes. A body cannot change state, nature, temperature,
form, or place, even, without electricity being brought into play, and
without its accompanying such modifications, if it presides therein.
Like heat, it is _the_ natural agent _par excellence_; it is the
invisible and ever present force which, in the ultimate particles of
matter, causes those motions, vibrations, and rotations that have the
effect of changing the properties of bodies. Upon entering their
intimate structure, it orients or groups their atoms, and separates
their molecules or brings them together. From this, would it not be
surprising if it did not intervene in the wonderful phenomenon of
crystallization? Crystallization, in fact, depends upon _cohesion_,
and, in the thermic theory, this force is not distinct from affinity,
just as solution and dissociation are not distinct from combination.
On this occasion, it is necessary to say that, between affinity, heat,
and electricity there is such a correlation, such a dependency, that
physicists have endeavored to reduce to one single principle all the
causes that are now distinct. The mechanical theory of heat has made a
great stride in this direction.
The equivalence of the thermic, mechanical and chemical forces has
been demonstrated; the only question hereafter will be to select from
among such forces the one that must be adopted as the sole principle,
in order to account for all the phenomena that depend upon these
causes of various orders. But in the present state of science, it is
not yet possible to explain completely by heat or electricity, taken
isolatedly, all the effects dependent upon the causes just mentioned.
We must confine ourselves for the present to a study of the relations
that exist between the principal natural forces--affinity, molecular
forces, heat, electricity, and light. But from the mutual dependence
of such forces, it is admitted that, in every natural phenomenon,
there is a more or less apparent simultaneous concurrence of these
causes.
In order to explain electric or magnetic phenomena, and also those of
crystallization, it is admitted that the atoms of which bodies are
composed are surrounded, each of them, with a sort of atmosphere
formed of electric currents, owing to which these atoms are attracted
or repelled on certain sides, and produce those varied effects that we
observe under different circumstances. According to this theory, then,
atoms would be small electro-magnets behaving like genuine magnets.
Entirely free in gases, but less so in liquids and still less so in
solids, they are nevertheless capable of arranging themselves and of
becoming polarized in a regular order, special to each kind of atom,
in order to produce crystals of geometrical form characteristic of
each species. Thus, as Mr. Saigey remarks in "Physique Moderne" (p.
181): "So long as the atmospheres of the molecules do not touch each
other, no trace of cohesion manifests itself; but as soon as they come
together force is born. We understand why the temperatures of fusion
and solidification are fixed for the same body. Such effects occur at
the precise moment at which these atmospheres, which are variable with
the temperature, have reached the desired diameter."
[Illustration: Figs. 1., 2., and 3.]
Although the phenomenon of crystallization does not essentially depend
upon temperature, but rather upon the relative quantity of liquid that
holds the substance in solution, it will be conceived that a moment
will arrive when, the liquid having evaporated, the atmospheres will
be close enough to each other to attract each other and become
polarized and symmetrically juxtaposed, and, in a word, to
crystallize.
Before giving examples of the production of electricity in the
phenomenon of crystallization, it will be well to examine, beforehand,
the different circumstances under which electricity acts as the
determining cause of crystallization or intervenes among the causes
that bring about the phenomenon. In the first place, two words
concerning crystallization itself: We know that crystallization is the
passage, or rather the result of the passage, of a body from a liquid
or gaseous state to a solid one. It occurs when the substance has lost
its cohesion through any cause whatever, and when, such cause ceasing
to act, the body slowly returns to a solid state.
Under such circumstances, it may take on regular, geometrical forms
called crystalline. Such conditions are brought about by different
processes--fusion, volatilization, solution, the dry way, wet way, and
electric way. Further along, we shall give some examples of the last
named means.
Let us add that crystallization may be regarded as a general property
of bodies, for the majority of substances are capable of
crystallizing. Although certain bodies seem to be amorphous at first
sight, it is only necessary to examine their fracture with a lens or
microscope to see that they are formed of a large number of small
juxtaposed crystals. Many amorphous precipitates become crystalline in
the long run.
In the examination of the various crystallizations that occupy us, we
shall distinguish the following: (1) Those that are produced through
the direct intervention of the electric current; (2) those in which
electricity is manifestly produced by small voltaic couples resulting
from the presence of two different metals in the solution experimented
with; (3) those in which there are no voltaic couples, but in which it
is proved that electricity is one of the causes that concur in the
production of the phenomenon; (4) finally, those in which it is
rational, through analogy with the preceding, to infer that
electricity is not absent from the phenomenon.
I. We know that, by means of voltaic electricity or induction, we can
crystallize a large number of substances.
Despretz tried this means for months at a time upon carbon, either by
using the electricity from a Ruhmkorff coil or the current from a weak
Daniell's battery. In both cases, he obtained on the platinum wires a
black powder, in which were found very small octohedral crystals,
having the property of polishing rubies rapidly and perfectly--a
property characteristic of diamonds.
The use of voltaic apparatus of high tension has allowed Mr. Cross to
form a large number of mineral substances artificially, and among
these we may mention carbonate of lime, arragonite, quartz, arseniate
of copper, crystalline sulphur, etc.
As regards products formed with the concurrence of electricity
(oxides, sulphides, chlorides, iodides, etc.), see "Des Forces
Physico-Chimiques," by Becquerel (p. 231).
There is no doubt as to the part played by electricity in the chemical
effects of electro-metallurgy, but it will not prove useless for our
subject to remark that when, in this operation, the current has become
too weak, the deposit of metal, instead of forming in a thin,
adherent, and uniform layer, sometimes occurs under the form of
protuberances and crystalline, brittle nodules. When, on the contrary,
the current is very strong, the deposit is pulverulent, that is, in a
confused crystallization or in an amorphous state.
Further along, we shall find an application of this remark. We obtain,
moreover, all the intermediate effects of cohesion, form, and color of
galvanic deposits.
When, into a solution of acetate of lead, we pass a current through
two platinum electrodes, we observe the formation, at the negative
pole, of numerous arborizations of metallic lead that grow under the
observer's eye (Fig. 1). The phenomenon is of a most interesting
character when, by means of solar or electric light, we project these
brilliant vegetations on a screen. One might believe that he was
witness of the rapid growth of a plant (Fig. 2). The same phenomenon
occurs none the less brilliantly with a solution of nitrate of silver.
A large number of saline solutions are adapted to these
decompositions, in which the metal is laid bare under a crystalline
form. Further along we shall see another means of producing analogous
ramifications, without the direct use of the electric current.--_C.
Decharme, in La Lumiere Electrique._
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