HOW TO SELECT BATTERIES FOR GAS LIGHTING.
Before entering into a description of the various batteries used in
electric gas lighting, it will be well to briefly consider a few
simple electrical rules bearing upon the subject.
A current of electricity has _electromotive force_, or _difference of
potential_ figured in _volts_, and _current_ figured in _amperes_.
For example we will use the _water_ analogy (Fig. 49). Two tanks, _A_
_B_, on the same level, are connected by a pipe _C_.
Supposing tank _A_ be filled with water and the pipe, _C_, to be
opened; the water will flow along _C_ into _B_ until the level in each
tank is equal. So long as there is a difference of level, there will
be a pressure in _C_, owing to the water behind it.
Replacing the tanks _A_ and _B_ by unequally electrified bodies, and
the pipe _C_ by a conductor of electricity, the flow of water is
represented by the tendency of the electrified bodies to equalize
themselves by a flow of current along the conductor, _C_.
To sum up: The difference of level is now difference of potential, the
pounds pressure along the pipe being expressed as electromotive force
in _volts_.
[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
The quantity of water flowing along the pipe is measured, as
electricity, in amperes. As the quantity of water passing in a given
time is regulated by the size of the pipe and its own pressure, so the
quantity of electricity is also regulated. A conductor of electricity
offers resistance to the flow of current according to its sectional
area and the material of which it is composed, this resistance being
expressed in _ohms_. The greater the voltage and lower the resistance,
the more current. This law, and its kindred applications, are
expressed as follows:
_C = E/R._
_C_ is current in amperes, _E_ electromotive force in volts, and _R_
resistance in ohms.
Thus a wire with a resistance of 50 ohms would pass 2 amperes with an
electromotive force of 100 volts. To find resistance when other two
factors are known, the formula is
_R = E/C._
In selecting a battery for work, regard must be made to the current
required, and its period of flow. For energizing a gas lighting
primary coil, the current must be large, but is only required
occasionally, the battery standing idle for long periods. In this case
the class called open circuit cells are preferable, as they contain no
strong acids and do not deteriorate to any extent when not in use. Of
such class is the Leclanche-Samson, Monarch, carbon cylinder, and most
so-called dry cells. As the resistance in a conductor affects the
current flow, so it does in a battery cell; the internal resistance of
a battery is determined by its size, proximity of the elements, etc.
Cells with small zincs and porous cups are of high internal
resistance, those with large sheet zincs and big carbon surfaces, of
low internal resistance. As the primary coil used in gas lighting is
never much over one ohm, a cell of low internal resistance should be
selected. But as the wires leading to the burners must be taken into
account, a number of cells should be used to produce enough
electromotive force to overcome the added resistance. Now battery
cells can be arranged in a variety of ways--in series for higher
electromotive force, and in multiple--for greater current.
[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
Fig. 50 represents the series arrangement; here the zinc of one cell
is connected to the carbon of the next; this adds the electromotive
forces together and thus gives greater ability to overcome resistance,
but it also adds together the resistance of each cell. Thus 4 cells,
each 2 volts and of one-half ohm internal resistance, would, in
series, have an E. M. F. of 8 volts and an internal resistance of 2
ohms, current 4 amperes. Fig. 51 shows four cells in multiple, the
zinc of each cell and the carbons of each cell are connected. Here the
result would be but 2 volts, but the internal resistance would be only
one-quarter, viz: one-eighth of an ohm, current 16 amperes.
[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
The readiest rule for connecting a battery is to arrange it according
to the resistance of the line or outside wiring. So as we will have to
use house-wiring far exceeding in length that on the coil, and
probably of less diameter. Therefore the series arrangement will be
the one to use, and not less than four cells of a low-resistance
battery.
THE LECLANCHE.
This battery consists of a carbon rod surrounded by granular peroxide
of manganese forming the positive pole and a piece of zinc for the
negative pole, both elements being immersed in a solution of sal
ammoniac (chloride of ammonia). If a wire be run _outside_ the
solution and connecting the carbon and zinc, a current of electricity
flows along it. The chemical action taking place is as follows: The
zinc combines with the chlorine of the solution, liberating free
hydrogen and ammonia. The hydrogen appears at the carbon, where it is
acted upon by the oxygen of the peroxide of manganese. If too much
current is taken from the cell, that is, if the wire or circuit be of
too low resistance, the oxidizing action of the peroxide is not rapid
enough, and a film of hydrogen, which is a poor conductor, forms over
the carbon and increases the resistance of the battery--also setting
up what is termed “local action” (actually, a battery opposing a
battery).
After a rest, the hydrogen is absorbed, but a cell rarely regains its
pristine activity after too severe demands upon it. The original
Leclanche batteries were imported from France, the home of the
inventor, but of recent years they are made in the United States,
England and Germany. The most important point to be considered in a
galvanic cell is the purity of its active parts. The zincs should be
as near chemically pure as can be obtained; the peroxide of manganese
of the best quality and perfectly free from foreign substances, and
the sal ammoniac the purest that can be manufactured. The actual
difference in work between a battery so constructed, and the average
cheap cell sold at a price to catch the unwise, is tremendous. And
this difference is indicated, not only in work, but when the battery
is at rest. Local action in a cheap battery will exhaust it even when
it is not in circuit, whereas a battery cell of good material will
remain in good order for months without more attention than the
addition of water or sal ammoniac. It has been often remarked that the
batteries made to-day are inferior to those made years ago, but it is
only true of the cheap-priced cells; if a good price is paid and
attention given to securing a well made cell, the output will be as
satisfactory.
[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
To set up a Leclanche cell, proceed as follows: Put six ounces of sal
ammoniac into the glass jar; fill the jar one-third full of _clear_
water and stir. Put in the porous cup and fill the jar with water up
to its neck, pouring a few teaspoonfuls of water into the hole in
porous cup. When the cell is in working condition, the level of the
solution will be found to have receded, owing to absorption by the
porous cup. To prevent the creeping of sal ammoniac up the neck of jar
and on to the terminals of the cell, a layer of paraffin is applied to
neck of jar and porous cup. Should this need renewing, vaseline can be
used, or any heavy grease, care being taken that it does not get on
electrodes or where the wires are to be fastened. When the cell
refuses to work, throw out old solution, wash porous cup, jar and zinc
in warm water, and replace with new solution. There is a limit, when a
new porous cup must be used, but this can be done when cell does not
work after being treated as above. The electromotive force of the
Leclanche cell is about 1.45, and current on short circuit of nearly
one ampere, depending of course on thickness and porosity of porous
cup, size of zinc, and a few other points.
THE SAMSON CELL.
Fig. 53 is one of the Leclanche group, in which a compound carbon
element displaces the earthenware porous cup. This carbon is composed
of two parts, a hollow-fluted lower piece and a threaded top, which
carries the binding post. In the process of manufacture, the top piece
is heated red-hot and plunged into hot paraffin wax, thus ensuring a
complete diffusion of the paraffin throughout the carbon. In this way
the creeping of salt or solution, and consequent corrosion of
electrodes and failure of cell, are avoided. The lower portion is much
more porous than the upper and is filled with a combination of
pea-carbon and peroxide of manganese held in by a plug at the bottom.
This plug can be removed and new depolarizer added. Directions given
by the manufacturers for renewing this element are to hold the lower
end of the carbon over a burner flame until the plug is softened and
can be removed, or to immerse the extreme lower end of the carbon in
boiling water. After refilling, a cork plug can be used.
[Illustration: FIG. 53.]
The E. M. F. of the No. 2 size is from 1.40 to 1.47 volts, and
current, on short circuit, of 12 to 16 amperes. The No. 2 Special has
same E. M. F., but current of only 5 amperes, being intended where
strong current is not required but quick recuperation. It will be seen
that this cell is far more suited to electric gas-lighting work than
the simple Leclanche, owing to its great current delivery.
THE DRY CELL.
Of so-called dry cells there are numbers on the market at so low a
price that it does not pay to make one’s own. But for those who wish
to do so, the following formula, furnished by Mr. Wm. Roche, of New
Standard battery fame, will be found excellent:
One pint CLEAR WATER.
Five ounces sal ammoniac.
Six ounces zinc chloride.
Dissolve the sal ammoniac in the water thoroughly. Let stand
twenty-four hours. Then add the zinc chloride, and when cool, will be
ready for use.
* * * * *
When you have your zinc cup ready, pour a little wax in the bottom, to
insulate; place a piece of blotting-paper inside cup and laying tight
against the zinc, about three turns. The negative element is prepared
as follows: One pound pure carbon, powdered; one pound black oxide
manganese; mix thoroughly. Then add sufficient of above solution to
hold it together without being plastic, as that would be too wet to
tamp.
Moisten your paper in the zinc cup thoroughly. Place your stick or
plate of carbon in centre of zinc cup, hold it there central while you
pack in the carbon manganese element all around it; be sure that
carbon manganese, or negative element, does not touch zinc cup. If it
does, your cell will run down quickly. It is a good precaution to have
your paper half an inch higher than cup when in the cup, and soaked
with the solution. Give it a couple of quick taps on the bench; that
will curl the paper in at the bottom and insure against any internal
short circuit. When your cell is filled up, clean all the carbon
element away from the zinc. Seal, and your battery is ready when
you’ve got the connections on.
[Illustration: FIG. 54.]
THE NEW STANDARD DRY CELL.
The principal sizes of this cell (Fig. 54) are as follows:
No. 2--5-7/8 × 2-7/16.
No. 3--3-3/4 × 1-7/8.
No. 5--6 × 2-9/16.
No. 6--6 × 3.
No. 7--7 × 3.
The electromotive force is 1.5 volts, current of the No. 7 size on
short circuit, 24 amperes. Nos. 2, 5, 6, or 7 are most suitable for
electric gas lighting, either by simple primary coil or jump spark
coil.
THE EDISON LALANDE CELL.
This cell (Fig. 55), gives a large, steady current and is of low
internal resistance, but its electromotive force is not high, being
less than .7 volt on closed circuit. Its output of current varies with
the size, type _S_ being .025 ohm internal resistance and capacity of
300 ampere-hours. The Edison Lalande cell can be applied to electric
gas lighting in cases where a large demand is made upon the battery,
for example in church or theatre lighting.
Its elements consist of positive plates of amalgamated zinc suspended
on each side of negative plates of black oxide of copper. The
electrolyte is an aqueous solution of caustic soda. A layer of heavy
paraffin oil is poured on top of the solution to prevent the solution
from evaporating and also to keep the soda crystals from creeping up
and over the rim of the jar.
[Illustration: FIG. 55.]
To set up an Edison Lalande cell, fill the jar up to the brown mark
with clear water; pour in the soda from the tin box, _and stir_. When
thoroughly dissolved, pour on top of the solution one half-inch layer
of _the oil which is sent with the battery_. Then the elements
attached to the cover can be inserted, and the cell is ready for use.
Use care not to splash the solution, as it will burn the clothing and
skin. If any does get on, a little animal grease or vegetable oil will
quickly saponify it.
In the action of this cell the oxide of copper is reduced to metallic
copper and the zincs consumed, it being intended that each element
will require renewal at the same time. Upon picking into the oxide
plate with a sharp-pointed instrument, if the plate is red throughout,
it is exhausted; but, should it show black in its interior, it is
still capable of a little more use, but is preferable to use a new
plate whenever there is but little oxide left.
Never remove the oxide plates from the battery, and do not allow the
solution to be less than one inch above oxide plates.
THE FULLER, OR BICHROMATE CELL.
Although not often necessary in gas-lighting work, there is at times a
demand for a heavy current, such as in lighting a big building, where
a large coil must be operated. At such times a bichromate of potash
cell becomes of service. One of the types is shown in Fig. 56. _J_ is
a jar containing electropoion fluid described below. _C_ is a carbon
plate immersed in this fluid. _P_ is a porous cup holding the zinc,
_Z_, and being filled with a solution of 18 parts common salt, 72
parts water, and one ounce mercury.
[Illustration: FIG. 56.]
The electropoion fluid for the outer jar is made by one pound
bichromate of potash or soda to one gallon of water, mixing in a stone
vessel. When dissolved, add three pounds commercial sulphuric acid
carefully, a little at a time, and stir the mixture constantly as it
gets hot. Always add the acid to the mixture; never attempt to pour
the mixture into the acid, or trouble will result. The sodium salt is
preferable to the potassium, owing to its greater solubility and its
not forming _chrome alum_--a hard precipitate which sticks to jars,
elements, etc., to their detriment.
[Illustration: FIG. 57.]
Fig. 57, a form of battery known as the Grenet battery, is used where
there is no porous cup. The zinc element, _Z_, is mounted on a rod _R_
passing through the cap _G_ of a glass jar, _J_, and can be raised or
lowered into the electropoion fluid which the jar contains. This is a
good scheme where the battery is liable to stand idle for a long
period.
CARE OF OPEN CIRCUIT BATTERIES.
_Terminals._--Take care that the solutions do not splash over
terminals; keep all terminals and binding post screws clean and
bright. See that all wires are tightly clamped in terminals, also that
their ends are clean. A loose contact is productive of infinite
trouble. Examine connections that elements are in proper relation to
each other. If in multiple, to produce large current--zincs together
and carbons together. If in series, for high electromotive force--zinc
to carbon, throughout battery.
_Zincs._--See that the zincs are clean; if crystals form, either
reduce strength of solution with water, or scrape zincs clean, and
watch if repeated. Examine screw which holds wire; it often corrodes,
and makes poor contact in the thread.
A clever device for preserving a rod zinc from the accumulation of
crystals is made by the manufacturers of the Samson cell. It consists
of a thin paper tube which is slipped over the zinc. When the crystals
accumulate so as to impair the cell, the tube is slipped off and a new
one put on. This device increases the internal resistance of the cell
but very slightly.
_Porous cups and carbons._--Wash in warm water. Carbons can be well
soaked in warm water and dried in _sun_, in a place where they will
not accumulate dust. Porous cups should be well soaked in warm water,
and left to drain in a place exposed to dustless air. Examine binding
post holes and screws.
_Solutions._--Do not make too strong. Use not more than six ounces, or
more than four ounces avoirdupois, of chemically pure sal ammoniac to
one cell Leclanche. Warm water can be used for making solutions, if
desired. Some persons drop a teaspoonful of acetic acid in the cell;
it is not recommended. If in a place where sal ammoniac cannot be
procured, use temporarily common table-salt in same proportion;
thoroughly well clean battery first.
Batteries should be kept in a cool dry place. Dry cells should stand
upright, also in a cool place, and an examination made once in a while
of the connections.
INDEX.
PAGE
Acetylene Burner 16
Argand Automatic Burner 23
Argand Burner 14
Automatic Burner 19
Batteries, open circuit 2
Boston Cut-Out 51
Breaks, to locate 34
Burner, Acetylene 16
Burner, Argand 14
Burner, Argand Automatic 23
Burner, Automatic 19
Burner, Bartholdi 21
Burners, choice of 30
Burner, Concealed Automatic 24
Burners, Connecting 26
Burners, Distribution of 30
Burner, Gasolene 18
Burner, Pendant 7
Burner, Ratchet 10
Burner, Ring 23
Burner, Stem 13
Burner, Smith 56
Burner, Vibrator 23
Burner, Welsbach 15
Choice of Burners 30
Clockwork Cut-Out 52
Coil, Primary 5, 46
Coil, Ruhmkorff 6
Coil, Secondary 5
Connections of Burners 26
Connections to ground 38
Contact Breaker 75
Cut-Out, Boston 51
Cut-Out, Bulb 54
Cut-Out, Clockwork 52
Cut-Out, Syracuse 50
Danger of Burners 30
Defects in Burners 29
Diagram of Wiring 31
Door-Trip 43
Edwards’ Burner 61
Edwards’ Condenser 60
Edwards’ System 62
Finished houses, wiring of 38
Fixtures, wiring of 40
Frontispiece 31
Fuller Battery 94
Galvanometer 3
Gasolene Burner 18
Gas-fixture wire 37
Grenet Battery 95
Ground connections 38
Hall, Burners for 30
Induced Current 3
Induction, Action of 3
Insulator 59
Jump Spark System 55
Key Strap 76
Lalande Battery 92
Leclanche Battery 83
Multiple, Batteries in 82
Negative pole 2
Open circuit batteries 2
Pendant Burner 7, 9
Positive pole 2
Primary Coils 46
Push Button, to wire 42
Ratchet Burner 10
Ring Burner 23, 63
Ruhmkorff Coil 6, 67
Samson Battery 87
Secondary Coil 5
Section Switch 33
Series method 57
Series, Batteries in 82
Shellac varnish 38
Smith Burner 55
Sparks, to produce 1
Spool 70
Standard Battery 90
Stem Burner 13
Switch, Automatic 66
Switch, high tension 64
Switch, Section 33
Syracuse Cut-Out 50
System, Edwards’ 62
Trailer 66
Varnish Shellac 38
Vibrator Burner 23
Welsbach Burner 15
Wimshurst Machine 1
Winding Coil 74
Wire for general use 36
Wire, gas-fixture 37
Wire, office 36
Wire, Ruhmkorff Coil 70
Wiring finished houses 38
Wiring of Fixtures 40
Wiring of Push Button 42
* * * * *
New Standard Dry Battery
All sizes for all systems of Bells, Telephones, Burglar Alarms and Gas
Lighting. Prices according to size and quantity.
New Standard “Autogas” Dry Battery
For very heavy work. Gas Mobiles, Lights, etc. No. 2 set, weight 27
lbs., neat oak case, $6.00 per set.
New Standard Jump Spark Rhumkorff Coils, $12.00 each.
New Standard Flashlight.
For use around Gasolene Engines, Automobiles, Launches, Clothes
Closets, etc. $2.00 each.
This light will positively give equal to fifteen hours actual service.
A $5.00 article for $2.00.
Complete catalogue for the asking.
William Roche,
Inventor and M’f’r,
42 Vesey St., N. Y. City
Dealer in Battery Materials,
Chemicals, Etc.
Have a Look
Into our Store
when in need of anything in the Electrical line of whatever nature.
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CATALOGUE ON
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PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON
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_BY G. LIECKFELD, C.E._
Translated with permission of the Author by
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=IV. Steam Pressure.=--Steam gauge, safety valves.
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--AND--
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CHAPTER I.--Introductory and Historical; Steam Jacketing. CHAPTER
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IV. Dead Centre. Order of Cranks. Cushioning and Lead.
V. Expansion--Inside and Outside Lap and Lead; Advance Affected
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THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL
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By ILTYD I. REDWOOD
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B. T. U. Mechanical Equivalent of a Unit of Heat. Specific Heat.
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Ammonia. Characteristics of Ammonia. The Compressor. Stuffing-Boxes.
Lubrication. Suction and Discharge Valves. Separator. Condenser-Worm,
Receiver. Refrigerator or Brine Tank. Size of Pipe and Area of Cooling
Surface. Charging the Plant with Ammonia. Jacket-Water, for
Compressor, for Separator. Quantity of Condensing Water Necessary.
Loss due to Heating of Condensed Ammonia. Cause of Variation in Excess
Pressure. Use of Condensing Pressure in Determining Loss of Ammonia by
Leakage. Cooling Directly by Ammonia. Freezing Point of Brine. Making
Brine. Specific Heat of Brine. Regulation of Brine Temperature.
Indirect Effect of Condensing Water on Brine Temperature. Directions
for Determining Refrigerating Efficiency. Equivalent of a Ton of Ice.
Compressor Measurement of Ammonia Circulated. Loss of Well-Jacketed
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Ammonia Figures--Effectual Displacement. Volume of Gas. Ammonia
Circulated per Twenty-Four Hours. Refrigerating Efficiency. Brine
Figures--Gallons Circulated. Pounds Circulated. Degrees Cooled. Total
Degrees Extracted. Loss due to Heating of Ammonia Gas. Loss due to
Heating of Liquid Ammonia. Calculation of the Maximum Capacity of a
Machine. Preparation of Anhydrous Ammonia. Construction of Apparatus,
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Casting and Founding. (31 pages).
Forging and Finishing. (56 pages.)
Soldering. (26 pages).
Sheet-Metal Working. (10 pages).
Carpentry, Woods, Tools, etc. (224 pages).
Cabinet Making. (36 pages).
Carving and Fretwork. (13 pages).
Upholstery. (6 pages).
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End of Project Gutenberg's Electric Gas Lighting, by Norman H. Schneider