THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR
[Sidenote: DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING A LARGE ORCHESTRA]
Conducting an orchestra from full score is a vastly more complicated
matter than directing a chorus singing four-part music, and the
training necessary in order to prepare one for this task is long and
complicated. In addition to the points already rehearsed as necessary
for the conductor in general, the leader of an orchestra must in the
first place know at least superficially the method of playing the
chief orchestral instruments, the advantages and disadvantages
involved in using their various registers, the difficulties of certain
kinds of execution, and other similar matters which are often referred
to by the term _instrumentation_. In the second place, he must
understand the combinations of these various instruments that are most
effective, and also what registers in certain instruments blend well
with others; in other words, he must be familiar with the science of
_orchestration_. In the third place, he must understand the
complicated subject of _transposing instruments_, and must be able to
detect a player's mistakes by reading the transposed part as readily
as any other. And finally, he must be able to perform that most
difficult task of all, _viz._, to read an orchestral score with at
least a fair degree of ease, knowing at all times what each performer
is supposed to be playing and whether he is doing the right thing or
not. This implies being able to look at the score as a whole and get a
fairly definite impression of the total effect; but it also involves
the ability to take the score to the piano and assemble the various
parts (including the transposed ones) so that all important tones,
harmonic and melodic, are brought out. A glance at even a very simple
orchestral score such as that found in Appendix B will probably at
once convince the reader of the complexity of the task, and will
perhaps make him hesitate to "rush in where angels fear to tread"
until he has spent a number of years in preparation for the work.
[Sidenote: DIRECTING A SMALL ORCHESTRA]
The above description has reference, of course, to conducting an
orchestra of approximately symphonic dimensions, and does not refer to
the comparatively easy task of directing a group consisting of piano,
violins, cornet, trombone, and perhaps one or two other instruments
that happen to be available.[25] In organizing an "orchestra" of this
type, the two most necessary factors are a fairly proficient reader at
the piano (which, of course, not only supplies the complete harmony,
but also covers a multitude of sins both of omission and of
commission), and at least one skilful violinist, who must also be a
good reader. Given these two indispensable elements, other parts may
be added as players become available; and although the larger the
number of wind instruments admitted, the greater the likelihood of
out-of-tune playing, yet so great is the fascination of tonal variety
that our inclination is always to secure as many kinds of instruments
as possible.
[Footnote 25: Let us not be misunderstood at this point. We are not
sneering at the heterogeneous collections of instruments that are
gathered together under the name of _orchestra_ in many of the public
schools throughout the country. On the contrary, we regard this
rapidly increasing interest in ensemble playing as one of the most
significant tendencies that has ever appeared in our American musical
life, and as a result of it we expect to see the establishment of many
an additional orchestra of symphonic rank, as well as the filling in
of existing organizations with American-born and American-trained
players. There is no reason why wind players should not be trained in
this country as well as in Europe, if we will only make a consistent
attempt to interest our children in the study of these instruments
while they are young, and provide sufficient opportunity for ensemble
practice in connection with our music departments in the public
schools.]
The chief value to be derived from ensemble practice of this type is
not, of course, in any public performances that may be given, but is
to be found in the effect upon the performers themselves, and the
principal reason for encouraging the organization of all sorts of
instrumental groups is in order to offer an opportunity for ensemble
playing to as many amateur performers as possible. For this reason,
unavoidable false intonation must not be too seriously regarded.
An orchestra such as we have been describing is frequently directed by
one of the performers; but it is our belief that if the group consists
of ten or more players it will be far better to have the conductor
stand before the players and direct them with a baton. The type of
music that is available for amateur ensemble practice is unfortunately
not often accompanied by a full score for the conductor's use, and he
must usually content himself with studying the various parts as well
as he may before the rehearsal, and then direct from a first violin
part (in which the beginnings of all important parts played by other
instruments are "cued in"). Directing from an incomplete score is, of
course, extremely unsatisfactory from the musician's standpoint, but
the necessity of doing it has this advantage, _viz._, that many
persons who have charge of small "orchestras" of this type would be
utterly unable to follow a full score, and might therefore be
discouraged from organizing the group at all.
[Sidenote: SEATING THE ORCHESTRA]
Symphony orchestras are always seated in approximately the same way,
and if our small ensemble group consists of twenty players or more, it
will be well for the conductor to arrange them in somewhat the same
manner as a larger orchestra. In order to make this clear, the
ordinary arrangement of the various parts of a symphony orchestra is
here supplied. The position of the wood winds and of the lower strings
as well as of the percussion instruments and harp varies somewhat,
this depending upon the composition being performed, the
idiosyncrasies of the conductor, the size and shape of the platform,
_et cetera_.
[Illustration: SEATING PLAN OF A SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA]
In dealing with a smaller group (not of symphonic dimensions), it will
be well to have the piano in the middle, the lower strings at the
left, the winds at the right, and the violins in their usual position.
The diagram will make this clear. It is to be noted that this seating
plan is only suggestive, and that some other arrangement may
frequently prove more satisfactory.
[Illustration: SEATING PLAN SUGGESTED FOR A SMALL ORCHESTRA]
[Sidenote: PROPORTION OF INSTRUMENTS]
In a symphony orchestra of about one hundred players, the proportion
of instruments is approximately as follows:
1. STRINGS:
18 first violins
16 second violins
14 violas
12 violoncellos
10 double basses
2. WOOD WIND:
3 flutes }
1 piccolo } (Usually only three players)
3 oboes }
1 English horn } (Usually only three players)
3 clarinets }
1 bass clarinet } (Usually only three players)
3 bassoons }
1 double bassoon } (Usually only three players)
3. BRASS WIND:
4 horns (Sometimes 6 or 8)
2 or 3 trumpets (Sometimes 2 cornets also)
3 trombones
1 bass tuba
4. PERCUSSION:
1 bass drum }
1 snare drum } (One player)
3 kettledrums (Of different sizes--one player)
1 triangle }
1 glockenspiel } (One player)
1 pair cymbals }
_et cetera_
1 harp (Sometimes 2)
It will be noted that out of about one hundred players almost
three-quarters are performers upon stringed instruments, and it is
this very large proportion of strings that gives the orchestral tone
its characteristic smoothness, its infinite possibilities of dynamic
shading, its almost unbelievable agility, and, of course, its
inimitable sonority. The wind instruments are useful chiefly in
supplying variety of color, and also in giving the conductor the
possibility of occasionally obtaining enormous power by means of which
to thrill the hearer at climacteric points.
Our reason for supplying the above information is mainly in order to
direct attention to the small proportion of wind (and especially of
brass) instruments, and to warn the amateur conductor not to admit too
large a number of cornets and trombones to his organization, lest the
resulting effect be that of a band rather than that of an orchestra.
If there are available a great many wind instruments and only a few
strings, it will probably be better to admit only a few of the best
wind instrument players to the orchestra (about two cornets and one
trombone) and to organize a band in order to give the rest of the
players an opportunity for practice.[26] It will probably be necessary
for the conductor to warn his wind players to aim at a more mellow
tone than they use when playing in a band, in order that the brass
tone may blend with the string tone. In the case of the reed
instruments, this will sometimes mean a thinner reed in orchestra work
than is used in bands.
[Footnote 26: In making plans for the organization of a group of wind
instrument players into a band, it should be noted by the conductor
that here the entire harmony must be supplied by the individual
instruments (no piano being used) thus making it necessary to have
alto, tenor, and baritone saxhorns in addition to cornets, clarinets,
flutes, and trombones. The tuba is also almost indispensable, while
the inclusion of two or three saxophones will greatly increase the
mellowness of the effect as well as providing an additional color to
make the tonal textures more interesting.]
[Sidenote: TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS]
In dealing with any ensemble group that includes wind instruments, the
conductor must master the intricacies involved in the subject of
_transposing instruments_, and although this book is not the place to
get such technical knowledge as was referred to in the introductory
paragraph of this chapter, yet perhaps a brief explanation of the most
important points will not be wholly out of place, since we are writing
more especially from the standpoint of the amateur.
By a transposing instrument we mean one in the case of which the
performer either plays from a part that is written in a different key
from that of the composition, or that sounds pitches an octave higher
or lower than the notes indicate. Thus, _e.g._, in a composition
written in the key of E-flat, and actually played in that key by the
strings, piano, _et cetera_, the clarinet part would probably be
written in the key of F, _i.e._, it would be transposed a whole step
upward; but, of course, the actual tones would be in the key of
E-flat. The player, in this case, would perform upon a B-flat
clarinet--_i.e._, a clarinet sounding pitches a whole step lower than
indicated by the notes. (It is called a B-flat clarinet because its
fundamental gives us the pitch B-flat--this pitch being a whole-step
lower than C; and it is because the pitch sounded is a whole step
_lower_ that the music has to be transposed a whole step _higher_ in
order to bring it into the correct key when played.) In the case of
the clarinet in A, the pitches produced by the instrument are actually
a minor third lower than the notes indicate (A is a minor third lower
than C, just as B-flat is a whole-step lower). In writing music for
clarinet in A, therefore, the music will need to be transposed upward
a minor third in order that when played it may be in the right key;
just as in the case of the clarinet in B-flat, it has to be transposed
upward a whole-step.
"Clarinet or cornet in B-flat" means, therefore, an instrument that
sounds pitches a whole-step lower than written; "clarinet or cornet in
A" means one that sounds pitches a minor third lower than written;
"horn in F" means an instrument sounding pitches a perfect fifth lower
than written (because F is a perfect fifth below C); while the
"clarinet in E-flat" sounds pitches a minor third higher than written.
Whether the pitches sounded are higher or lower than the notes
indicate will have to be learned by experience or study.
If the passage marked Fig. 1 were to be orchestrated so as to give
the highest voice to the clarinet and the lowest to the horn, the
clarinet and horn parts would appear as shown in Fig. 2.
[Music: Fig. 1]
[Music: Fig. 2
Clarinet in B-[flat]
Horns in F]
In order to make this information more specific, we add a table
showing the keys of the original and transposed parts. The practical
band man expresses the substance of this table tersely by saying,
"subtract 3 sharps or 2 flats."
ORIGINAL KEY TRANSPOSED KEY KIND OF INSTRUMENT
C D B-flat
G B-flat A
D F A
A C A
E G A
B D A
F-sharp A A
C-sharp E A
F G B-flat
B-flat C B-flat
E-flat F B-flat
A-flat B-flat B-flat
D-flat E-flat B-flat
G-flat A-flat or A B-flat or A
C-flat D-flat B-flat
[Sidenote: REASONS FOR TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS]
The principal reasons for the use of transposing instruments are:
first, because certain sizes of instruments produce a better quality
of tone than others (_e.g._, the B-flat clarinet sounds better than
the C clarinet); and second, because it is easier to play in keys
having a smaller number of sharps and flats, and by transposing the
parts to other keys, we can usually get rid of several sharps or
flats.
In the case of performers on the clarinet, each player is necessarily
provided with two instruments (an A and a B-flat--the C clarinet being
almost obsolete, and the E-flat being used only in military bands);
but in playing upon the brass wind instruments the same instrument may
be tuned in various keys, either by means of a tuning slide or by
inserting separate _shanks_ or _crooks_, these latter being merely
additional lengths of tubing by the insertion of which the total
length of the tube constituting the instrument may be increased, thus
throwing its fundamental pitch into a lower key.
In order to gain facility in dealing with transposed parts, the
amateur is advised to try his hand at arranging simple music (hymn
tunes, folk songs, easy piano pieces, _et cetera_) for his group of
players, transposing the parts for clarinets, cornets, _et cetera_,
into the appropriate keys. In this way he will also get an insight
into the mysteries of instrumental combination that cannot be secured
in any other way.
[Sidenote: PITCH STANDARDS]
The first difficulty that the conductor of an amateur ensemble group
usually encounters is that the instruments owned by his players are
tuned according to various pitch standards; and he is very likely to
find at his first rehearsal that his first-clarinet player has an
instrument tuned in "high pitch," _i.e._, what is commonly known as
concert pitch (about one half step above standard), while his
second-clarinet player has an instrument in "low pitch," _i.e._,
international, a´ having 435 vibrations per second. (There is also a
third pitch which is used by many of the standard symphony
orchestras--this pitch being based upon a vibration rate of 440 for
a´). If the conductor attempts to have his orchestra perform under
these conditions, disaster will surely overtake him, and he will not
only find his ears suffering tortures, but will be more than likely to
hear uncomplimentary remarks from the neighbors, and will be fortunate
indeed not to be ordered on to the next block or the next town by the
police force! The difficulty arises, of course, because the oboe,
English horn, clarinet, and other wood-wind instruments are built in a
certain fixed pitch, and since the length of the tube cannot be
altered, they must either play in the pitch intended or else not at
all. In the case of the clarinet and flute, the pitch can be altered a
very little by pulling out one of the joints slightly (the tube is
made in several sections) thus making the total length slightly
greater and the pitch correspondingly lower; but when this is done the
higher tones are very apt to be out of tune, and in general, if the
player has an instrument tuned in high pitch, he cannot play with an
ensemble group having low-pitched instruments, especially when the
piano supplies the fundamental harmony. In the case of the brass
instruments, a tuning slide is usually provided, and the same
instrument can therefore be utilized in either low or high pitch
combinations.[27]
[Footnote 27: "High pitch" is employed mostly in bands; the reason for
its use being that the wind instruments are much more brilliant when
tuned to the higher pitch. It is encouraging to be able to state,
however, that more and more instruments are being built in
"philharmonic pitch" (a´ 440), and the conductor who is organizing a
band or orchestra is advised to see to it that all players who are
purchasing new instruments insist upon having them built in this
pitch.]
[Sidenote: TUNING]
The conductor of an amateur ensemble group will find it very greatly
to his advantage to be able to tune the various instruments, or at
least to help the players to do it accurately. This involves not
merely a mechanical knowledge of what to do to the instrument to
change its pitch, but, what is much more important, a very high degree
of pitch discrimination on the conductor's part. It is at this latter
point that assistance is most often necessary, and the conductor who
can tell his cornet player when he is just a shade high or low, and
can determine precisely when the violinist has his strings tuned to an
absolutely perfect fifth, will have far less trouble with out-of-tune
playing than otherwise; for a great deal of sharping and flatting
(particularly in the case of wind instruments) is the result of
inaccurate tuning.
[Sidenote: BOWING]
Since an orchestra contains such a large proportion of stringed
instruments it will be very greatly to the interest of the conductor
to take up the study of some instrument belonging to the violin
family, and to learn to play it at least a little. If this is
altogether impracticable at the beginning, the next best thing for him
to do is to study bowing, learning not only the bowing signs and their
meaning, but familiarizing himself thoroughly with the principles
underlying the art. For this purpose some good work on bowing should
be studied, but meanwhile a few words on the subject at this point
will give the absolute beginner at least a small amount of
indispensable information. The signs commonly employed in music for
violin, viola, violoncello, and double-bass, to indicate various
manners of bowing, are as follows:
[down-bow symbol] Down-bow: _i.e._, from nut to point.
[up-bow symbol] Up-bow: _i.e._, from point to nut.
[slur symbol] Slurred: _i.e._, all notes under the sign
played in one bow.
[slur over staccato symbol] Staccato: _i.e._, all notes in
one bow, but the tones separated.
The ordinary staccato mark ([dot staccato symbol] or [wedge staccato
symbol]) means a long quick stroke, either up or down as the case may
be. The absence of slurs indicates a separate stroke of the bow for
each tone. Sometimes the player is directed to use the lower half, the
upper half, or the middle of the bow, such directions being given by
printing the words "lower half," _et cetera_, above the passage, or by
giving the initials of these words (sometimes in German). When no
bowing is indicated, a phrase beginning with a weak beat commonly has
an up-bow for the first tone, while one beginning on a strong beat
has a down-bow; but this principle has many exceptions. It is perhaps
needless to state that correct phrasing in the case of the stringed
instruments depends upon the employment of suitable bowing; and since
the first violin part is most prominent and most important in
orchestral music, it becomes the business of the conductor to observe
most carefully the bowing of his concert-master and to confer with him
about possible changes in bowing wherever necessary. It will save a
great deal of confusion if players understand that the bowing is to be
exactly as indicated in the score unless a change is definitely made.
The first player in each group in point of position on the platform is
called the "principal," and is supposed to be the most skilful
performer in that section; and he is responsible, in conference with
the conductor when necessary, for selecting the best bowing, _et
cetera_, all others in the group watching him, and all phrasing as he
does. In actual practice, this means that the players at the second
desk bow like those at the first, those at the third desk follow those
at the second, _et cetera_. Absolute uniformity is thus secured in
each section. It should perhaps be remarked at this point that when
different groups are playing the same phrase, _e.g._, violoncellos and
basses, or second violins and violas, the bowing must be uniform in
the two sections, if absolute uniformity of phrasing is to result.
In addition to the bowing signs explained on page 103, the conductor
should also be familiar with certain other directions commonly found
in music for stringed instruments. Some of the most important of
these, together with their explanations, are therefore added.
_Pizzicato_ (_pizz._) (pluck the string instead of bowing)
_Col arco_ (or _arco_) (play with the bow again)
_Con sordino_, or }
_Avec sourdine_ } (affix the mute to the bridge)
_Senza sordino_, or }
_Sans sourdine_ } (remove the mute)
_Divisi_ (_div._) (divide, _i.e._, let some of the players
take one of the two tones indicated and the remainder of them
the other one. This direction is of course used only in case
two or more notes appear on the staff for simultaneous
performance. It is customary to divide such passages by
having the players seated on the side next the audience take
the higher tone, while the others take the lower. If the
section is to be divided into more than two parts, the
conductor must designate who is to play the various tones.)
[Sidenote: SCORE READING]
Reading an orchestral score is a matter for the professional rather
than for the amateur; and yet the great increase during recent years
in the number of amateur orchestras probably means that more and more
of these groups will continue their practice until they are able to
play a more difficult class of music--this involving the necessity on
the part of their conductors of learning to read an orchestral score.
For this reason a few suggestions upon _score reading_ are added as a
final paragraph in this chapter, and an example of a score is supplied
at the end of the book--Appendix B (p. 166.)
The main difficulties involved in reading a full score are: first,
training the eye to read from a number of staffs simultaneously and
assembling the tones (in the mind or at the keyboard) into chords; and
second, transposing into the actual key of the composition those parts
which have been written in other keys and including these as a part of
the harmonic structure. This latter difficulty may be at least
partially overcome by practice in arranging material for orchestra as
recommended on page 101; but for the first part of the task, extensive
practice in reading voices on several staffs is necessary. The student
who is ambitious to become an orchestral conductor is therefore
advised, in the first place, not to neglect his Bach during the period
when he is studying the piano, but to work assiduously at the two- and
three-part inventions and at the fugues. He may then purchase
miniature scores of some of the string quartets by Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven, training himself to read all four parts simultaneously,
sometimes merely trying to hear mentally the successive harmonies as
he looks at the score, but most often playing the parts on the piano.
After mastering four voices in this way, he is ready to begin on one
of the slow movements of a Haydn symphony.
In examining an orchestral score, it will be noted at once that the
string parts are always together at the bottom of the page, while the
wood-wind material is at the top. Since the strings furnish the most
important parts of the harmonic structure for so much of the time, our
amateur will at first play only the string parts, with the possible
addition of the flute, oboe, and certain other non-transposed voices a
little later on. But as he gains facility he will gradually be able to
take in all the parts and to include at least a sort of summary of
them all in his playing. The student is advised to purchase a number
of the Haydn and Mozart symphonies either in the form of pocket
editions or in the regular conductor's score, and to practise on these
until he feels quite sure of himself. By this time he will be ready to
try his hand at a modern score, which will be found not only to
contain parts for more instruments, but many more divided parts for
the strings. Meanwhile, he is, of course, taking every possible
opportunity of attending concerts given by symphony orchestras, and is
begging, borrowing, or buying the scores of as many of the
compositions as possible, studying them in advance, and taking keen
delight in following them at the performance; perhaps even imagining
himself to be the conductor, and having visions of changes in
interpretation that he would like to make if he were directing. As the
result of several years of this sort of study, even an amateur may get
to the point where he is able to conduct an orchestra from a full
score with some degree of skill, and hence with some little
satisfaction both to himself and to the performers.
[Illustration: TABLE SHOWING RANGES OF ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS
_Note:_ The arrangement of instruments here indicated is essentially
that found in a modern orchestral score. The ranges given represent
practical orchestral usage. Additional tones possible for highly
skilled performers or on instruments with certain special keys (like
the low _b_ of the flute) are shown in brackets.]