INTERPRETATION IN CONDUCTING
(_Continued_)
TEMPO
[Sidenote: EXPRESSION IN INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC]
In the last chapter we discussed expression and interpretation from a
general standpoint, closing with certain comments upon the
interpretation of vocal music. But it must be admitted at once that
expression in instrumental music is a vastly more intricate matter
than in the case of vocal music; and in order to get at the subject in
any tangible way, it will be necessary for us, first, to analyze music
into its expressional elements; second, to decide which of these
elements belong exclusively to the composer and which are shared by
the interpreter; and third, to examine each of these latter elements
in turn from the standpoint of the conductor as interpreter.
[Sidenote: THE ELEMENTS OF EXPRESSION]
There are eight elements upon which expression in instrumental music
rests. These are:
1. Rhythm
2. Melody
3. Harmony
4. Pitch registers
5. Timbre
6. Phrasing
7. Tempo
8. Dynamics
Of these, the composer is able to indicate _exactly_ the first four,
to convey his meaning fairly well in the fifth and sixth, but to give
only a relative idea of the seventh and eighth. The interpreter is
thus concerned with the first four only as it becomes necessary for
him to find out from the notation what the composer intended to
express. On the other hand, he is considerably concerned with the
fifth and sixth factors (_timbre_ and _phrasing_) and has the main
responsibility in the last two (_tempo_ and _dynamics_). This being
the case, we shall treat _tempo_ and _dynamics_ first of all, as being
the two primary factors of expression with which the conductor is
concerned.
[Sidenote: IMPORTANCE OF TEMPO]
Wagner, in his famous essay on conducting, takes the rather radical
ground that everything else is dependent upon the proper selection and
management of tempo. He says:[12]
The whole duty of the conductor is comprised in his ability
always to indicate the right tempo. His choice of tempi will
show whether he understands the piece or not.... The true
tempo induces correct force and expression.
[Footnote 12: Wagner, _On Conducting_, translated by Dannreuther, p.
20.]
In another place in the same work he treats the matter further, as
follows: (p. 34)
Obviously the proper pace of a piece of music is determined
by the particular character of the rendering it requires.
The question therefore comes to this: Does the sustained,
the cantilena, predominate, or the rhythmical movement? The
conductor should lead accordingly.
It is doubtful whether many modern conductors would entirely agree
with Wagner's statement that correct tempo always "induces correct
force and expression." Nevertheless tempo is so important that
probably no one will quarrel with us if we at least give it first
place in the order in which the elements of expression are discussed.
In modern music the composer indicates the tempos of the various
movements much more definitely than was true in earlier days, so it
would seem as if not nearly so much responsibility rested upon the
conductor; and yet there is still a wide difference of opinion among
musicians about the matter, and in many cases the conductor
substitutes his own judgment for that of the composer, assuming that
the latter either made a mistake in indicating the tempo, or else that
he had not tried the composition at the tempo preferred by the
conductor, and therefore did not realize how much more effective it
would be that way.
[Sidenote: FINDING THE CORRECT TEMPO]
In the main, there are five methods upon which the conductor depends
for determining the correct tempo of a composition. These are:
1. The metronome indication, found at the beginning of most
modern scores.
2. The tempo or mood expressions (_andante_, _allegro_,
_adagio_, _et cetera_), which have been in universal use for
two centuries or more, and which are found in practically
all music, even when a metronome indication is also given.
3. The swing and, in vocal music, the general spirit of the
text.
4. Tradition.
5. Individual judgment of tempo as depending upon and
resulting from the "quality" of the music.
Of these, the fifth, _viz._, individual judgment is most important,
and is the court of final resort in the case of the mature musician;
but the amateur who has had but little experience and who is therefore
without any well developed musical taste must depend largely upon his
metronome, upon his knowledge of Italian tempo terms, and upon
tradition. A brief discussion of these matters will accordingly be in
order at this time.
[Sidenote: THE METRONOME AS A TEMPO INDICATOR]
The metronome[13] is a sort of clock with inverted pendulum, the ticks
or clicks of which can be regulated as to rate of speed by means of a
sliding weight. When this weight is set at the point marked 64, for
example, the metronome gives sixty-four clicks per minute; when set
at 84, or 112, corresponding numbers of clicks per minute result; so
that in this way the composer is able to indicate precisely the rate
of speed of his composition by indicating the number of beats per
minute. The indication [quarter-note symbol] = 84 means that the
sliding weight is to be set at the point marked 84, the metronome then
clicking eighty-four times per minute, each of these clicks indicating
a quarter-note. But if the marking is [half-note symbol] = 64, this
means that sixty-four half-notes are to be performed in a minute,--a
tempo equal to one hundred and twenty-eight quarter-notes in the same
composition. In compound measures such as 6-8, 9-8, _et cetera_, the
tempo indication shows the number of eighth-notes per minute if the
composition is in slow tempo; but in moderate and rapid tempos the
direction is usually given by taking the dotted-quarter-note as the
beat unit, thus: [dotted quarter-note symbol] = 84. It is of course
obvious that in this case the composer is thinking of each measure as
having only two or three beats instead of six or nine.
[Footnote 13: The metronome is supposed to have been invented, or at
least perfected, by a Bavarian named Maelzel, about 1815, and for many
years the Maelzel metronome was the only one in existence. Hence the
letters M.M., still found in many scores, in connection with tempo
indications.]
[Sidenote: THE ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS]
Many instrumental compositions (particularly the older ones) are not
provided by the composer with definite tempo directions; and in this
case the Italian tempo terms usually give at least a clue to what the
composer has in mind. These terms do not of course give us the precise
tempo, but by indicating the _mood_ of a composition they at least
help one to determine the rate of speed (_adagio_--at ease;
_allegro_--cheerful; _largo_--large, broad; _andante_--going; _et
cetera_). A comprehensive knowledge of these terms from the twofold
standpoint of definition and derivation is indispensable to the
conductor. The most common of them are therefore defined at this
point. They are given in groups in order that the student may note how
much the various terms overlap in meaning.
THE VERY SLOWEST TEMPO
_larghissimo_ (superlative of _largo_)
_adagissimo_ (superlative of _adagio_)
_lentissimo_ (superlative of _lento_)
A VERY SLOW TEMPO
_largo_ (from Latin _largus_, meaning broad, large)
_adagio_ (at ease)
_lento_ (slow)
A SLOW TEMPO
_larghetto_ (diminutive of _largo_)
_adagietto_ (diminutive of _adagio_)
A MODERATELY SLOW TEMPO
_andante_ (going or walking)
_andantino_ (diminutive of _andante_ and therefore meaning
literally "going less," but because of a misconception
of meaning now often understood as meaning slightly
faster than _andante_)
A MODERATE TEMPO
_moderato_
A MODERATELY RAPID TEMPO
_allegro_ (cheerful)
_allegretto_ (diminutive of _allegro_; a little slower
than _allegro_)
A VERY RAPID TEMPO
_con moto_ (with motion)
_vivo_ (lively)
_vivace_ (vivacious)
_presto_ (quick)
_presto assai_ (very quick)
THE MOST RAPID TEMPO POSSIBLE
_prestissimo_ (superlative of _presto_)
_vivacissimo_ (superlative of _vivace_)
_allegrissimo_ (superlative of _allegro_)
_prestissimo possibile_ (hypersuperlative of _presto_)
The expressions given above are frequently used in combination with
one another, and with certain auxiliary terms, but to attempt to
define these combinations in this book would be altogether
impracticable. The conductor should however understand the
significance of the following qualifying expressions:
_non tanto_ (not too much)
_non troppo_ (not too much)
_ma non tanto_ (but not too much)
_ma non troppo_ (but not too much)
These expressions are used by the composer as a warning to the
performer not to overdo any indicated effect. Thus, _largo, ma non
troppo_ means that the composition is to be taken slowly, but not too
slowly. _Presto (ma) non troppo_, on the other hand, indicates a rapid
tempo, but not too rapid. For a fuller discussion of these matters,
see the author's text book on terminology.[14]
[Footnote 14: Gehrkens, _Music Notation and Terminology_. The A.S.
Barnes Co., New York.]
The third means of finding tempo has already been discussed, (see p.
45) and the fifth needs no further explanation; but a word should
perhaps be said to the amateur about the matter of tradition. The
young conductor must not fail to take into consideration the fact that
there has grown up, in connection with many of the classics, a well
defined idea of the tempos most appropriate to their rendition, and
that any pronounced departure from this traditional tempo is apt to
result in unfavorable criticism. Tradition is of course apt to make us
hide-bound in all sorts of ways, and yet in many respects it is a very
good thing, and before our conductor attempts to direct standard works
it will be well for him to hear them rendered by some of the better
organizations, so that he may ascertain what the traditional tempo is.
In this way he may at least avoid the accusation of ignorance which
might otherwise be made. This latter point will remind the reader of
the advice already so frequently given--_viz._, "study music and
listen to music a long time before you attempt very much conducting."
[Sidenote: VARIATION IN TEMPO]
Our treatment of tempo thus far has taken cognizance of only the
generalized tempo of the movement, and we have not discussed at all
the much more difficult matter of _variation_ in tempo. The more
evident changes of this sort are indicated by the composer through
such expressions as _ritardando_, _accelerando_, _et cetera_; and it
may be well to give at this point a list of the commoner of these
terms together with their meanings. Obviously, such indications are of
two general types dealing respectively with increasing and decreasing
speed, and we shall accordingly give the definitions in two classes:
TERMS INDICATING A MORE RAPID TEMPO
1. A gradual acceleration
_accelerando_
_affrettando_
_stringendo_
_poco a poco animato_
2. A definitely faster tempo at once
_più allegro_
_più presto_
_più animato_
_più mosso_
_più tosto_
_più stretto_
_un poco animato_
TERMS INDICATING A SLOWER TEMPO
1. A gradual retard
_ritardando_
_rallentando_
_slentando_
2. A definitely slower tempo at once
_più lento_
_meno mosso_
_ritenuto_
3. A slower tempo combined with an increase in power
_largando_ }
_allargando_ } (literally, "becoming broad")
4. A slower tempo combined with a decrease in power
_morendo_ }
_perdendo_ }
_perdendosi_ } (Usually translated, "gradually dying away")
_calando_ }
_smorzando_ }
(After any of the terms in the above list, a return to the
normal tempo is indicated by such expressions as _a tempo_,
_tempo primo_, _et cetera_.)
[Sidenote: TEMPO _NUANCES_]
But in addition to the variations in tempo more or less definitely
indicated by the composer there are (particularly in modern music)
innumerable tempo fluctuations of a much subtler nature; and since
these are now recognized as a part of really artistic choral and
orchestral interpretation, (as they have long formed an indispensable
element in expressive piano performance) a brief discussion of their
nature will be included before closing this chapter.
In some cases a variable tempo is asked for by the composer by means
of one of the following expressions:
_tempo rubato_ (literally, "robbed time")
_ad libitum_ (at pleasure)
_a piacere_ (at pleasure)
_a capriccio_ (at the caprice)
_agitato_ (agitated)
(The term _tempo giusto_--in exact tempo--is the opposite of
the above expressions, and is used to indicate that the
music is to be performed in steady tempo.)
In the majority of cases, however, the composer gives no indication
whatsoever, and the whole responsibility therefore rests upon the
performer or conductor. It is because of this latter fact that the
amateur must study these matters indefatigably. The advent of a more
elastic rhythm and tempo has undoubtedly made all musical performance
infinitely more pleasurable to the listener than it formerly was; but
unfortunately (especially since the advent of Chopin's music) there
has been a great deal of misunderstanding as to the use and meaning
of this valuable new expressional element.
_Tempo rubato_ may be compared to speaking certain words more slowly
or more rapidly in order that the essential meaning of the entire
sentence may be more strongly impressed upon the listener. It must not
however break up the continuity of the tempo; as one writer has said
"we must bend the tempo, but not break it." Another well-known author,
in treating the same point, states that[15]
Freedom in tempo does not mean unsteadiness.... We must have
in music the sense of equilibrium, of stability. A careless,
spasmodic hurrying and retarding leads only to flabbiness
and inconsequence.
[Footnote 15: Dickinson, _The Education of a Music Lover_, p. 21.]
The most common kind of _rubato_ is probably that in which the first
part of the phrase (up to the climax) is accelerated, the climacteric
tone lingered upon slightly, then the remainder of the phrase rendered
_a tempo_ or possibly slightly _ritardando_. But there are many
phrases that demand a totally different sort of treatment; _e.g._, a
_ritardando_ in the first part instead of an _accelerando_. Which is
the appropriate way of delivering any particular phrase must be
determined in every case by musical feeling.
The thing that the beginner is apt to forget at the period when his
musical feeling though sincere is yet characterized by lack of
refinement, is that these _nuances_ must always be subtle, and that
the listener ought not to have fluctuations in tempo thrust in his
face at every turn. Indeed we may say that he should hardly know that
they are present, unless he is making a definite attempt to analyze
the performance. The familiar story of Chopin's breathing toward a
candle flame and making it flicker slightly, with the remark, "That is
my rubato," then blowing it violently out and saying "This is yours,"
is quite to the point in this connection.
It is of course understood that _rubato_ is to be employed almost
exclusively in moderate or slow tempos, having little or no place in
rapid, strongly rhythmic music. It should also be remarked that the
more severe the form of the music,--the more architectonic it is--the
less variation in tempo should there be in its rendition, for in this
type of music the expression is primarily intellectual. Such
instrumental works (of which certain compositions of Bach and Mozart
are typical) must not be played sentimentally, as a modern English
writer has remarked, and yet they must be played with sentiment. The
remarks of this same author may well be quoted in closing this
discussion:[16]
Rubato is necessary in emotional music and is an excellent
means of picturing longing, persuading, dreaming, _et
cetera_. That is why its use is so characteristic in
performing the works of the romantic school and why it must
be used with such caution in the classics. The classic must
be clear as daylight--the structure must be evident even on
the surface; but the romantic composition needs often to be
played in a veiled manner in order to produce atmosphere. In
such a case the rhythm is veiled as it were, draped in
gauze, but the rhythmic design is there under the veil just
the same. To express calmness, decision, _et cetera_, avoid
rubato.
[Footnote 16: Matthay, _Musical Interpretation_, p. 88.]
It must now be evident to the reader that this whole matter of musical
_nuance_ is too subtle to be treated adequately in a book of this
character, and it becomes necessary for us once more to advise the
amateur to study music, both vocal and instrumental, in order that his
latent musical feeling may be developed into a ripe and adequate
musical taste.
[Sidenote: TEMPO RECORDED IN MUSCLES]
In concluding the chapter let us emphasize the fact that the
establishing of a tempo is a matter of muscle even more than of mind,
and that before beginning to beat time the conductor should have the
tempo recorded in his muscular memory. Before rising to conduct a
composition then let him feel its tempo in the muscles of the arm and
hand wielding the baton; for if not thus felt, the work will rarely be
begun with a clearly defined rate of speed. This consideration
receives added weight when it is recalled that if the conductor does
not set the tempo, the chorus accompanist or first violinist will, and
they, not having studied the music from this standpoint, will rarely
succeed in hitting upon the correct rate of movement.