THE CHEMISTRY OF THE STARS (CONTINUED): PRINCIPLES OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.
We have next to say something about the principles on which the use of
the spectroscope depends; if we look through one we can readily observe
how each particular ray of light paints an image of the slit. Thus, if
we are dealing with a red ray of light, that ray, after passing through
the prisms, will paint a red image of the slit; if the light be violet,
the ray will paint a violet image of the slit, and these images will be
separated, because one colour is refracted more than the other. Now it
follows from this that when the slit is illuminated by white light,
white light being white because it contains all colours, we get an
infinite number of images of slits touching or overlapping each other,
and forming what is called a _continuous spectrum_.
Hence it is that if we examine the light of a match or candle, or even
the electric light, we get such a continuous spectrum, because these
light sources emit rays of every refrangibility. Modern science teaches
us that they do so because the molecules—the vibrations of which
produce, through the intermediary of the ether, the sensation of light
on our optic nerve—are of a certain complexity.
In the preceding list of light sources the sun was not mentioned,
because its light when examined by Wollaston and Fraunhofer, was found
to be discontinuous. Now it is clear that if in a beam of light there be
no light of certain particular colours, of course we shall not find the
image of the slit painted at all in the corresponding regions of the
spectrum. This is the whole story of the black lines in the spectrum of
the sun and in the spectra of the stars.
Here and there in the spectrum of these there are colours, or
refrangibilities, of light which are not represented in light which
comes from those bodies, and therefore there is nothing to paint the
image of the slit in that particular part of the spectrum; we get what
we call a dark line, which is the absence of the power of painting an
image.
But then it may be asked, How comes it that the prism and the
spectroscope are so useful to astronomers? In answer we may say, that if
we knew no more about the black lines in the spectra of the sun and
stars than we knew forty years ago, the spectroscope ought still to be
an astronomical instrument, because it is our duty to observe every fact
in nature, even if we cannot explain it. But these dark lines have been
explained, and it is the very explanation of them, and the flood of
knowledge which has been acquired in the search after the explanation,
which makes the spectroscope one of the most valuable of astronomical
instruments.
Many of us are aware of the magnificent generalizations by which our
countrymen, Professors Stokes and Balfour Stewart, and Ångström,
Kirchhoff and Bunsen, were enabled to explain those wonderful lines in
the solar spectrum.
These lines in the solar spectrum are there because something is at work
cutting out those rays of light which are wanting, and they explained
this want by showing to us that around the sun and all the stars there
are absorbing atmospheres containing the vapours of certain substances
cooler than the interior of the sun or of the stars.
These philosophers also showed us, that we can divide radiation and
absorption into four classes, and that we can have general radiation and
selective radiation, and general absorption and selective absorption, so
that the phenomena that we see in our chemical and physical laboratories
and our observatories may all be classed as general and selective
radiation, or general and selective absorption.
Let us explain these terms more fully. Kirchhoff showed us that from
incandescent solid and liquid bodies we get a continuous spectrum; thus
from the carbon poles of an electric lamp we get a complete spectrum.
That is called a continuous spectrum, and it is an instance of
continuous radiation, which we get from the molecular complexity of
solids or liquids, and likewise, from dense gases or vapours. When we
examine vapours or gases which are not very dense we get an indication
of selective radiation—that is to say, the light one gets from these
substances, instead of being spread broadcast from the red to the
violet, will simply fall here and there on the spectrum; in the case of
one vapour we may get a yellow line—a yellow image of the slit—and in
the case of another vapour, we may get a green one; the light selects
its point of appearance, and does not appear all along the spectrum.
[Illustration:
FIG. 179.—Electric Lamp. _y_, _z_, wires connecting battery of 50
Grove or Bunsen elements; G, H, carbon holders; K, rod, which stops
a clockwork movement, which when going makes the poles approach
until the current passes; A, armature of a magnet which by means of
K frees the clockwork when not in contact; E, electro-magnet round
which the current passes when the poles are at the proper distance
apart, causing it to attract the armature A.
]
This selective radiation is due to a simplification of the molecular
structure of the vapours, the simpler states are less rich in
vibrations, and therefore instead of getting rays of _all_
refrangibilities we only get rays of _some_.
[Illustration:
FIG. 180.—Electric Lamp arranged for throwing a spectrum on a screen.
D, lens; E E´, bisulphide of carbon prisms.
]
Very striking experiments showing the spectra of bodies may be made with
an electric lamp armed with a condenser and a narrow slit; by means of a
lens this slit is magnified on a screen. Then one or two prisms of glass
containing bisulphide of carbon are placed in the beam after it has
traversed the lens, which draw out the image of the slit into a
spectrum. We can then place a piece of sodium on the lower carbon pole,
and when the poles are brought together it will be volatilized, and its
vapour rendered luminous. Its spectrum on the screen will be seen to
consist of four lines only, the yellow line being for more brilliant
than the rest. Sodium was selected on account of the simplicity of its
spectrum.
[Illustration:
FIG. 181.—Comparison of the line spectra of Iron, Calcium, and
Aluminium, with Common Impurities. Copy of a photograph, in which by
dividing the slit of the spectroscope into sections, and admitting
light from the various light sources through them in succession,
spectra of different elements are recorded on the same photographic
plate.
]
If we put another metal, say calcium, in the place of the sodium, there
will appear on the screen the characteristic lines of that metal. A
number of distinct images of the slit in different colours is seen; if
we are well acquainted with the spectrum of any metal, and see it with
the spectroscope, it is easy to at once recognise it. Fig. 181 shows at
one glance the spectra (1) of iron, (2) of calcium, and (3) of
aluminium; and will clearly indicate the great difference there is
between the radiation spectra of the rare vapours of each of the
metallic elements.
[Illustration:
FIG. 182.—Coloured Flame of Salts in the flame of a Bunsen’s Burner.
]
The electric light is only required where great brilliancy is essential,
as for showing spectra on a screen. A Bunsen’s burner is the best
instrument for studying the spectra of metallic salts. By its means the
nature of a salt can be easily studied with a hand spectroscope, and in
this way an almost infinitesimal quantity can be detected.
These are instances of selective radiation. We will now turn to
absorption. If we first get a continuous spectrum from our lantern and
then interpose substances in the path of the beam, we can examine their
effects on the light. If we first use a piece of neutral-tinted glass,
which is a representative of a great many substances which do, for
stopping light, what solids and liquids do for giving light—namely, it
cuts off a portion of every colour; the spectrum on the screen will be
dimmed; here we have a case of general absorption. If, instead of this,
we hold in the beam a vessel containing magenta, a dark band in the
spectrum is seen, and if we put a test-tube in its place containing
iodine vapour, a number of well-defined lines pervading the spectrum is
observed. In these cases clearly, the magenta in one case, and the
iodine vapour in the other, have cut off certain colours, and so the
slit is not painted in these colours, and dark lines or bands appear.
These are instances of _selective absorption_, certain rays are selected
and absorbed, while others pass on unheeded. The easiest method of
performing these absorption experiments in the case of liquids is to
place the substance in a test-tube in front of the slit of the
spectroscope, as shown in Fig. 183, and point the collimator to a strong
light.
Besides the absorption by liquids, the vapours of the metals also absorb
selectively, and if a tube containing a piece of sodium and filled with
hydrogen (so that the metal will not get oxidized) is placed in the path
of the rays, and the sodium heated, the spectrum is at first unaffected,
but as the sodium gets hot and its vapour comes off, we can mark its
effect on the spectrum. We see a dark line beginning to appear in the
yellow, finally the whole light of that particular colour is absorbed,
and we have a dark line in its place. To sum up then:—
We get from solids, when heated, general radiation, and when they act as
absorbers, we get general absorption; from gases and vapours we get
selective radiation and selective absorption.
[Illustration:
FIG. 183.—Spectroscope arranged for showing Absorption.
]
Now it at once strikes any one performing these experiments that the
dark line of yellow sodium appears in the same place in the spectrum as
the bright one, and this is so. When the absorption by sodium vapour is
examined by the spectroscope, it is then seen to consist of two
well-defined lines close together, and when the radiation is examined,
it is found to consist of two bright ones, and the absorption and
radiation lines, the dark and bright ones, are found to exactly agree in
position in the spectrum, showing that the substance that emits a
certain light is able to absorb that same light, so that it matters not
whether a body is acting as an absorber or radiator, for still we
recognize its characteristic lines. In 1814 Fraunhofer strongly
suspected the coincidence of the two bright sodium lines with the dark
lines in the sun; afterwards Brewster, Foucault, and Miller showed
clearly the absolute coincidence; and Professor Stokes in 1852 came to
the conclusion that the double line D, whether bright or dark, belonged
to the metal sodium, and that it absorbed from light passing through it
the very same rays which it is able, when incandescent, to emit. The
phenomena rendered visible to us by the spectroscope have their origin,
as we have said, in molecular vibration, and the reason of the identical
position of the light and dark lines, and indeed the whole theory of
spectrum analysis, may be shortly stated as follows:—
The spectroscope tells us that when we break a mass of matter down to
its finest particles, or, as some people prefer to call them, ultimate
molecules, the vibrations of these ultimate parts of each different kind
of matter are absolutely distinct; so that if we get the ultimate
particle, say of calcium, and observe its vibrations we find that the
kind of vibration or unrest of one substance—of the calcium, for
instance—is different from the kind of unrest or mode of vibration—which
is the same thing—of another substance, let us say sodium. Mark well the
expression, ultimate molecule, because the vibrations of the larger
molecular aggregations are absolutely powerless to tell us anything
about their chemical nature. When we bring down a substance to its
finest state, and observe, by means of the prism, the vibrations it
communicates to the ether, we find that, using a slit in the
spectroscope and making these vibrations paint different images of the
slit, we get _at once_ just as distinct a series of images of the slit
for each substance as we should get a distinct _sequence_ of notes if we
were playing different tunes on a piano.
Next, this important consideration comes into play—whenever any element
finds itself in this state of fineness, and therefore competent to give
rise to these phenomena, it will give rise to them in different degrees
according to certain conditions. The intensest form is observed when we
employ electricity. In a great many cases the vibrations may be rendered
very intense by heat. The heat of a furnace or of gas will, for
instance, in a great many cases, suffice to give us these phenomena; but
to see them in all their magnificence—their most extreme cases—we want
the highest possible temperatures, or better still, the most extreme
electric energy. What we get is the vibration of these particles
rendered visible to our eye by the bright images of the slit or by their
bright “lines.”
But that is not the only means we have of studying these states of
unrest. We can study them almost equally well if, instead of dealing
with the radiation of light from the particles themselves, we interpose
them between us and a light source of more complicated molecular
structure, and hotter or more violently excited than the particles
themselves. From such a source the light would come to us absolutely
complete; that is to say, a perfectly complete gamut of waves of light,
from extreme red to extreme violet. When we deal with these particles
between us and a light-source competent to give us a continuous
spectrum, _then we find that the functions of these molecules are still
the same, but that their effect upon our retinas is different_. They are
not vibrating strongly enough to give us effectively light of their own,
but they are eager to vibrate, and, being so, they are employed, so to
speak, _in absorbing the light which otherwise would come to our eyes_.
So that whether we observe the bright spectrum of calcium or any other
metal, or the absorption spectrum under the conditions above stated, we
get lines exactly in the same part of the chromatic gamut, with the
difference that when we are dealing with radiation we get bright lines,
and when dealing with absorption we get dark ones.
It was such considerations as these by which the presence of sodium was
determined in the sun. Soon followed the discovery of coincidence of
other dark lines with the bright lines of numbers of our elements, and
we had maps made by Kirchhoff, and Bunsen, and Ångström, in which almost
every dark line is mapped with the greatest accuracy.
The dark lines in the spectra of the stars, and the light ones in
nebulæ, comets, and meteorites have also yielded to us a knowledge more
or less accurate of the elements of which these celestial bodies are
built up.
These radiations and absorptions are the A B C of spectrum analysis, and
they have their application in every part of the heavens which the
astronomer studies with the spectroscope. But although it is the A B C
it is not quite the whole alphabet. After Kirchhoff and Bunsen had made
their experiments showing that we might differentiate between solids,
liquids, gases, and vapours, by means of their spectra, and say, here we
have such a substance, and there another, either by its spectrum when it
is incandescent or from the absorption lines produced by it on a
continuous spectrum when it is absorbing, Plücker and Hittorf showed
that not only were the spectra very different among themselves, but
there were certain conditions under which the spectrum of the same
substance was not always the same; and although they did not make out
clearly what it was, they showed that it depended either on the pressure
of the gas or vapour, or the density, or the temperature. And other
observations since then indicate that we get changes in spectra which
are due to pressure, and not to temperature _per se_; so that we have
another line of research opened to us by the fact, that not only are the
spectra of different substances different, but that the spectra of the
same substances are different under different conditions.
[Illustration:
FIG. 184.—Geissler’s Tube.
]
Fig. 184 represents a hydrogen tube, called a Geissler’s tube—a glass
tube with hydrogen in it and two platinum wires, one passing into each
bulb, by which a current of electricity can be passed through the gas.
In this case we use hydrogen gas in a state of extreme tenuity. If now
one of these tubes be connected with a Sprengel pump, we can alter the
condition of tenuity at pleasure, either reducing the contents of the
tube or increasing them by admitting hydrogen from a receiver, by a tap
connected to the tubing of the air-pump; we can thus considerably
increase the amount of gas in the tube and bring it to something like
atmospheric pressure. We shall find the colour of the gas through which
the spark passes varies considerably as we increase the pressure of the
hydrogen in the tube. The hydrogen at starting is nearly as rare as it
can be, and if more hydrogen be let in we shall see a change of colour
from greenish white to red; the hydrogen admitted has increased the
pressure and the colour of the spark is entirely changed. It is a very
brilliant red colour, the colour of the prominences round the sun.
It may be asked, probably, whether there are any applications of this
experiment to astronomical observation. It _is_ of importance to the
astronomer to get the differences of the spectra of the same substance
under different conditions, and it is found as important to get these
differences between the spectra of the same substance, as those between
the spectra of different substances.
There is another experiment which will show another outcome of this kind
of research. Change of colour in the spark is accompanied by a
considerable difference in the spectrum—that is to say, it is clear, to
refer back to the colour of the hydrogen when the light was green, that
we should get some green in the spectrum, and when the light became red,
there would be some change or increase of light towards the red end of
the spectrum. We see that that is perfectly true; but there is not only
a change produced by the different pressures, as shown by the different
colours; but if we carry the analysis still further—if, instead of
dealing with the whole of the spectrum, we examine particular lines, we
find in some cases that there are very great changes in them. If, for
instance, we examine the bluish-green line given by hydrogen, we shall
find it increase in width as the pressure increases. This kind of effect
can be shown on the screen by means of the electric lamp. We place some
sodium on the carbon poles in the lamp, and have an arrangement by which
we can use either twenty or fifty cells at pleasure. The action of a
number of cells upon the vapour of sodium in the lamp is this: the more
cells we work with, the greater is the quantity of the sodium vapour
thrown out, and associated with the greater quantity of vapour is a
distinct variation of the light—in fact, an increase in the width and
brightness of the yellow lines on the screen.
[Illustration:
FIG. 185.—Spectrum of Sun-Spot.
]
Now just to give an illustration of the profitable application of this:
we know, for instance, from other sources, strengthened by this, that in
certain regions of the sun, called sun-spots, there are greater
quantities of sodium vapour present than in others, or it exists there
at greater pressure. If that be so, we ought to get the same sort of
result from the sun as we get on the screen by varying the density of
the sodium vapour. That is so. We do get changes exactly similar to the
changes on the screen, only of course it is the dark lines we see, and
not the bright ones: the dark lines of sodium are widened out over a
sun-spot, Fig. 185, showing its presence in greater quantity, or at
greater pressure.
[Illustration:
FIG. 186.—Diagram explaining Long and Short Lines.
]
Besides the widening of the lines due to pressure, there is something
else which must be mentioned. While experimenting with the spark taken
between two magnesium wires focussed on the slit of the spectroscope by
a lens, the lines due to the metal were found to be of unequal lengths.
Now, as the lines are simply images of the slit, the lengths of the
lines depend on the length of the slit illuminated, so that in this case
it appeared that the slit was not illuminated to an equal extent by all
the colours given out by magnesium vapour, but that the vapour existed
in layers round the wires, the lower ones giving more colours, and so
also more lines, than the upper ones further from the wire, as is
represented in Fig. 186; this is only meant to give an idea of the
thing, and is not, of course, exactly what is seen. S is the slit of the
spectroscope, P the image of one of the magnesium poles; the other,
being at some little distance away, does not throw its image on the
slit, and therefore does not interfere. The circles shown are intended
to represent the layers of vapour giving out the spectrum; on the right
the lower layers give A, B, and C, the next A and B, and the upper ones
only B. Now we may reason from this that the layers next the poles are
denser than those further off, and give a more complicated spectrum than
the others; and also, if the quantity of vapour of any metal is small,
we may only get just these longest lines.
Of late, experiments have been made in England on other metals—for
instance, aluminium and zinc, and their compounds; and it is found that,
when the vapour is diluted, as it were, one gets only the longest line
or lines; and in the compounds, where the bands due to the compound
compose the chief part of the spectrum, the longest line or lines of the
metal only appear. Now what is the application of this? In the sun are
found some of the dark lines of certain metals, but not all; for
instance, there are two lines in the solar spectrum corresponding to
zinc, but there are twenty-seven bright lines from the metal when
volatilized by the electric spark. Why should not these also have their
corresponding dark lines in the sun? The answer is, that the
non-corresponding lines of the metal are the short ones, and only exist
close to the metal where the vapour is dense; and in the sun the density
is not sufficient to give these lines. Here, then, we have at once a
means of measuring the _quantity_ of vapour of certain metals composing
the sun. It was thought that aluminium was not in the sun, as only two
lines of the metal out of fourteen corresponded to black lines in the
solar spectrum. It is now known that these two are the longest lines,
and that aluminium probably exists in the sun, and zinc, strontium, and
barium must also be added. These probably exist in small quantities,
insufficiently dense to give all the lines seen from a spark in the air.
[Illustration:
FIG. 187.—Comparison of the Absorption Spectrum of the Sun with the
Radiation Spectra of Iron and Calcium, with Common Impurities.
]
There is also another quite distinct line of inquiry in which the
spectroscope helps us.
Imagine yourself in a ship at anchor, and the waves passing you, you can
count the number per minute; now let the vessel move in the direction
whence the waves come, you would then meet more waves per minute than
before; and if the vessel goes the other way, less will pass you, and by
counting the increase or decrease in the number passing, you might
estimate the rates at which you were moving. Again, suppose some moving
object causes ripples on some smooth water, and you count the number per
minute reaching you, then if that object approach you, still moving, and
so producing waves at the same rate, the number of ripples a minute will
increase, and they will be of course closer together; for as the object
is approaching you, every subsequent ripple is started, not from the
same place as the preceding one, but a little nearer to you, and also
nearer to the one preceding, on whose heels it will follow closer. By
the increase in the number of ripples, and also the decrease in the
distance between them, one can estimate the rate of motion of the object
producing them, for the decrease in distance between the ripples is just
the distance the object travels in the time occupied between the
production of two waves, which was ascertained when the object was
stationary.
Now let us apply this reasoning to light. Light, we now hold, is due to
a state of vibration of the particles of an invisible ether, or
extremely rare fluid, pervading all space; and the waves of light,
although infinitesimally small, move among these particles.
Now we know that it is the length of the waves of light which determines
their refrangibility or colour, and therefore anything that increases or
diminishes their length alters their place in the spectrum; and as waves
of water are altered by the body producing them moving to or from the
observer, so the waves of light are changed by the motion of the
luminous body; and this change of refrangibility is detected with the
spectroscope. By measuring the wave-length of let us say the F line, and
the new wave-length as shown by the changed position, we can estimate
the velocity at which the light source is approaching or receding from
us.
This application, as we shall see in the next chapter, enables us to
determine the rate at which movements take place in the solar
atmosphere. It also gives us the power of measuring the third
co-ordinate of the motion of stars. We can, by the examination of their
positions, measure the motion at right angles to our line of sight, and
so determine their motion with reference to the two co-ordinates, R.A.
and Dec., or Lat. and Long., and just in the same way as we can measure
the velocity of the solar gases to or from us, so we can measure the
motion of the stars to or from us, thereby giving us the third
co-ordinate of motion.
It need scarcely be said that by the introduction of the spectroscope a
new method of observation, and a new power of gaining facts, has dawned,
and the sooner it is used all over the world with the enormous
instruments which are required, the better it will be for science.
* * * * *
These then are some of the chief points of spectroscopic theory which
makes the spectroscope one of the most powerful instruments of research
in the hands of the modern astronomer.