[1] The statement that Jerome's family name was Faulfiss, is founded
on a misunderstood passage of Aeneas Sylvius, _Historica Bohemica_.
Aeneas Sylvius names as one of the early Bohemian reformers a man
"_genere nobilis, ex domo quam Putridi Piscis vacant_." This was
erroneously believed to refer to Jerome.
JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM (1803-1857), English dramatist and man of
letters, was born in London on the 3rd of January 1803. His father,
Samuel Jerrold, actor, was at that time lessee of the little theatre of
Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent, but in 1807 he removed to Sheerness.
There, among the bluejackets who swarmed in the port during the war with
France, Douglas grew into boyhood. He occasionally took a child's part
on the stage, but his father's profession had little attraction for the
boy. In December 1813 he joined the guardship "Namur," where he had Jane
Austen's brother as captain, and he served as a midshipman until the
peace of 1815. He saw nothing of the war save a number of wounded
soldiers from Waterloo; but till his dying day there lingered traces of
his early passion for the sea. The peace of 1815 ruined Samuel Jerrold;
there was no more prize money. On the 1st of January 1816 he removed
with his family to London, where the ex-midshipman began the world again
as a printer's apprentice, and in 1819 became a compositor in the
printing-office of the _Sunday Monitor_. Several short papers and copies
of verses by him had already appeared in the sixpenny magazines, and
one evening he dropped into the editor's box a criticism of the opera
_Der Freischütz_. Next morning he received his own copy to set up,
together with a flattering note from the editor, requesting further
contributions from the anonymous author. Thenceforward Jerrold was
engaged in journalism. In 1821 a comedy that he had composed in his
fifteenth year was brought out at Sadler's Wells theatre, under the
title _More Frightened than Hurt_. Other pieces followed, and in 1825 he
was engaged for a few pounds weekly to produce dramas and farces to the
order of Davidge of the Coburg theatre. In the autumn of 1824 the
"little Shakespeare in a camlet cloak," as he was called, married Mary
Swann; and, while he was engaged with the drama at night, he was
steadily pushing his way as a journalist. For a short while he was part
proprietor of a small Sunday newspaper. In 1829, through a quarrel with
the exacting Davidge, Jerrold left the Coburg; and his three-act
melodrama, _Black-eyed Susan; or, All in the Downs_, was brought out by
R. W. Elliston at the Surrey theatre. The success of the piece was
enormous. With its free gallant sea-flavour, it took the town by storm,
and "all London went over the water to see it." Elliston made a fortune
by the piece; T. P. Cooke, who played William, made his reputation;
Jerrold received about £60 and was engaged as dramatic author at five
pounds a week. But his fame as a dramatist was achieved. In 1830 it was
proposed that he should adapt something from the French for Drury Lane.
"No," was his reply, "I shall come into this theatre as an original
dramatist or not at all." _The Bride of Ludgate_ (December 8, 1831) was
the first of a number of his plays produced at Drury Lane. The other
patent houses threw their doors open to him also (the Adelphi had
already done so); and in 1836 Jerrold became co-manager of the Strand
theatre with W. J. Hammond, his brother-in-law. The venture was not
successful, and the partnership was dissolved. While it lasted Jerrold
wrote his only tragedy, _The Painter of Ghent_, and himself appeared in
the title-rôle, without any very marked success. He continued to write
sparkling comedies till 1854, the date of his last piece, _The Heart of
Gold_.
Meanwhile he had won his way to the pages of numerous
periodicals--before 1830 of the second-rate magazines only, but after
that to those of more importance. He was a contributor to the _Monthly
Magazine, Blackwood's,_ the _New Monthly_, and the _Athenaeum_. To
_Punch_, the publication which of all others is associated with his
name, he contributed from its second number in 1841 till within a few
days of his death. He founded and edited for some time, though with
indifferent success, the _Illuminated Magazine, Jerrold's Shilling
Magazine_, and _Douglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper;_ and under his
editorship _Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper_ rose from almost nonentity to a
circulation of 182,000. The history of his later years is little more
than a catalogue of his literary productions, interrupted now and again
by brief visits to the Continent or to the country. Douglas Jerrold died
at his house, Kilburn Priory, in London, on the 8th of June 1857.
Jerrold's figure was small and spare, and in later years bowed almost to
deformity. His features were strongly marked and expressive from the
thin humorous lips to the keen blue eyes gleaming from beneath the
shaggy eyebrows. He was brisk and active, with the careless bluffness of
a sailor. Open and sincere, he concealed neither his anger nor his
pleasure; to his simple frankness all polite duplicity was distasteful.
The cynical side of his nature he kept for his writings; in private life
his hand was always open. In politics Jerrold was a Liberal, and he gave
eager sympathy to Kossuth, Mazzini and Louis Blanc. In social politics
especially he took an eager part; he never tired of declaiming against
the horrors of war, the luxury of bishops, and the iniquity of capital
punishment.
Douglas Jerrold is now perhaps better known from his reputation as a
brilliant wit in conversation than from his writings. As a dramatist he
was very popular, though his plays have not kept the stage. He dealt
with rather humbler forms of social life than had commonly been
represented on the boards. He was one of the first and certainly one of
the most successful of those who in defence of the native English drama
endeavoured to stem the tide of translation from the French, which
threatened early in the 19th century altogether to drown original native
talent. His skill in construction and his mastery of epigram and
brilliant dialogue are well exemplified in his comedy, _Time Works
Wonders_ (Haymarket, April 26, 1845). The tales and sketches which form
the bulk of Jerrold's collected works vary much in skill and interest;
but, although there are evident traces of their having been composed
from week to week, they are always marked by keen satirical observation
and pungent wit.
Among the best known of his numerous works are: _Men of Character_
(1838), including "Job Pippin: The man who couldn't help it," and
other sketches of the same kind; _Cakes and Ale_ (2 vols., 1842), a
collection of short papers and whimsical stories; some more serious
novels--_The Story of a Feather_ (1844), _The Chronicles of
Clovernook_ (1846), _A Man made of Money_ (1849); and _St Giles and St
James_ (1851); and various series of papers reprinted from
_Punch--Punch's Letters to his Son_ (1843), _Punch's Complete
Letter-writer_ (1845), and the famous _Mrs Caudle's Curtain Lectures_
(1846).
See W. B. Jerrold, _Life and Remains of Douglas Jerrold_ (1859). A
collected edition of his writings appeared in 1851-1854, and _The
Works of Douglas Jerrold_, with a memoir by his son, W. B. Jerrold, in
1863-1864; but neither is complete. Among the numerous selections from
his tales and witticisms are two edited by his grandson, Walter
Jerrold, _Bons Mots of Charles Dickens and Douglas Jerrold_ (new ed.
1904), and _The Essays of Douglas Jerrold_ (1903), illustrated by H.
M. Brock. See also _The Wit and Opinions of Douglas Jerrold_ (1858),
edited by W. B. Jerrold.
His eldest son, WILLIAM BLANCHARD JERROLD (1826-1884), English
journalist and author, was born in London on the 23rd of December 1826,
and abandoning the artistic career for which he was educated, began
newspaper work at an early age there. He was appointed Crystal Palace
commissioner to Sweden in 1853, and wrote _A Brage-Beaker with the
Swedes_ (1854) on his return. In 1855 he was sent to the Paris
exhibition as correspondent for several London papers, and from that
time he lived much in Paris. In 1857 he succeeded his father as editor
of _Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper_, a post which he held for twenty-six
years. During the Civil War in America he strongly supported the North,
and several of his leading articles were reprinted and placarded in New
York by the federal government. He was the founder and president of the
English branch of the international literary association for the
assimilation of copyright laws. Four of his plays were successfully
produced on the London stage, the popular farce _Cool as a Cucumber_
(Lyceum 1851) being the best known. His French experiences resulted in a
number of books, most important of which is his _Life of Napoleon III_.
(1874). He was occupied in writing the biography of Gustave Doré, who
had illustrated several of his books, when he died on the 10th of March
1884.
Among his books are _A Story of Social Distinction_ (1848), _Life and
Remains of Douglas Jerrold_ (1859), _Up and Down in the World_ (1863),
_The Children of Lutetia_ (1864), _Cent per Cent_ (1871), _At Home in
Paris_ (1871), _The Best of all Good Company_ (1871-1873), and _The
Life of George Cruikshank_ (1882).
JERRY, a short form of the name Jeremiah, applied to various common
objects, and more particularly to a machine for finishing cloth. The
expression "jerry-built" is applied to houses built badly and of
inferior materials, and run up by a speculative builder. There seems to
be no foundation for the assertion that this expression was occasioned
by the work of a firm of Liverpool builders named Jerry.
JERSEY, EARLS OF. Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1656-1711), son of Sir Edward
Villiers (1620-1689), of Richmond, Surrey, was created Baron Villiers
and Viscount Villiers in 1691 and earl of Jersey in 1697. His
grandfather, Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1585-1626), master of the mint and
president of Munster, was half-brother of George Villiers, 1st duke of
Buckingham, and of Christopher Villiers, 1st earl of Anglesey; his
sister was Elizabeth Villiers, the mistress of William III., and
afterwards countess of Orkney. Villiers was knight-marshal of the royal
household in succession to his father; master of the horse to Queen
Mary; and lord chamberlain to William III. and Queen Anne. In 1696 he
represented his country at the congress of Ryswick; he was ambassador
at the Hague, and after becoming an earl was ambassador in Paris. In
1699 he was made secretary of state for the southern department, and on
three occasions he was one of the lords justices of England. In 1704 he
was dismissed from office by Anne, and after this event he was concerned
in some of the Jacobite schemes. He died on the 25th of August 1711. The
2nd earl was his son William (c. 1682-1721), an adherent of the exiled
house of Stuart, and the 3rd earl was the latter's son William (d.
1769), who succeeded his kinsman John Fitzgerald (c. 1692-1766) as 6th
Viscount Grandison. The 3rd earl's son, George Bussy, the 4th earl
(1735-1805), held several positions at the court of George III., and on
account of his courtly manners was called the "prince of Maccaronies."
The 4th earl's son, George, 5th earl of Jersey (1773-1859), one of the
most celebrated fox-hunters of his time and a successful owner of
racehorses, married Sarah Sophia (1785-1867), daughter of John Fane,
10th earl of Westmorland, and granddaughter of Robert Child, the banker.
She inherited her grandfather's great wealth, including his interest in
Child's bank, and with her husband took the name of Child-Villiers.
Since this time the connexions of the earls of Jersey with Child's bank
has been maintained. Victor Albert George Child-Villiers (b. 1845)
succeeded his father George Augustus (1808-1859), 6th earl, who had only
held the title for three weeks, as 7th earl of Jersey in 1859. This
nobleman was governor of New South Wales from 1890 to 1893.
JERSEY, the largest of the Channel Islands, belonging to Great Britain.
Its chief town, St Helier, on the south coast of the island, is in 49°
12´ N., 2° 7´ W., 105 m. S. by E. of Portland Bill on the English coast,
and 24 m. from the French coast to the east. Jersey is the southernmost
of the more important islands of the group. It is of oblong form with a
length of 10 m. from east to west and an extreme breadth of 6¼ m. The
area is 28,717 acres, or 45 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 52,576.
The island reaches its greatest elevation (nearly 500 ft.) in the north,
the land rising sharply from the north coast, and displaying bold and
picturesque cliffs towards the sea. The east, south and west coasts
consist of a succession of large open bays, shallow and rocky, with
marshy or sandy shores separated by rocky headlands. The principal bays
are Grève au Lançons, Grève de Lecq, St John's and Bouley Bays on the
north coast; St Catherine's and Grouville Bays on the east; St
Clement's, St Aubin's and St Brelade's Bays on the south; and St Ouen's
Bay, the wide sweep of which occupies nearly the whole of the west
coast. The sea in many places has encroached greatly on the land, and
sand drifts have been found troublesome, especially on the west coast.
The surface of the country is broken by winding valleys having a general
direction from north to south, and as they approach the south uniting so
as to form small plains. The lofty hedges which bound the small
enclosures into which Jersey is divided, the trees and shrubberies which
line the roads and cluster round the uplands and in almost every nook of
the valleys unutilized for pasturage or tillage, give the island a
luxuriant appearance, neutralizing the bare effect of the few sandy
plains and sand-covered hills. Fruits and flowers indigenous to warm
climates grow freely in the open air. The land, under careful
cultivation, is rich and productive, the soil being generally a deep
loam, especially in the valleys, but in the west shallow, light and
sandy. The subsoil is usually gravel, but in some parts an unfertile
clay. Some two-thirds of the total area is under cultivation, great
numbers of cattle being pastured, and much market gardening practised.
The potato crop is very large. The peasants take advantage of every bit
of wall and every isolated nook of ground for growing fruit trees.
Grapes are ripened under glass; oranges can be grown in sheltered
situations, but the most common fruits are apples, which are used for
cider, and pears. A manure of burnt sea-weed (vraic) is generally used.
The pasturage is very rich, and is much improved by the application of
this manure to the surface. The breed of cattle is kept pure by
stringent laws against the importation of foreign animals. The milk is
used almost exclusively to manufacture butter. The cattle are always
housed in winter, but remain out at night from May till October. There
was formerly a small black breed of horses peculiar to the island, but
horses are now chiefly imported from France or England. Pigs are kept
principally for local consumption, and only a few sheep are reared. Fish
are not so plentiful as round the shores of Guernsey, but mackerel,
turbot, cod, mullet and especially the conger eel are abundant at the
Minquiers. There is a large oyster bed between Jersey and France, but
partly on account of over-dredging the supply is not so abundant as
formerly. There is a great variety of other shell fish. The fisheries,
ship-building and boat-building employ many of the inhabitants. Kelp and
iodine are manufactured from sea-weed. The principal exports are
granite, fruit and vegetables (especially potatoes), butter and cattle;
and the chief imports coal and articles of human consumption.
Communications with England are maintained principally from Southampton
and Weymouth, and there are regular steamship services from Granville
and St Malo on the French coast. The Jersey railway runs west from St
Helier round St Aubin's Bay to St Aubin, and continues to Corbière at
the south-western extremity of the island; and the Jersey eastern
railway follows the southern and eastern coasts to Gorey. The island is
intersected with a network of good roads.
Jersey is under a distinct and in several respects different form of
administrative government from Guernsey and the smaller islands included
in the bailiwick of Guernsey. For its peculiar constitution, system of
justice, ecclesiastical arrangements and finance, see CHANNEL ISLANDS.
There are twelve parishes, namely St Helier, Grouville, St Brelade, St
Clement, St John, St Laurence, St Martin, St Mary, St Ouen, St Peter, St
Saviour and Trinity. The population of the island nearly doubled between
1821 and 1901, but decreased from 54,518 to 52,576 between 1891 and
1901.
The history of Jersey is treated under CHANNEL ISLANDS. Among objects of
antiquarian interest, a cromlech near Mont Orgueil is the finest of
several examples. St Brelade's church, probably the oldest in the
island, dates from the 12th century; among the later churches St
Helier's, of the 14th century, may be mentioned. There are also some
very early chapels, considered to date from the 10th century or earlier;
among these may be noted the Chapelle-ès-Pêcheurs at St Brelade's, and
the picturesque chapel in the grounds of the manor of Rozel. The castle
of Mont Orgueil, of which there are considerable remains, is believed to
be founded upon the site of a Roman stronghold, and a "Caesar's fort"
still forms a part of it.
JERSEY CITY, a city and the county-seat of Hudson county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on a peninsula between the Hudson and Hackensack rivers at the
N. and between New York and Newark bays at the S., opposite lower
Manhattan Island. Pop. (1890), 163,003; (1900), 206,433, of whom 58,424
were foreign-born (19,314 Irish, 17,375 German, 4642 English, 3832
Italian, 1694 Russian, 1690 Scottish, 1643 Russian Poles, 1445 Austrian)
and 3704 were negroes; (1910 census) 267,779. It is the eastern terminus
of the Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore, the Central of
New Jersey, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Northern of New Jersey (operated
by the Erie), the Erie, the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New
Jersey & New York (controlled by the Erie) railways, the first three
using the Pennsylvania station; and of the little-used Morris canal.
Jersey City is served by several inter-urban electric railways and by
the tunnels of the Hudson & Manhattan railroad company to Dey St. and to
33rd St. and 6th Ave., New York City, and it also has docks of several
lines of Transatlantic and coast steamers. The city occupies a land area
of 14.3 sq. m. and has a water-front of about 12 m. Bergen Hill, a
southerly extension of the Palisades, extends longitudinally through it
from north to south. At the north end this hill rises on the east side
precipitously to a height of nearly 200 ft.; on the west and south sides
the slope is gradual. On the crest of the hill is the fine Hudson County
Boulevard, about 19 m. long and 100 ft. wide, extending through the city
and county from north to south and passing through West Side Park, a
splendid county park containing lakes and a 70-acre playground. The
water-front, especially on the east side, is given up to manufacturing
and shipping establishments. In the hill section are the better
residences, most of which are wooden and detached.
The principal buildings are the city hall and the court house. There
are nine small city parks with an aggregate area of 39.1 acres. The
city has a public library containing (1907) 107,600 volumes and an
historical museum. At the corner of Bergen Ave. and Forrest St. is the
People's Palace, given in 1904 by Joseph Milbank to the First
Congregational church and containing a library and reading-room, a
gymnasium, bowling alleys, a billiard-room, a rifle-range, a
roof-garden, and an auditorium and theatre; kindergarten classes are
held and an employment bureau is maintained. Among the educational
institutions are the German American school, Hasbrouck institute, St
Aloysius academy (Roman Catholic) and St Peter's college (Roman
Catholic); and there are good public schools. Grain is shipped to and
from Jersey City in large quantities, and in general the city is an
important shipping port; being included, however, in the port of New
York, no separate statistics are available. There are large
slaughtering establishments, and factories for the refining of sugar
and for the manufacture of tobacco goods, soap and perfumery, lead
pencils, iron and steel, railway cars, chemicals, rubber goods, silk
goods, dressed lumber, and malt liquors. The value of the city's
manufactured products increased from $37,376,322 in 1890 to
$77,225,116 in 1900, or 106.6%; in 1905 the factory product alone was
valued at $75,740,934, an increase of only 3.9% over the factory
product in 1900, this small rate of increase being due very largely to
a decline in the value of the products of the sugar and molasses
refining industry. The value of the wholesale slaughtering and
meat-packing product decreased from $18,551,783 in 1880 and
$11,356,511 in 1890 to $6,243,217 in 1900--of this $5,708,763
represented wholesale slaughtering alone; in 1905 the wholesale
slaughtering product was valued at $7,568,739.
In 1908 the assessed valuation of the city was $267,039,754. The city is
governed by a board of aldermen and a mayor (elected biennially), who
appoints most of the officials, the street and water board being the
principal exception.
Jersey City when first incorporated was a small sandy peninsula (an
island at high tide) known as Paulus Hook, directly opposite the lower
end of Manhattan Island. It had been a part of the Dutch patroonship of
Pavonia granted to Michael Pauw in 1630. In 1633 the first buildings
were erected, and for more than a century the Hook was occupied by a
small agricultural and trading community. In 1764 a new post route
between New York and Philadelphia passed through what is now the city,
and direct ferry communication began with New York. Early in the War of
Independence Paulus Hook was fortified by the Americans, but soon after
the battle of Long Island they abandoned it, and on the 23rd of
September 1776 it was occupied by the British. On the morning of the
19th of August 1779 the British garrison was surprised by Major Henry
Lee ("Light Horse Harry"), who with about 500 men took 159 prisoners and
lost only 2 killed and 3 wounded, one of the most brilliant exploits
during the War of Independence. In 1804 Paulus Hook, containing 117
acres and having about 15 inhabitants, passed into the possession of
three enterprising New York lawyers, who laid it out as a town and
formed an association for its government, which was incorporated as the
"associates of the Jersey company." In 1820 the town was incorporated as
the City of Jersey, but it remained a part of the township of Bergen
until 1838, when it was reincorporated as a distinct municipality. In
1851 the township of Van Vorst, founded in 1804 between Paulus Hook and
Hoboken, was annexed. In 1870 there were two annexations: to the south,
the town of Bergen, the county-seat, which was founded in 1660; to the
north-west, Hudson City, which had been separated from the township of
North Bergen in 1852 and incorporated as a city in 1855. The town of
Greenville, to the south, was annexed in 1873.
JERUSALEM (Heb. [Hebrew: Yerushalaïm] _Yerushalaïm_, pronounced as a
dual), the chief city of Palestine. Letters found at Tell el-Amarna in
Egypt, written by an early ruler of Jerusalem, show that the name
existed under the form _Urusalim_, i.e. "City of Salim" or "City of
Peace," many years before the Israelites under Joshua entered Canaan.
The emperor Hadrian, when he rebuilt the city, changed the name to Aelia
Capitolina. The Arabs usually designate Jerusalem by names expressive of
holiness, such as Beit el Makdis and El Mukaddis or briefly El Kuds,
i.e. the Sanctuary.
_Natural Topography._--Jerusalem is situated in 31° 47´ N. and 35° 15´
E., in the hill country of southern Palestine, close to the watershed,
at an average altitude of 2500 ft. above the Mediterranean, and 3800
ft. above the level of the Dead Sea. The city stands on a rocky
plateau, which projects southwards from the main line of hills. On the
east the valley of the Kidron separates this plateau from the ridge of
the Mount of Olives, which is 100 to 200 ft. higher, while the Wadi Er
Rababi bounds Jerusalem on the west and south, meeting the Valley of
Kidron near the lower pool of Siloam. Both valleys fall rapidly as
they approach the point of junction, which lies at a depth of more
than 600 ft. below the general valley of the plateau. The latter,
which covers an area of about 1000 acres, has at the present time a
fairly uniform surface and slopes gradually from the north to the
south and east. Originally, however, its formation was very different,
as it was intersected by a deep valley, called Tyropoeon by Josephus,
which, starting from a point N.W. of the Damascus gate, followed a
course first south-east and then west of south, and joined the two
main valleys of Kidron and Er Rababi at Siloam. Another shorter valley
began near the present Jaffa gate and, taking an easterly direction,
joined the Tyropoeon; while a third ravine passed across what is now
the northern part of the Haram enclosure and fell into the valley of
the Kidron. The exact form of these three interior valleys, which had
an important influence on the construction and history of the city, is
still imperfectly known, as they are to a great extent obliterated by
vast accumulations of rubbish, which has filled them up in some places
to a depth of more than 100 ft. Their approximate form was only
arrived at by excavations made during the later years of the 19th
century. The limited knowledge which we possess of the original
features of the ground within the area of the city makes a
reconstruction of the topographical history of the latter a difficult
task; and, as a natural result, many irreconcilable theories have been
suggested. The difficulty is increased by the fact that the
geographical descriptions given in the Old Testament the Apocrypha and
the writings of Josephus are very short, and, having been written for
those who were acquainted with the places, convey insufficient
information to historians of the present day, when the sites are so
greatly altered. All that can be done is to form a continuous account
in accord with the ancient histories, and with the original formation
of the ground, so far as this has been identified by modern
exploration. But the progress of exploration and excavation may render
this subject to further modification.
The geological formation of the plateau consists of thin beds of hard
silicious chalk, locally called _misse_, which overlie a thick bed of
soft white limestone, known by the name of _meleke_. Both descriptions
of rock yielded good material for building; while in the soft _meleke_
tanks, underground chambers, tombs, &c., were easily excavated. In
ancient times a brook flowed down the valley of the Kidron, and it is
possible that a stream flowed also through the Tyropoeon valley. The
only known spring existing at present within the limits of the city is
the "fountain of the Virgin," on the western side of the Kidron
valley, but there may have been others which are now concealed by the
accumulations of rubbish. Cisterns were also used for the storage of
rain water, and aqueducts, of which the remains still exist (see
AQUEDUCTS _ad init._), were constructed for the conveyance of water
from a distance. Speaking generally, it is probable that the water
supply of Jerusalem in ancient times was better than it is at present.
_History._--The early history of Jerusalem is very obscure. The Tell
el-Amarna letters show that, long before the invasion by Joshua, it was
occupied by the Egyptians, and was probably a stronghold of considerable
importance, as it formed a good strategical position in the hill country
of southern Palestine. We do not know how the Egyptians were forced to
abandon Jerusalem; but, at the time of the Israelite conquest, it was
undoubtedly in the hands of the Jebusites, the native inhabitants of the
country. The exact position of the Jebusite city is unknown; some
authorities locate it on the western hill, now known as Zion; some on
the eastern hill, afterwards occupied by the Temple and the city of
David; while others consider it was a double settlement, one part being
on the western, and the other on the eastern hill, separated from one
another by the Tyropoeon valley. The latter view appears to be the most
probable, as, according to the Biblical accounts, Jerusalem was partly
in Judah and partly in Benjamin, the line of demarcation between the two
tribes passing through the city. According to this theory, the part of
Jerusalem known as Jebus was situated on the western hill, and the
outlying fort of Zion on the eastern hill. The men of Judah and Benjamin
did not succeed in getting full possession of the place, and the
Jebusites still held it when David became king of Israel. Some years
after his accession David succeeded after some difficulty in taking
Jerusalem. He established his royal city on the eastern hill close to
the site of the Jebusite Zion, while Jebus, the town on the western side
of the Tyropoeon valley, became the civil city, of which Joab, David's
leading general, was appointed governor. David surrounded the royal city
with a wall and built a citadel, probably on the site of the Jebusite
fort of Zion, while Joab fortified the western town. North of the city
of David, the king, acting under divine guidance, chose a site for the
Temple of Jehovah, which was erected with great magnificence by Solomon.
The actual site occupied by this building has given rise to much
controversy, though all authorities are agreed that it must have stood
on some part of the area now known as the Haram. James Fergusson was of
opinion that the Temple stood near the south-western corner. As,
however, it was proved by the explorations of Sir Charles Warren in
1869-1870 that the Tyropoeon valley passed under this corner, and that
the foundations must have been of enormous depth, Fergusson's theory
must be regarded as untenable (see also SEPULCHRE, HOLY). On the whole
it is most likely that the Temple was erected by Solomon on the same
spot as is now occupied by the Dome of the Rock, commonly known as the
Mosque of Omar, and, regard being had to the levels of the ground, it is
possible that the Holy of Holies, the most sacred chamber of the Temple,
stood over the rock which is still regarded with veneration by the
Mahommedans. Solomon greatly strengthened the fortifications of
Jerusalem, and was probably the builder of the line of defence, called
by Josephus the first or old wall, which united the cities on the
eastern and western hills. The kingdom reached its highest point of
importance during the reign of Solomon, but, shortly after his death, it
was broken up by the rebellion of Jeroboam, who founded the separate
kingdom of Israel with its capital at Shechem. Two tribes only, Judah
and Benjamin, with the descendants of Levi, remained faithful to
Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. Jerusalem thus lost much of its
importance, especially after it was forced to surrender to Shishak, king
of Egypt, who carried off a great part of the riches which had been
accumulated by Solomon. The history of Jerusalem during the succeeding
three centuries consists for the most part of a succession of wars
against the kingdom of Israel, the Moabites and the Syrians. Joash, king
of Israel, captured the city from Amaziah, king of Judah, and destroyed
part of the fortifications, but these were rebuilt by Uzziah, the son of
Amaziah, who did much to restore the city to its original prosperity. In
the reign of Hezekiah, the kingdom of Judah became tributary to the
Assyrians, who attempted the capture of Jerusalem. Hezekiah improved the
defences and arranged for a good water supply, preparatory to the siege
by Sennacherib, the Assyrian general. The siege failed and the Assyrians
retired. Some years later Syria was again invaded by the Egyptians, who
reduced Judah to the position of a tributary state. In the reign of
Zedekiah, the last of the line of kings, Jerusalem was captured by
Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, who pillaged the city, destroyed the
Temple, and ruined the fortifications (see JEWS, § 17). A number of the
principal inhabitants were carried captive to Babylon, and Jerusalem was
reduced to the position of an insignificant town. Nebuchadrezzar placed
in the city a garrison which appears to have been quartered on the
western hill, while the eastern hill on which were the Temple and the
city of David was left more or less desolate. We have no information
regarding Jerusalem during the period of the captivity, but fortunately
Nehemiah, who was permitted to return and rebuild the defences about 445
B.C., has given a fairly clear description of the line of the wall which
enables us to obtain a good idea of the extent of the city at this
period. The Temple had already been partially rebuilt by Zedekiah and
his companions, but on a scale far inferior to the magnificent building
of King Solomon, and Nehemiah devoted his attention to the
reconstruction of the walls. Before beginning the work, he made a
preliminary reconnaissance of the fortifications on the south of the
town from the Valley Gate, which was near the S.E. corner, to the pool
of Siloam and valley of the Kidron. He then allotted the reconstruction
of wall and gates to different parties of workmen, and his narrative
describes the portion of wall upon which each of these was employed.[1]
It is clear from his account that the lines of fortifications included
both the eastern and western hills. North of the Temple enclosure
there was a gate, known as the Sheep Gate, which must have opened into
the third valley mentioned above, and stood somewhere near what is now
the north side of the Haram enclosure, but considerably south of the
present north wall of the latter. To the west of the Sheep Gate there
were two important towers in the wall, called respectively Meah and
Hananeel. The tower Hananeel is specially worthy of notice as it stood
N.W. of the Temple and probably formed the basis of the citadel built
by Simon Maccabaeus, which again was succeeded by the fortress of
Antonia, constructed by Herod the Great, and one of the most important
positions at the time of the siege by Titus. At or near the tower
Hananeel the wall turned south along the east side of the Tyropoeon
valley, and then again westward, crossing the valley at a point
probably near the remarkable construction known as Wilson's arch. A
gate in the valley, known as the Fish Gate, opened on a road which,
leading from the north, went down the Tyropoeon valley to the southern
part of the city. Westward of this gate the wall followed the south
side of the valley which joined the Tyropoeon from the west as far as
the north-western corner of the city at the site of the present Jaffa
Gate and the so-called tower of David. In this part of the wall there
were apparently two gates facing north, i.e. the Old Gate and the Gate
of Ephraim, 400 cubits from the corner.[2] At the corner stood the
residence of the Babylonian governor, near the site upon which King
Herod afterwards built his magnificent palace. From the corner at the
governor's house, the wall went in a southerly direction and turned
south-east to the Valley Gate, remains of which were discovered by F.
J. Bliss and fully described in his _Excavations in Jerusalem in
1894-1897_. From the Valley Gate the wall took an easterly course for
a distance of 1000 cubits to the Dung Gate, near which on the east was
the Fountain Gate, not far from the lower pool of Siloam. Here was the
most southerly point of Jerusalem, and the wall turning hence to the
north followed the west side of the valley of the Kidron, enclosing
the city of David and the Temple enclosure, and finally turning west
at some point near the site of the Golden Gate joined the wall,
already described, at the Sheep Gate. Nehemiah mentions a number of
places on the eastern hill, including the tomb of David, the positions
of which cannot with our present knowledge be fixed with any
certainty.
After the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah, a
considerable number of Jews returned to the city, but we know
practically nothing of its history for more than a century until, in 332
B.C., Alexander the Great conquered Syria. The gates of Jerusalem were
opened to him and he left the Jews in peaceful occupation. But his
successors did not act with similar leniency; when the city was captured
by Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, twelve years later, the fortifications
were partially demolished and apparently not again restored until the
period of the high priest Simon II., who repaired the defences and also
the Temple buildings. In 168 B.C. Antiochus Epiphanes captured
Jerusalem, destroyed the walls, and devastated the Temple, reducing the
city to a worse position than it had occupied since the time of the
captivity. He built a citadel called the Acra to dominate the town and
placed in it a strong garrison of Greeks. The position of the Acra is
doubtful, but it appears most probable that it stood on the eastern hill
between the Temple and the city of David, both of which it commanded.
Some writers place it north of the Temple on the site afterwards
occupied by the fortress of Antonia, but such a position is not in
accord with the descriptions either in Josephus or in the books of the
Maccabees, which are quite consistent with each other. Other writers
again have placed the Acra on the eastern side of the hill upon which
the church of the Holy Sepulchre now stands, but as this point was
probably quite outside the city at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, and
is at too great a distance from the Temple, it can hardly be accepted.
But the site which has been already indicated at the N.E. corner of the
present Mosque el Aksa meets the accounts of the ancient authorities
better than any other. At this point in the Haram enclosure there is an
enormous underground cistern, known as the Great Sea, and this may
possibly have been the source of water supply for the Greek garrison.
The oppression of Antiochus led to a revolt of the Jews under the
leadership of the Maccabees, and Judas Maccabaeus succeeded in capturing
Jerusalem after severe fighting, but could not get possession of the
Acra, which caused much trouble to the Jews, who erected a wall between
it and the Temple, and another wall to cut it off from the city. The
Greeks held out for a considerable time, but had finally to surrender,
probably from want of food, to Simon Maccabaeus, who demolished the Acra
and cut down the hill upon which it stood so that it might no longer be
higher than the Temple, and that there should be no separation between
the latter and the city. Simon then constructed a new citadel, north of
the Temple, to take the place of the Acra, and established in Judaea the
Asmonean dynasty, which lasted for nearly a century, when the Roman
republic began to make its influence felt in Syria. In 65 B.C. Jerusalem
was captured by Pompey after a difficult siege. The Asmonean dynasty
lasted a few years longer, but finally came to an end when Herod the
Great, with the aid of the Romans, took possession of Jerusalem and
became the first king of the Idumaean dynasty. Herod again raised the
city to the position of an important capital, restoring the
fortifications, and rebuilding the Temple from its foundations. He also
built the great fortress of Antonia, N.W. of the Temple, on the site of
the citadel of the Asmoneans, and constructed a magnificent palace for
himself on the western hill, defended by three great towers, which he
named Mariamne, Hippicus and Phasaelus. At some period between the time
of the Maccabees and of Herod, a second or outer wall had been built
outside and north of the first wall, but it is not possible to fix an
accurate date to this line of defence, as the references to it in
Josephus are obscure. Herod adorned the town with other buildings and
constructed a theatre and gymnasium. He doubled the area of the
enclosure round the Temple, and there can be little doubt that a great
part of the walls of the Haram area date from the time of Herod, while
probably the tower of David, which still exists near the Jaffa Gate, is
on the same foundation as one of the towers adjoining his palace.
Archelaus, Herod's successor, had far less authority than Herod, and the
real power of government at Jerusalem was assumed by the Roman
procurators, in the time of one of whom, Pontius Pilate, Jesus Christ
was condemned to death and crucified outside Jerusalem. The places of
his execution and burial are not certainly known (see SEPULCHRE, HOLY).
Herod Agrippa, who succeeded to the kingdom, built a third or outer wall
on the north side of Jerusalem in order to enclose and defend the
buildings which had gradually been constructed outside the old
fortifications. The exact line of this third wall is not known with
certainty, but it probably followed approximately the same line as the
existing north wall of Jerusalem. Some writers have considered that it
extended a considerable distance farther to the north, but of this there
is no proof, and no remains have as yet been found which would support
the opinion. The wall of Herod Agrippa was planned on a grand scale, but
its execution was stopped by the Romans, so that it was not completed at
the time of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus. The writings of Josephus
give a good idea of the fortifications and buildings of Jerusalem at the
time of the siege, and his accurate personal knowledge makes his account
worthy of the most careful perusal. He explains clearly how Titus,
beginning his attack from the north, captured the third or outer wall,
then the second wall, and finally the fortress of Antonia, the Temple,
and the upper city. After the capture, Titus ordered the Temple to be
demolished and the fortifications to be levelled, with the exception of
the three great towers at Herod's palace. It is, however, uncertain how
far the order was carried out, and it is probable that the outer walls
of the Temple enclosure were left partially standing and that the
defences on the west and south of the city were not completely levelled.
When Titus and his army withdrew from Jerusalem, the 10th legion was
left as a permanent Roman garrison, and a fortified camp for their
occupation was established on the western hill. We have no account of
the size or position of this camp, but a consideration of the site, and
a comparison with other Roman camps in various parts of Europe, make it
probable that it occupied an area of about 50 acres, extending over what
is now known as the Armenian quarter of the town, and that it was
bounded on the north by the old or first wall, on the west also by the
old wall, on the south by a line of defence somewhat in the same
position as the present south wall where it passes the Zion Gate, and on
the east by an entrenchment running north and south parallel to the
existing thoroughfare known as David Street. For sixty years the Roman
garrison were left in undisturbed occupation, but in 132 the Jews rose
in revolt under the leadership of Bar-Cochebas or Barcochba, and took
possession of Jerusalem. After a severe struggle, the revolt was
suppressed by the Roman general, Julius Severus, and Jerusalem was
recaptured and again destroyed. According to some writers, this
devastation was even more complete than after the siege by Titus. About
130 the emperor Hadrian decided to rebuild Jerusalem, and make it a
Roman colony. The new city was called Aelia Capitolina. The exact size
of the city is not known, but it probably extended as far as the present
north wall of Jerusalem and included the northern part of the western
hill. A temple dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus was erected on the site
of the Temple, and other buildings were constructed, known as the
Theatre, the Demosia, the Tetranymphon, the Dodecapylon and the Codra.
The Jews were forbidden to reside in the city, but Christians were
freely admitted. The history of Jerusalem during the period between the
foundation of the city of Aelia by the emperor Hadrian and the accession
of Constantine the Great in 306 is obscure, but no important change
appears to have been made in the size or fortifications of the city,
which continued as a Roman colony. In 326 Constantine, after his
conversion to Christianity, issued orders to the bishop Macarius to
recover the site of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, and the tomb in
which his body was laid (see SEPULCHRE, HOLY). After the holy sites had
been determined, Constantine gave orders for the construction of two
magnificent churches, the one over the tomb and the other over the place
where the cross was discovered. The present church of the Holy Sepulchre
stands on the site upon which one of the churches of Constantine was
built, but the second church, the Basilica of the Cross, has completely
disappeared. The next important epoch in building construction at
Jerusalem was about 460, when the empress Eudocia visited Palestine and
expended large sums oh the improvement of the city. The walls were
repaired by her orders, and the line of fortifications appears to have
been extended on the south so as to include the pool of Siloam. A church
was built above the pool, probably at the same time, and, after having
completely disappeared for many centuries, it was recovered by F. J.
Bliss when making his exploration of Jerusalem. The empress also erected
a large church in honour of St Stephen north of the Damascus Gate, and
is believed to have been buried therein. The site of this church was
discovered in 1874, and it has since been rebuilt. In the 6th century
the emperor Justinian erected a magnificent basilica at Jerusalem, in
honour of the Virgin Mary, and attached to it two hospitals, one for the
reception of pilgrims and one for the accommodation of the sick poor.
The description given by Procopius does not indicate clearly where this
church was situated. A theory frequently put forward is that it stood
within the Haram area near the Mosque of el Aksa, but it is more
probable that it was on Zion, near the traditional place of the
Coenaculum or last supper, where the Mahommedan building known as the
tomb of David now stands. In 614 Chosroes II., the king of Persia,
captured Jerusalem, devastated many of the buildings, and massacred a
great number of the inhabitants. The churches at the Holy Sepulchre were
much damaged, but were partially restored by the monk Modestus, who
devoted himself with great energy to the work. After a severe struggle
the Persians were defeated by the emperor Heraclius, who entered
Jerusalem in triumph in 629 bringing with him the holy cross, which had
been carried off by Chosroes. At this period the religion of Mahomet was
spreading over the east, and in 637 the caliph Omar marched on
Jerusalem, which capitulated after a siege of four months. Omar behaved
with great moderation, restraining his troops from pillage and leaving
the Christians in possession of their churches. A wooden mosque was
erected near the site of the Temple, which was replaced by the Mosque
of Aksa, built by the amir Abdalmalik (Abd el Malek), who also
constructed the Dome of the Rock, known as the Mosque of Omar, in 688.
The Mahommedans held Jerusalem until 1099, when it was captured by the
crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon, and became the capital of the Latin
Kingdom of Jerusalem (see CRUSADES, vol. viii. p. 401) until 1187, when
Saladin reconquered it, and rebuilt the walls. Since that time, except
from 1229 to 1239, and from 1243 to 1244, the city has been held by the
Mahommedans. It was occupied by the Egyptian sultans until 1517, when
the Turks under Selim I. occupied Syria. Selim's successor, Suleiman the
Magnificent, restored the fortifications, which since that time have
been little altered.
_Modern Jerusalem._--Jerusalem is the chief town of a sanjak, governed
by a _mutessarif_, who reports directly to the Porte. It has the usual
executive and town councils, upon which the recognized religious
communities, or _millets_, have representatives; and it is garrisoned
by infantry of the V. army corps. The city is connected with its port,
Jaffa, by a carriage road, 41 m., and by a metre-gauge railway, 54 m.,
which was completed in 1892, and is worked by a French company. There
are also carriage roads to Bethlehem, Hebron and Jericho, and a road
to Nablus was in course of construction in 1909. Prior to 1858, when
the modern building period commenced, Jerusalem lay wholly within its
16th-century walls, and even as late as 1875 there were few private
residences beyond their limits. At present Jerusalem without the walls
covers a larger area than that within them. The growth has been
chiefly towards the north and north-west; but there are large suburbs
on the west, and on the south-west near the railway station on the
plain of Rephaim. The village of Siloam has also increased in size,
and the western slopes of Olivet are being covered with churches,
monasteries and houses. Amongst the most marked features of the change
that has taken place since 1875 are the growth of religious and
philanthropic establishments; the settlement of Jewish colonies from
Bokhara, Yemen and Europe; the migration of Europeans, old Moslem
families, and Jews from the city to the suburbs; the increased
vegetation, due to the numerous gardens and improved methods of
cultivation; the substitution of timber and red tiles for the vaulted
stone roofs which were so characteristic of the old city; the striking
want of beauty, grandeur, and harmony with their environment exhibited
by most of the new buildings; and the introduction of wheeled
transport, which, cutting into the soft limestone, has produced mud
and dust to an extent previously unknown. To facilitate communication
between the city and its suburbs, the Bab ez-Zahire, or Herod's Gate,
and a new gate, near the north-west angle of the walls, have been
opened; and a portion of the wall, adjoining the Jaffa Gate, has been
thrown down, to allow free access for carriages. Within the city the
principal streets have been roughly paved, and iron bars placed across
the narrow alleys to prevent the passage of camels. Without the walls
carriage roads have been made to the mount of Olives, the railway
station, and various parts of the suburbs, but they are kept in bad
repair. Little effort has been made to meet the increased sanitary
requirements of the larger population and wider inhabited area. There
is no municipal water-supply, and the main drain of the city
discharges into the lower pool of Siloam, which has become an open
cesspit. In several places the débris within the walls is saturated
with sewage, and the water of the Fountain of the Virgin, and of many
of the old cisterns, is unfit for drinking. Amongst the more important
buildings for ecclesiastical and philanthropic purposes erected to the
north of the city since 1860 are the Russian cathedral, hospice and
hospital; the French hospital of St Louis, and hospice and church of
St Augustine; the German schools, orphanages and hospitals; the new
hospital and industrial school of the London mission to the Jews; the
Abyssinian church; the church and schools of the Church missionary
society; the Anglican church, college and bishop's house; the
Dominican monastery, seminary and church of St Stephen; the Rothschild
hospital and girls' school; and the industrial school and workshops of
the Alliance Israélite. On the mount of Olives are the Russian church,
tower and hospice, near the chapel of the Ascension; the French
Paternoster church; the Carmelite nunnery; and the Russian church of
St Mary Magdalene, near Gethsemane. South of the city are the Armenian
monastery of Mount Zion and Bishop Gobat's school. On the west side
are the institution of the sisters of St Vincent; the Ratisbon school;
the Montefiore hospice; the British ophthalmic hospital of the knights
of St John; the convent and church of the Clarisses; and the Moravian
leper hospital. Within the city walls are the Latin Patriarchal church
and residence; the school of the Frères de la Doctrine Chrétienne; the
schools and printing house of the Franciscans; the Coptic monastery;
the German church of the Redeemer, and hospice; the United Armenian
church of the Spasm; the convent and school of the Soeurs de Zion; the
Austrian hospice; the Turkish school and museum; the monastery and
seminary of the Frères de la Mission Algérienne, with the restored
church of St Anne, the church, schools and hospital of the London
mission to the Jews; the Armenian seminary and Patriarchal buildings;
the Rothschild hospital; and Jewish hospices and synagogues. The
climate is naturally good, but continued neglect of sanitary
precautions has made the city unhealthy. During the summer months the
heat is tempered by a fresh sea-breeze, and there is usually a sharp
fall of temperature at night; but in spring and autumn the east and
south-east winds, which blow across the heated depression of the Ghor,
are enervating and oppressive. A dry season, which lasts from May to
October, is followed by a rainy season, divided into the early winter
and latter rains. Snow falls two years out of three, but soon melts.
The mean annual temperature is 62.8° F., the maximum 112°, and the
minimum 25°. The mean monthly temperature is lowest (47.2°) in
February, and highest (76.3°) in August. The mean annual rainfall
(1861 to 1899) is 26.06 in. The most unhealthy period is from 1st May
to 31st October, when there are, from time to time, outbreaks of
typhoid, small-pox, diphtheria and other epidemics. The unhealthiness
of the city is chiefly due to want of proper drainage, impure
drinking-water, miasma from the disturbed rubbish heaps, and
contaminated dust from the uncleansed roads and streets. The only
industry is the manufacture of olive-wood and mother-of-pearl goods
for sale to pilgrims and for export. The imports (see Joppa) are
chiefly food, clothing and building material. The population in 1905
was about 60,000 (Moslems 7000, Christians 13,000, Jews 40,000).
During the pilgrimage season it is increased by about 15,000
travellers and pilgrims.
AUTHORITIES.--Pal. Exp. Fund Publications--Sir C. Warren, _Jerusalem,
Memoir_ (1884); Clermont-Ganneau, _Archaeol. Researches_ (vol. i.,
1899); Bliss, _Excavns. at Jerusalem_ (1898); Conder, _Latin Kingdom
of Jerusalem_ (1897), and _The City of Jerusalem_ (1909), an
historical survey over 4000 years; Le Strange, _Pal. under the
Moslems_ (1890); Fergusson, _Temples of the Jews_ (1878); Hayter
Lewis, _Holy Places of Jerusalem_(1888); _Churches of Constantine at
Jerusalem_ (1891); Guthe, "Ausgrabungen in Jer.," in _Zeitschrift d.
D. Pal. Vereins_ (vol. v.); Tobler, _Topographie von Jerusalem_
(Berlin, 1854); Dritte Wanderung (1859); Sepp, _Jerusalem und das
heilige Land_ (1873); Röhricht, _Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani;
Bibliotheca Geographica Palaestinae_ (1890); De Vogüé, _Le Temple de
Jérusalem_ (1864); Sir C. W. Wilson, _Golgotha and the Holy Sepulchre_
(1906); publications of the Pal. Pilgrims' Text Society and of the
_Société de l'Orient latin_; papers in _Quarterly Statements_ of the
P. E. Fund, the _Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins_, Clermont-Ganneau's
_Recueil d'archéologie orientale and Études d'arch. orientale_, and
the _Revue Biblique_; Baedeker's _Handbook to Palestine and Syria_
(1906); Mommert, _Die hl. Grabeskirche zu Jerusalem_ (1898); _Golgotha
und das hl. Grab zu Jerusalem_ (1900); Couret, _La Prise de Jérusm.
par les Perses, 614_. (Orléans, 1896--Plans, Ordnance Survey, revised
ed.; Ordnance Survey revised by Dr Schick in _Z.D.P.V._ xviii., 1895).
(C. W. W.; C. M. W.)