It has been said that it is impossible for an Occidental to understand
the Oriental, and vice versa; but, admitting that the mutual
understanding of two different races or peoples is a difficult matter,
why should Occidentals and Orientals be thus set in opposition? No
doubt, different peoples of Europe understand each other better than
they do the Asiatic; but can Asiatic peoples understand each other
better than they can Europeans or than the Europeans can understand any
of them? Do Japanese understand Persians or even Indians better than
English or French? It is true perhaps that Japanese can and do
understand the Chinese better than Europeans; but that is due not only
to centuries of mutual intercourse, but to the wonderful and peculiar
fact that they have adopted the old classical Chinese literature as
their own, somewhat in the way, but in a much greater degree, in which
the European nations have adopted the old Greek and Latin literatures.
What is here contended for is that the mutual understanding of two
peoples is not so much a matter of race, but of the knowledge of each
other's history, traditions, literature, &c.
The Japanese have, they think, suffered much from the misunderstanding
of their motives, feelings and ideas; what they want is to be understood
fully and to be known for what they really are, be it good or bad. They
desire, above all, not to be lumped as Oriental, but to be known and
judged on their own account. In the latter half of the 19th century, in
fact up to the Chinese War, it irritated Japanese travelling abroad more
than anything else to be taken for Chinese. Then, after the Chinese War,
the alarm about Japan leading Eastern Asia to make a general attack upon
Europe--the so-called Yellow Peril--seemed so ridiculous to the Japanese
that the bad effects of such wild talk were not quite appreciated by
them. The aim of the Japanese nation, ever since, at the time of the
Restoration (1868), they laid aside definitively all ideas of seclusion
and entered into the comity of nations, has been that they should rise
above the level of the Eastern peoples to an equality with the Western
and should be in the foremost rank of the brotherhood of nations; it was
not their ambition at all to be the champion of the East against the
West, but rather to beat down the barriers between themselves and the
West.
The intense pride of the Japanese in their nationality, their patriotism
and loyalty, arise from their history, for what other nation can point
to an Imperial family of one unbroken lineage reigning over the land for
twenty-five centuries? Is it not a glorious tradition for a nation, that
its emperor should be descended directly from that grandson of "the
great heaven-illuminating goddess," to whom she said, "This land
(Japan) is the region over which my descendants shall be the lords. Do
thou, my august child, proceed thither and govern it. Go! _The
prosperity of thy dynasty shall be coeval with heaven and earth._" Thus
they call their country the land of _kami_ (ancient gods of tradition).
With this spirit, in the old days when China held the hegemony of the
East, and all neighbouring peoples were regarded as its tributaries,
Japan alone, largely no doubt on account of its insular position, held
itself quite aloof; it set at defiance the power of Kublai and routed
utterly the combined Chinese and Korean fleets with vast forces sent by
him to conquer Japan, this being the only occasion that Japan was
threatened with a foreign invasion.
With this spirit, as soon as they perceived the superiority of the
Western civilization, they set to work to introduce it into their
country, just as in the 7th and 8th centuries they had adopted and
adapted the Chinese civilization. In 1868, the first year of the era of
Meiji, the emperor swore solemnly the memorable oath of five articles,
setting forth the policy that was to be and has been followed thereafter
by the government. These five articles were:--
1. Deliberative assemblies shall be established and all measures of
government shall be decided by public opinion.
2. All classes, high and low, shall unite in vigorously carrying out
the plan of government.
3. Officials, civil and military, and all common people shall as far
as possible be allowed to fulfil their just desires so that there may
not be any discontent among them.
4. _Uncivilized customs of former times shall be broken through_, and
everything shall be based upon just and equitable principles of heaven
and earth (nature).
5. _Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the world_, so that the
welfare of the empire may be promoted.
(Translation due to Prof. N. Hozumi of Tokyo Imp. Univ.)
It is interesting, as showing the continuity of the policy of the
empire, to place side by side with these articles the words of the
Imperial rescript issued in 1908, which are as follows:--
"We are convinced that with the rapid and unceasing advance of
civilization, the East and West, mutually dependent and helping each
other, are bound by common interests. It is our sincere wish to
continue to enjoy for ever its benefits in common with other powers by
entering into closer and closer relations and strengthening our
friendship with them. Now in order to be able to move onward along
with the constant progress of the world and to share in the blessings
of civilization, it is obvious that we must develop our internal
resources; our nation, but recently emerged from an exhausting war,
must put forth increased activity in every branch of administration.
It therefore behoves our people to endeavour with one mind, from the
highest to the lowest, to pursue their callings honestly and
earnestly, to be industrious and thrifty, to abide in faith and
righteousness, to be simple and warm-hearted, to put away ostentation
and vanity and strive after the useful and solid, to avoid idleness
and indulgence, and to apply themselves incessantly to strenuous and
arduous tasks...."
The ambition of the Japanese people has been, as already stated, to be
recognized as an equal by the Great Powers. With this object in view,
they have spared no efforts to introduce what they considered superior
in the Western civilization, although it may perhaps be doubted whether
in their eagerness they have always been wise. _They have always
resented any discrimination against them as an Asiatic people_, not
merely protesting against it, knowing that such would not avail much,
but making every endeavour to remove reasons or excuses for it. Formerly
there were troops stationed to guard several legations; foreign postal
service was not entirely in the hands of the Japanese government for a
long time; these and other indignities against the sovereignty of the
nation were gradually removed by proving that they were not necessary.
Then there was the question of the extra-territorial jurisdiction; an
embassy was sent to Europe and America as early as 1871 with a view to
the revision of treaties in order to do away with this _imperium in
imperio_, that being the date originally fixed for the revision; the
embassy, however, failed in its object but was not altogether fruitless,
for it was then clearly seen that it would be necessary to revise
thoroughly the system of laws and entirely to reorganize the law courts
before Occidental nations could be induced to forgo this privilege.
These measures were necessary in any case as a consequence of the
introduction of the Western methods and ideas, but they were hastened by
the fact of their being a necessary preliminary to the revision of
treaties. When the new code of laws was brought before the Diet at its
first session, and there was a great opposition against it in the House
of Peers on account of its many defects and especially of its ignoring
many established usages, the chief argument in its favour, or at least
one that had a great influence with many who were unacquainted with
technical points, was that it was necessary for the revision of treaties
and that the defects, if any, could be afterwards amended at leisure.
These preparations on the part of the government, however, took a long
time, and in the meantime the whole nation, or at least the more
intelligent part of it, was chafing impatiently under what was
considered a national indignity. The United States, by being the first
to agree to its abandonment, although this agreement was rendered
nugatory by a conditional clause, added to the stock of goodwill with
which the Japanese have always regarded the Americans on account of
their attitude towards them. When at last the consummation so long and
ardently desired was attained, great was the joy with which it was
greeted, for now it was felt that Japan was indeed on terms of equality
with Occidental nations. Great Britain, by being the first to conclude
the revised treaty--an act due to the remarkable foresight of her
statesmen in spite of the opposition of their countrymen in Japan--did
much to bring about the cordial feeling of the Japanese towards the
British, which made them welcome with such enthusiasm the Anglo-Japanese
alliance. The importance of this last as a powerful instrument for the
preservation of peace in the extreme East has been, and always will be,
appreciated at its full value by the more intelligent and thoughtful
among the Japanese; but by the mass of the people it was received with
great acclamation, owing partly to the already existing good feeling
towards the British, but also in a large measure because it was felt
that the fact that Great Britain should leave its "splendid isolation"
to enter into this alliance proclaimed in the clearest possible way that
Japan had entered on terms of full equality among the brotherhood of
nations, and that thenceforth there could be no ground for that
discrimination against them as an Asiatic nation which had been so
galling to the Japanese people.
There have been, and there still are being made, many charges against
the Japanese government and people. While admitting that some of them
may be founded on facts, it is permissible to point out that traits and
acts of a few individuals have often been generalized to be the national
characteristic or the result of a fixed policy, while in many cases such
charges are due to misunderstandings arising from want of thorough
knowledge of each other's language, customs, usages, ideas, &c. Take the
principle of "the open door," for instance; the Japanese government has
been charged in several instances with acting contrary to it. It is
natural that where (as in China) competition is very keen between men of
different nationalities, individuals should sometimes feel aggrieved and
make complaints of unfairness against the government of their
competitors; it is also natural that people at home should listen to and
believe in those charges made against the Japanese by their countrymen
in the East, while unfortunately the Japanese, being so far away and
often unaware of them, have not a ready means of vindicating themselves;
but subsequent investigations have always shown those charges to be
either groundless or due to misunderstandings, and it may be asserted
that in no case has the charge been substantiated that the Japanese
government has knowingly, deliberately, of _malice prepense_ been guilty
of breach of faith in violating the principle of "the open door" to
which it has solemnly pledged itself. That it has often been accused by
the Japanese subjects of weakness _vis-à-vis_ foreign powers to the
detriment of their interests, is perhaps a good proof of its fairness.
The Japanese have often been charged with looseness of commercial
morality. This charge is harder to answer than the last, for it cannot
be denied that there have been many instances of dishonesty on the part
of Japanese tradesmen or employees; _tu quoque_ is never a valid
argument, but there are black sheep everywhere, and there were special
reasons why foreigners should have come in contact with many such in
their dealings with the Japanese. In days before the Restoration,
merchants and tradesmen were officially classed as the lowest of four
classes, the samurai, the farmers, the artisans and the merchants;
practically, however, rich merchants serving as bankers and employers of
others were held in high esteem, even by the samurai. Yet it cannot be
denied that the position of the last three was low compared with that of
the samurai; their education was not so high, and although of course
there was the same code of morality for them all, there was no such high
standard of honour as was enjoined upon the samurai by the bushido or
"the way of samurai." Now, when foreign trade was first opened, it was
naturally not firms with long-established credit and methods that first
ventured upon the new field of business--some few that did failed owing
to their want of experience--it was rather enterprising and adventurous
spirits with little capital or credit who eagerly flocked to the newly
opened ports to try their fortune. It was not to be expected that all or
most of those should be very scrupulous in their dealings with the
foreigners; the majority of those adventurers failed, while a few of the
abler men, generally those who believed in and practised honesty as the
best policy, succeeded and came to occupy an honourable position as
business men. It is also asserted that foreigners, or at least some of
them, did not scruple to take unfair advantage of the want of experience
on the part of their Japanese customers to impose upon them methods
which they would not have followed except in the East; it may be that
such methods were necessary or were deemed so in dealing with those
adventurers, but it is a fact that it afterwards took a long time and
great effort on the part of Japanese traders to break through some
usages and customs which were established in earlier days and which they
deemed derogatory to their credit or injurious to their interests.
Infringement of patent rights and fraudulent imitation of trade-marks
have with some truth also been charged against the Japanese; about this
it is to be remarked that although the principles of morality cannot
change, their applications may be new; patents and trade-marks are
something new to the Japanese, and it takes time to teach that their
infringement should be regarded with the same moral censure as stealing.
The government has done everything to prevent such practices by enacting
and enforcing laws against them, and nowadays they are not so common. Be
that as it may, such a state of affairs as that mentioned above is now
passing away almost entirely; commerce and trade are now regarded as
highly honourable professions, merchants and business men occupy the
highest social positions, several of them having been lately raised to
the peerage, and are as honourable a set of men as can be met anywhere.
It is however to be regretted that in introducing Western business
methods, it has not been quite possible to exclude some of their evils,
such as promotion of swindling companies, tampering with members of
legislature, and so forth.
The Japanese have also been considered in some quarters to be a
bellicose nation. No sooner was the war with Russia over than they were
said to be ready and eager to fight with the United States. This is
another misrepresentation arising from want of proper knowledge of
Japanese character and feelings. Although it is true that within the
quarter of a century preceding 1909 Japan was engaged in two sanguinary
wars, not to mention the Boxer affair, in which owing to her proximity
to the scene of the disturbances she had to take a prominent part, yet
neither of these was of her own seeking; in both cases she had to fight
or else submit to become a mere cipher in the world, if indeed she could
have preserved her existence as an independent state. The Japanese, far
from being a bellicose people, deliberately cut off all intercourse with
the outside world in order to avoid international troubles, and remained
absolutely secluded from the world and at profound peace within their
own territory for two centuries and a half. Besides, the Japanese have
always regarded the Americans with a special goodwill, due no doubt to
the steady liberal attitude of the American government and people
towards Japan and Japanese, and they look upon the idea of war between
Japan and the United States as ridiculous.
Restrictions upon Japanese emigrants to the United States and to
Australia are irritating to the Japanese, because it is a discrimination
against them as belonging to the "yellow" race, whereas it has been
their ambition to raise themselves above the level of the Eastern
nations to an equality with the Western nations, although they cannot
change the colour of their skin. When a Japanese even of the highest
rank and standing has to obtain a permit from an American immigrant
officer before he can enter American territory, is it not natural that
he and his countrymen should resent this discrimination as an indignity?
But they have too much good sense to think or even dream of going to war
upon such a matter; on the contrary, the Japanese government agreed in
1908 to limit the number of emigrants in order to avoid complications.
It may be repeated that it has ever been the ambition of the Japanese
people to take rank with the Great Powers of the world, and to have a
voice in the council of nations; they demand that they shall not be
discriminated against because of the colour of their skin, but that they
shall rather be judged by their deeds. With this aim, they have made
great efforts: where charges brought against them have any foundation in
fact, they have endeavoured to make reforms; where they are false or due
to misunderstandings they have tried to live them down, trusting to time
for their vindication. They are willing to be judged by the intelligent
and impartial world: a fair field and no favour is what they claim, and
think they have a right to claim, from the world. (K.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The latest edition of von Wemckstern's _Bibliography of
the Japanese Empire_ contains the names of all important books and
publications relating to Japan, which have now become very numerous. A
general reference must suffice here to Captain F. Brinkley's _Japan_
(12 vols., 1904); the works of B. H. Chamberlain, _Things Japanese_
(5th ed., 1905, &c.); W. G. Aston, _Hist. of Jap. Literature, &c._,
and Lafcadio Hearn, _Japan: an Interpretation_ (1904), &c., as the
European authors with intimate knowledge of the country who have done
most to give accurate and illuminating expression to its development.
See also _Fifty Years of New Japan_, an encyclopaedic account of the
national development in all its aspects, compiled by Count Shigenobu
Okuma (2 vols., 1907, 1908; Eng. ed. by Marcus B. Huish, 1909).