English Name | Assiniboin name | Method of preparation
---------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------
Prairie turnip (pomme blanche) | Teep-se-nah | Dried and pounded.
Service berries | We-pah-zoo-kah | Dried.
Bull berries (grains des boeufs) | Taque-sha-shah | Do.
Chokecherries | Cham-pah | Pounded with seeds and dried.
Red plums | Caun-tah | Stones extracted and dried.
Wild grapes | Chint-kah | Not preserved; eaten ripe.
Currants | Wecha-ge-nus-kah | Do.
Gooseberries | Chap-tah-ha-zah | Do.
Wild rhubarb | Chan-hn-no-ha | Tops eaten raw or boiled.
Fungus growing on trees | Chaun-no-ghai | Not dried; found in winter.
Artichokes | Pung-ghai | Eaten raw or boiled; not preserved.
Berries of the red willow | Chau-sha-sha | Eaten raw only in great need.
Antelope turnips | Ta-to-ka-na Teep-se-nah | Boiled and dried.
Wild garlic | Ta-poo-zint-kah | Raw; not preserved.
A berry called | Me-nun | Not dried; eaten ripe.
Acorns[31] | Ou-tah-pe | Roasted and dried.
Strawberries | Wa-zshu-sta-cha | Not dried.
Inner bark of cottonwood | Wah-chin-cha-ha | Resorted to in time of actual famine.
Berries of the smoking weed | She-o-tak-kah | Not preserved; eaten ripe.
A root resembling artichoke | Ske-ske-chah | Dried, pounded, and boiled.
Buds of the wild rose | We-ze-zeet-kah | Found everywhere all winter on the stalk.
Red haw berries | Tas-paun | Not dried; eaten in fall and winter.
---------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------------------------------
[31] Found only along White Earth River.
ANIMALS EATEN BY INDIANS
----------------------------------+---------------------
Buffalo (wo-ta-cha) |
{ bull | Ta-tun-gah.
{ cow | Petai.
Antelope | Tah-to-ka-nah.
Elk | Opoñ.
Deer | Tah-chah.
Bear | Wah-ghuñ-kseecha.
Wolf | Shuñkto-ka-chah.[32]
Foxes { red | Shunga shanah.
{ gray | To-kah-nah.
Porcupine | Pah-hee.
Badger | Kho-kah.
Skunk | Man-gah.
Rabbit | Mushtinchanah.
Hare | Mushtincha ska.
Ermine | E-toonka sun.
Otter | Petun.
Mink | E-koo-sa.
Beaver | Chap-pah.
Muskrat | Sink-pai.
Glutton | Me-nag-gzshe.
Lynx | Ega-mo´.
Mouse | Pees-pees-anah.
Ground squirrel | Tah-she-ho-tah.
Water turtle | Kai-ah.
Terrapin | Pat-kah-shah.
Horns of elk in the velvet. | Tah-hai.
Horse | Shungatun-gah.
Mule | Sho-shonah.
Dog | Shunka.
Snake (not eaten except by Cree). |
----------------------------------+---------------------
[32] Literally, the other kind of dog.
BIRDS EATEN
----------------------------------+---------------------
Crow | Ah-ah-nah.
Raven | Con-ghai.
Magpie | Eh-hat-ta-ta-na.
Owl | He-hun.
Duck | Pah-hon-tah.
Goose | Man-ghah.
Crane | Pai-hun.
Pelican | Mid-dai-ghah.
Small bird of any sort. | Sit-kap-pe-nah.
Eagles are not eaten. |
----------------------------------+---------------------
PARTS OF BUFFALOES NOT EATEN
Glands of the neck.
Sinews.
Bull’s pizzle.
Horns, hoofs, and hair.
Every other part, inside and out, is eaten, even to the hide.
Sugar is made from the sap of the maple. Wild rice is gathered by the
Cree and Chippewa on Red River and the adjacent lakes, but not by
the upper Missouri tribes. In times of great scarcity old bones are
collected by the nations of whom we write, pounded, and the grease
extracted by boiling, and eaten together with any of the foregoing
roots or berries that can be found. But these sad times always happen
when the snow is deep, the ground frozen, and they can not be found.
Then those who have not laid up a stock of some of these roots the
previous summer are driven to the necessity of killing and eating their
horses and dogs, which being exhausted and nothing more to be found
they are compelled to eat human flesh.[33]
[33] We have only witnessed one season in 21 years where they were
driven to this necessity.
GARMENTS; DRESSES
In the materials of their clothing, as far as the cold climate will
admit, articles of European manufacture have been substituted for
their skins, but there being no fabric as yet introduced equal to or
even approaching the durability and warmth of the buffalo skin, all
hunters and travelers in the winter season must be clothed with the
latter to preserve life or prevent mutilation by frost. Still in the
summer season these are laid aside, being full of vermin and saturated
with grease and dirt, and the Indian steps proudly around in his
calico shirt, blanket, and cloth pantaloons. Their hair also, formerly
tangled and matted, has been unraveled by the use of different kinds
of combs, and the livestock, which found “a living and a home there,”
has, by these instruments, been torn from their comfortable abode, thus
rendering useless their original method of disposing of these vermin,
viz., extracting them with their fingers and masticating them in turn
for revenge.
Most of the clothing used by these tribes is made of skins of their
own procuring and dressing, the process of which has already met with
attention. They have different dresses for different seasons, also
various costumes for war, dancing, and other public occasions, some of
which have been described. In the summer seasons, when comparatively
idle, the clothing traded from the whites is preferred on account
of its superior texture and color, but in their usual occupations,
in winter, at war, in the chase, or any public ceremonies among
themselves, very few articles of dress thus obtained are seen, if we
except some blankets, undercoats, scarlet cloth, and ornaments. Their
own dresses of skins fancifully arranged, adorned with feathers, beads,
shells, and porcupine quills, are much more highly prized by them than
any article of dress of European manufacture introduced by the traders.
We will now detail a few of the most common or everyday dresses among
them, in different seasons, male and female, estimating the cost of
each in buffalo robes at $3 each, their value in this country.
SUMMER AND FALL DRESS FOR MEN
NO. 1
A buffalo robe, thin hair, or a dressed cowskin
robe on the back 1 robe
Dressed deer or antelope skin leggings 1 robe
Cloth breech flap and moccasins ½ robe
-----------
2½ robes at $3=$7.50
NO. 2
A scarlet blanket 4 robes
Beads worked in same 10 robes
Deerskin shirt and leggings fringed and garnished
with beads and porcupine quills 5 robes
Breech flap of scarlet cloth and moccasin 1 robe
Necklace of bear’s claws 5 robes
Moccasins and handkerchief for the head 1 robe
--------
26 robes at $3=$78.00
NO. 3
White blanket 3 robes
Calico shirt 1 robe
Neckerchief and cloth breech flap 1 robe
Cottonade pantaloons 1 robe
Muskrat cap 1 robe
Moccasins 0 robe
-------
7 robes at $3=$21.00
NO. 4
White blanket 3 robes
Blanket capot 3 robes
Skin leggings, plain antelope skin 1 robe
Breechcloth and moccasins ½ robe
-----------
7½ robes at $3=$22.50
NO. 5
Scarlet or Hudson Bay blanket 4 robes
Beads worked on same 10 robes
Scarlet laced chief’s coat 6 robes
Black fur hat and three cock feathers 2 robes
Silver hatband and plate 2 robes
1 pair silver arm bands 2 robes
Scarlet cloth leggings and hawk bells 1 robe
Black silk handkerchief and cloth breech flap 1 robe
Silver gorget, ear wheels and hair pipe 2 robes
Moccasins garnished with beads ½ robe
------------
30½ robes at $3=$91.50
WINTER DRESS FOR MEN
Hunter’s winter dress of the Plains
NO. 7
Buffalo robe coat, hair inside 1 robe
Buffalo robe over it 1 robe
Skin cap and mittens, hair inside ½ robe
Blanket breech flap, robe, moccasins, belt knife,
and fire apparatus ½ robe
Dressed cowskin leggings }
1 pair snowshoes } ½ robe
-----------
3½ robes at $3=$10.50
NO. 2
White blanket coat with hood 3 robes
White blanket over it 3 robes
Flannel or calico shirt 1 robe
Blanket leggings 1 robe
Soled rope moccasins }
Blanket breech flap } 1 robe
Skin mittens, hair inside }
-------
9 robes at $3=$27.00
No. 2 is the dress of a wood hunter, ordinary warrior in winter, if we
take away the blanket and substitute a buffalo robe; or it is worn in
traveling, and is occasionally used by hunters in the Crow and Sioux
Nations, but the Cree and Assiniboin mostly wear No. 1 winter on the
plains. Other ordinary dresses are only variations of the foregoing,
adding some articles and withdrawing others, but none of them are used
when in full dress, on public occasions, among themselves, except
sometimes No. 5. All their fancy dresses for dances, war, and feasts
have their peculiar marks and distinction in rank; also the robes
worn by chiefs, soldiers, or warriors in stated assemblies have their
battle scenes painted on them in rude drawings, though intelligible to
them. When merely designed to be ornamental the drawing consists of a
representation of the sun, made by a large brilliant circle painted in
the middle. Sometimes a calumet is pictured, and other devices, such as
guns, bows, lances, horses, etc.
The dresses of the divining men are not distinguished from those of
ordinary Indians by any marks, unless they are able and wish to renew
the remembrance of their former coups on their enemies by wearing a
robe on which they are drawn, but being generally old they seldom make
any display in dress, though wearing a cap or piece of bearskin round
the head is common with them. The rest of their clothing in summer
would answer to No. 1 and in winter to No. 2, abstracting the blanket
capot.
WOMEN’S SUMMER DRESSES
NO. 1
Dressed cowskin cotillion 1 robe
Leggings of same ½ robe
Dressed cow or elk-skin robe 1 robe
Moccasins 0 robe
-----------
2½ robes at $3=$7.50
NO. 2
Colored blanket 4 robes
Blue or scarlet cloth dress 3 robes
Garnishing of beads on same 5 robes
Scarlet cloth leggings ornamented with beads 2 robes
White deerskin moccasins worked with beads 1 robe
Heavy bead earrings and necklaces 4 robes
Brass-wire wristbands and rings 1 robe
-------
20 robes at $3=$60.00
NO. 3.—CROW INDIANS
Fine white dressed elk-skin robe 1 robe
Fine white bighorn skin cotillion adorned with 300
elk teeth 25 robes
Neck collar of large brass wire 1 robe
Fine antelope skin leggings worked with porcupine
quills 3 robes
Brass wire wristbands and rings 1 robe
California shell ear ornaments 3 robes
Very heavy bead necklaces 3 robes
Moccasins covered with beads 2 robes
--------
39 robes at $3=$117.00
NO. 4.—SIOUX
Fine white dressed elk skin robe, painted 1 robe
Fine white dressed antelope skin cotillion heavily
ornamented with beads or shells on breast and arm 30 robes
Leggings of same ornamented with beads 3 robes
Bead or wire necklace 2 robes
Garnished moccasins and brass breast plate 1 robe
Ear bones 3 robes
--------
40 robes at $3=$120.00
NO. 5.—COMMON SIOUX, ASSINIBOIN, OR CROW DRESS
White blanket 3 robes
Blue cloth cotillion or green cloth 2 robes
Scarlet cloth leggings 1 robe
-------
6 robes at $3=$18.00
NO. 6.—WINTER DRESS
Buffalo robe 1 robe
Dressed cowskin cotillion 1 robe
Dressed cowskin leggings and shoes 1 robe
-------
3 robes at $3=$9.00
NO. 7.—WINTER DRESS—CROWS
Buffalo robe much garnished with porcupine quills 4 robes
Big Horn cotillion trimmed with scarlet and
ornamented with porcupine quills 3 robes
Leggings of elk skin, fringed and worked with quills 2 robes
Wrist, ear, and neck ornaments, say 3 robes
--------
12 robes at $3=$36.00
There are many other dresses worn, differing in cost according to the
ornaments or labor bestowed on them, and the foregoing are varied
with their fancy and means; some therefore would cost high and others
merely a trifle. Those of mounted warriors, for dances, soldiers, etc.,
are still more valuable owing to the war eagle feathers and other
decorations. It is difficult to determine the cost and durability of
each costume. The cost has been stated, but every Indian can dress
only according to his means, which, if sufficient, will adorn his
clothing with ornaments to a great extent; but if limited, he must be
contented with such materials for covering as are yielded by the skins
of the animals that furnish him with food; consequently every shade
and variety of dress is visible among them. Some portions of these
dresses are only worn on occasions, while others are retained all the
time, and wear out the sooner. As an ordinary rule, Indians, both male
and female, renew their clothing of European manufacture every spring,
though the portions discarded are cut up for leggings, breech flaps,
hunting caps, gun wadding, etc.
It may be said to last six months if worn while hunting, or a year if
only used at times, in traveling and while idle, as is comparatively
the case in the summer season. A complete suit of skin will last the
whole year round, its actual cost being only the labor of dressing, and
as time in the summer is of no value to them it may be said to cost in
reality nothing if not ornamented. Blankets and cloth are not damaged
by wet but do not resist the cold. Skins are impervious to cold and
wind but are destroyed by being wet, hence the necessity and advantage
of wearing the one in summer and the other in winter, independent of
the filthy nature of skins when long worn, and of the capability of
woolens to be cleansed by washing. The dress of a mounted warrior (pl.
76), as in battle or in the dance, would be as follows, the cost being
estimated as before:
MOUNTED WARRIOR’S DRESS
Buffalo robe painted with battle scenes and garnished with porcupine
quills; best; 6 robes $18.00
Skin shirt and leggings garnished with human hair and porcupine
quills, valued at 1 horse or 10 robes 30.00
War-eagle feather cap, largest kind; price, 2 horses, 10 robes each 60.00
Necklace of bear’s claws wrought on otter skin, 6 robes 18.00
Feathers of the war eagle on shield, lance, and horse, 10 robes 30.00
Garnished moccasins, 1 robe 3.00
Shell ear ornaments, 4 robes 12.00
------
Total 171.00
Another fancy dress would cost as follows:
Scarlet blanket, 4 robes, at $3 $12.00
Beads on same, 10 robes 30.00
Skin shirt and leggings garnished with porcupine quills and trimmed
with ermine, 20 robes 60.00
Bear’s-claw necklace, 6 robes 18.00
Soldier’s cap of magpie feathers, tipped with red and fringed with
ermine, 10 robes 30.00
Brass-wire arm bands, 3 robes 9.00
Eagle feathers on lance and shield, 6 robes 18.00
Shell ear ornaments and moccasins, 4 robes 12.00
------
Total 189.00
Both of the above dresses are principally of their own manufacture;
yet if a trader wishes to purchase them he has great difficulty in
doing so, even by paying the above prices in merchandise, of which
they always stand in need; indeed, they seldom can be induced to part
with them on any terms unless forced to sell to supply some reverse by
loss of property which has happened to their families. The reason is
that they are scarce, difficult to replace, and also it is the wish of
the warriors to wear them during their lives on all public occasions
and to be clothed with them when they die. Two tails of the war eagle
of 12 feathers each would be worth two horses if wrought into a cap,
or something more than a horse without. Usually the value of the tail
feathers of this bird among any of the tribes of whom we write is $2
each in merchandise in this country, or 15 feathers for a horse.
Ten ermine skins will also bring a horse among the Crow Indians, and
100 elk teeth are worth as much, there being but two teeth in each elk
which are suitable, and the tail feathers of the war eagle are the only
ones used. The elk are not killed in great numbers by any one hunter,
so that much time and bargaining are required for an individual to
collect 300, the number usually wrought on a Crow woman’s dress. The
eagles are scarce and difficult to catch; hence the value of these two
ornaments.
The men in their homes in their own country at night divest themselves
of their moccasins, leggings, and blanket capot (if any), retaining
only the breech flap, and covering themselves with their robe or
blanket; but when traveling, at war, in the chase, or encamped on the
borders of their enemy’s country no portions of clothing are taken
off at night; even their arms and accouterments are retained while
sleeping. In the summer season the women lay aside their leggings
and moccasins when going to bed, reserving only the petticoats, or
cotillion, as it is called in this country, and covering themselves
with the robe, but in the winter, or in traveling, no part of their
clothing is taken off. Young unmarried and as yet untouched women take
the precaution at night to wind around their dress a strong cord,
strapping the same tightly to their body and legs.
This is done by some of their female relatives, the cord being well
tied and wrapped around many times to prevent the consequences of any
mistakes on the part of young men as to the location of their bed,
which might happen if they entered during the night, or if they were
guests. It is considered a great credit to a young woman never to have
slept unbound as above previous to marriage. Saddles, billets of wood,
and parts of clothing taken off serve as pillows for the men. Provision
bales, wooden bowls, and baggage sacks answer the same purpose for
the women. Rawhides, saddle blankets, apishimos,[34] skins in hair,
with grass and twigs beneath form the bed, which is seldom longer than
two-thirds the sleeper, and about 3 feet wide.
[34] This appears to be a word adopted from the Cree or Chippewa
language. It means anything to lie on, as a bed.
ORNAMENTS
All Indians are excessively fond of display in ornaments. Indeed, as
may have been gathered from the preceding, the value of their dresses
depends entirely upon the nature and extent of these decorations. Small
round beads of all colors are used in adorning every portion of their
dress, as also agate for their ears, hair, neck, and wrists, but these
are by no means as valuable as several kinds of shells or as their
ornamenting with colored porcupine quills. A shell, called by the
traders Ioquois,[35] is sought after by them more eagerly than anything
else of the kind. They are procured on the coast of the Pacific and
find their way to our tribes across the mountains through the different
nations by traffic with each other until the Crows and Blackfeet get
them from some bands of the Snake and Flathead Indians with whom they
are at peace.
[35] Ioquois appears to be a loan word.
These shells are about 2 inches long, pure white, about the size of a
raven’s feather at the larger end, curved, tapering, and hollow, so
as to admit of being strung or worn in the ears of the women, worked
on the breast and arms of their cotillions, also adorn the frontlets
of young men, and are worth in this country $3 for every 10 shells.
Frequently three or four hundred are seen on some of the young Crow or
Blackfoot women’s dresses. The large blue or pearl California shell
was once very valuable and still is partially so. It is shaped like
an oyster shell and handsomely tinted with blue, green, and golden
colors in the inside. One of these used to be worth $20, but of late
years, owing to the quantity being introduced by the traders, the price
has depreciated to about half that amount. These shells they cut in
triangular pieces and wear them as ear pendants. Silver is worn in
the shape of arm and wrist bands. Hat bands, gorgets, brooches, ear
wheels, finger rings, and ear bobs are mostly in use among the Sioux,
the upper nations preferring shells. Other ornaments consist of elk
teeth, colored porcupine quills, and feathers of the white plover dyed.
Feathers of ravens, owls, hawks, and eagles, furs cut in strips and
wrought in various parts of their dress, besides a great variety of
trinkets and paints furnished by the traders, among which are brass
rings, brass and iron wire, beads, brass hair and breast plates, brass
and silver gorgets, wampum moons, hair pipe, St. Lawrence shells,
spotted sea shells, hawk bells, horse and sleigh bells, cock and
ostrich feathers, thimbles, gold and silver lace, etc.
PAINTS AND DYES
The principal paints sold them are Chinese vermilion, chrome yellow and
verdigris. Out of all these an Indian can please himself, and either
buy such as are mentioned, or use the shells, feathers, furs, etc.,
their own country and labor produces.
The native dyestuffs for coloring porcupine quills and feathers are
as follows: For yellow, they boil the article to be colored with the
moss found growing near the root of the pine or balsam fir tree. For
red, they in the same way use the stalk of a root called we-sha-sha,
the English name of which is unknown to us. They have also some
earths and ochers, which by boiling impart a dull red, violet, and
blue color, but we are unacquainted with the process and their names
in any other language except the Indian. Their native dyes, however,
with the exception of the yellow, are superseded by those introduced
by the traders, with all but the Crow Indians, who living near and in
the Rocky Mountains find several coloring herbs and mineral substances
unknown to the other tribes, which produce much better colors than
these mentioned. At the present day they all mostly use the clippings
of different colored blankets and cloth, which by boiling with the
substance to be dyed, communicates the tint of the cloth to it in some
degree. Thus rose, green, pale blue, and violet colors are obtained.
For black they boil the inner papers in which Chinese vermilion is
enveloped.
TATTOOING
Tattooing is much practiced by all these tribes, and a great variety of
figures are thus painted, sometimes in spots on the forehead, stripes
on the cheeks and chin, rings on the arms and wrists; often the whole
of the breast as low down as the navel, with both arms, is covered with
drawings in tattoo. It is a mark of rank in the men, distinguishing
the warrior when elaborately executed, and as the operation is one
requiring the pay of one or two horses, it proves the person’s parents
to have been sufficiently rich to afford that mark of distinction
imprinted on their children, whether male or female. It is usually done
on females at the age of 12 to 14 years, is only exhibited on them in
the form of a round spot in the middle of the forehead, stripes from
the corners and middle of the mouth down to the chin, occasionally
transversely over the cheek, and rings around the wrist and upper
parts of the arms. On them it is merely designed as ornament. Men are
tattooed entire after having struck their first enemy, but smaller
marks of this kind are also only ornamental. The material employed
and the modus operandi are as follows: Red willow and cedar wood are
burned to charcoal, pulverized, and mixed with a little water. This is
the blue coloring matter. From four to six porcupine quills or needles
are tied together with sinew. These are enveloped in split feathers;
wrapping with sinew, until a stiff pencil about the size of a goose
quill is had, with the quills or needles projecting at the end. One
of the priests or divining men is then presented with a horse and
requested to operate. At the same time a feast of dried berries is
prepared, and a considerable number of elderly men invited to drum and
sing. When all are assembled the feast is eaten with much solemnity and
invocations to the supernatural powers.
The person to be tattooed is then placed on his back, being stripped
naked, and the operator being informed of the extent of the design
to be represented, proceeds to mark an outline with the ink, which,
if correct, is punctured with the instrument above alluded to, so as
to draw blood, filling up the punctures with the coloring matter as
he goes along, by dipping the needles therein and applying them. The
drumming and singing is kept up all the time of the operation which,
with occasional stops to smoke or eat, occupies from two to two and
a half days, when the whole of the breast and both arms are to be
tattooed; and the price for the operation is generally a horse for each
day’s work.
BADGES OF OFFICE
There are no badges of office that we are aware of. These marks belong
to kinships and appear only in their dress in the different dances,
apart from which nothing is seen denoting official station. Rank is
known by the devices drawn on their robes; that is, to a warrior who
has struck an enemy and stolen horses is accorded the privilege of
wearing a robe adorned with a representation of these acts; he is also
entitled to make the impression of a hand dipped in red paint on his
lodge or person, to wear hair on his shirt and leggings, and two war
eagle’s feathers on his head. After making many coups he arrives at
the degree of camp soldier[36] and is known on public occasions by the
addition to the above of the war-eagle cap or bear’s claw necklace,
which, together with the advantage of publishing his feats in the
dances and other ceremonies, establishes his standing among his people.
[36] This is the term explained in footnote 12, p. 436.