Creation, though they do not attempt to embody this idea, and call it
by name Wah-con-tun´-ga or Great Medicine.[19] The word “medicine”
in this case has no reference to the use of drugs, but the sense of
it is all that is incomprehensible, supernatural, all-powerful, etc.
Everything that can not be explained, accounted for by ordinary means,
or all that is above the comprehension and power of man (Indians)
is called Wah-con or medicine. Thus their own priests or jugglers
are named Wah-con. A steamboat, clock, machine, or even toys, of
the movements of which or the principle of motion they could not
account for, would likewise be termed Wah-con. Now, Wa-coñda refers
to something greater than is within the power of man to accomplish,
and its effects are manifested in the elements, natural phenomena,
sickness, death, great distress, or loss from enemies, famine,
lightning, and any other thing to them unaccountable by any visible
means. They think Wakoñda pervades all air, earth, and sky; that it is
in fact omnipresent and omnipotent, though subject to be changed and
enlisted on their part in any undertaking if the proper ceremonies,
sacrifices, and fasts are resorted to. They consider its power to be
made applicable to either good or evil according to their observance
of these ceremonies. They admit the existence of its good in years
of great abundance of game, seasons of general health, triumphs over
enemies, etc.; and its evil or danger is felt in every loss, infectious
disease, or distress, the cause of which they are ignorant. These are
the attributes of Wakoñda, and his residence is supposed by some to be
in the sun, but his power everywhere.
[19] Denig here defines the sense In which he uses the term “medicine”
as applied to the objects and things to which the native Indians
apply their words, _wakoñ_ and _wakoñda_, meaning, “spiritual, sacred,
consecrated, wonderful, incomprehensible, divine; a spirit, a diviner,
etc.”
They do not acknowledge any separate existing evil spirit or influence,
though they have a name for this in their language, but the idea
has been implanted by whites in later years, and can not by them be
realized. All unaccountable evil is a dispensation of the anger of
Wakoñda, which it is in their power to avoid by the proper fasts,
sacrifices, etc., and which they all do.
Now this Supernatural Unknown Cause or Mystery created all things
in the beginning. After the earth a few men and women of different
colors were made, from whom descended all people. Different races
were created for different pursuits. They say that to the whites was
allotted education, knowledge of the mechanical arts, of machinery,
etc., and therefore the whites in many things are Wah-con. They were
also made rich and clothed, or have the means of getting clothing, and
everything they want without hardship or exposure. The Indians, they
say, were made naked and with such qualifications as to suit a hunter,
knowledge enough to make his arms and use them at war or in the chase,
a constitution to stand severe cold, long fasting, excessive fatigue,
and watchfulness, and this was their portion. The position and pursuits
of people were not defined by any laws, oral or otherwise delivered,
but each with the powers granted him was enabled to live. The hunter
soon found out that he could make traps and weapons, and felt his
superiority over the animal creation.
They believe all animals are made for the use of man and more
especially for the Indians, their meat being for food and their skin
for clothing, “for” say they, “if not for that use for what other
purpose?” Indians must have meat, and they eat all animals and birds,
even to the crow and rattlesnake.[20] The prairie (the earth) was made
for grazing the buffalo, and rivers to produce fuel, etc. The whites
from their superior knowledge soon found out their destiny—to make
everything, subdue everything, and make even the Indians work for
their benefit. People were left in this state and each pursued their
different occupations.
[20] The Assiniboin never eat the rattlesnake, but it is known that
some of the St. Peter’s Sioux and Cree do.
We can not trace in any of their conversations or religion any
appearance of a moral code nor any offenses they can be guilty of
toward Wakoñda except the omission of worship. If they had an idea
of the kind they would undoubtedly do penance and offer sacrifices
for these acts, but this is not the case. There is no repentance for
past deeds; all ceremonies and worship is to avoid present or future
evil. What we term crime can not be an offense to Wakoñda, as its
aid is invoked to commit the greatest of them. Their idea of Wakoñda
or Great Unknown Power is, we believe, nothing more than the fear of
evil befalling them, the averting of which is beyond the power of man.
Therefore they make sacrifices, fasts, prayers, etc., to this Unknown
Power which they know from actual phenomena has an existence, and think
His aid can thus be secured.
But they can go no further. They have no idea of a Being whose
attributes are mercy, forgiveness, benevolence, truth, justice,
etc., nor will they have until these words have a signification and
appreciation among themselves. This view is the correct and general
one among all the prairie tribes, though it is often clothed in
superstitious narrative of fable not necessary to be inserted here.
War and peace would not be recognized as His special acts, as they
know these things depend upon themselves, but success or defeat
would be, as that is beyond their power or knowledge when they start
to war. Consequently, a successful warrior or leader is always said
to be Wah-con or divine—that is, one who has by some means secured
the aid of Wakoñda. Natural phenomena unattended by either good or
evil results would pass by unnoticed, but destructive tornadoes,
deaths by lightning, by diseases such as apoplexy or unaccountable
accidents would be regarded as His special acts. Eclipses, thunder,
and lightning are warnings, and to these sacrifices are made with the
view of averting the danger intimated, yet unknown. From this dread of
unaccountable evil arises their repugnance to talk on the subject. To
do so would lay open their secrets of apprehensions, of sacrifices, and
might, they think, by levity produce the evil they wish to avoid or a
counterpoise of sacrifice on the part of some one else render theirs
unavailing.
For the further explanation of this subject it will be proper to state
some of thier sacrifices and ceremonies so that a minute survey of
the operations of their minds can be realized. The greatest public
or national ceremony of the Assiniboin is the Sacred Lodge. The
time for this is appointed by some divining man of known repute and
invitations are sent to the different camps to attend. Lodges are
placed in the form of a long tent by posts planted a few yards apart
and others transversely, over which are stretched many lodge skins to
form one building about 100 yards long and 5 or 6 yards wide. To these
transverse poles are tied all offerings to Wakoñda, though principally
to the Sun and Thunder. These offerings consist of skins of value,
different kinds of cloth, beads, kettles, and any new articles the
donator can afford and is willing to sacrifice, in proportionate value
as their wishes to effect some object or to avoid some danger they
apprehend exists. A mast about 40 feet high is raised in front of the
building and the raising of this requires the presence of all the men
and women, who all the time sing a kind of hymn or tune, though no
words are used in it. This, mast is painted and decked out very gaily.
All are dressed in their very best raiment and the whole presents a
lively and interesting appearance. The divining man who called the
meeting on the first day goes through many prayers and ceremonies with
the pipe, the tenor of which are invocations for general health and
success both in war and the chase, and for the avoiding of any and all
unknown evil or accidents.
The second day is devoted to dancing and feasting on the very best they
can produce, and this is the only dance among them except the scalp
dance where men and women dance together. On the third day is exhibited
feats of sleight of hand and tricks, some of which are very well done
and serve to increase their belief in the supernatural powers of the
divining men who perform them. On the fourth day these sacrifices are
taken down, destroyed in such manner as to be of no use to anyone who
finds them, and hung on different trees or bushes in the neighborhood.
The divining man who called the meeting receives presents from a good
many who attend, of horses and other property, and it generally proves
a good speculation on his part. This is done but once a year and is
their only form of national worship.
The common way in which sacrifices are made by individuals is thus:
The Indian takes some article of value alone into the hills or woods,
lights the pipe, and invokes the aid of Wakoñda in whatever he desires
to succeed, promising a repetition on a certain time.[21] This article
is then damaged or destroyed and left there. After this he returns to
his lodge, kills a dog, makes a feast, and invites his neighbors, by
whom the flesh is eaten and small portions thrown on the ground as a
respect to Wakoñda. It does not appear, however, that the killing and
eating of the animal is considered as part of the sacrifice further
than to add to the importance of the ceremony.
[21] This fetish or amulet is also exposed and smoked to as a medium
for his prayer to the Great Medicine.
A feast of corn, flour, or berries is as often used on these occasions
as animal flesh. The article sacrificed must be something of value,
must have caused the Indian some trouble or expense to procure;
otherwise it is of no avail. On one occasion an Indian bought at this
place the following three articles at the price of six buffalo robes,
viz., two kettle covers, a ball that had been shot out of a gun, and
a chew of tobacco that had been thrown away. Now, although he could
have procured any of these articles for nothing in his own camp, yet
according to his promise to Wakoñda he was obliged to pay a high price
and to travel a long distance to procure them.
Every warrior or man of family among them makes these sacrifices
whenever he feels disposed, or their promises to Wakoñda become due,
and if they do not fulfill these promises or neglect these ceremonies
they are punished, or at least any accident, loss, or failure would
be attributed to this cause, that could not be accounted for by any
other. Another mode resorted to of propitiating the anger of Wakoñda or
securing his aid is fasting and cutting their bodies. This is not much
practiced by the Assiniboin except for success in war.
Several principal warriors will lie out in the cold, rain, or snow
for three or four days and nights, without eating, drinking, smoking,
or speaking, making internal prayers to Wakoñda to aid them in
accomplishing their objects and the dreams that present themselves
under these circumstances are received as favorable or unfavorable
omens according to the nature of the visions presented. This is done
by those who are desirous of leading a war party or becoming capable
to lead by some great exploit, and the leader chosen is he whose dream
appears to present the greatest appearance of success. These fasts are
sometimes accompanied by cutting the breast with a knife horizontally
or the arms transversely above the elbow, making incisions about 3 or
4 inches long and half an inch deep, which are not bound up. Among
the Mandan and Gros Ventres these ceremonies are still more severe.
Incisions are made on each side of the shoulder blade on the back and
a stout stick is thrust through. A cord is then attached to the stick
and they are drawn up off their feet to a post planted for the purpose.
By an impetus given with their feet they throw themselves out from the
post and swing themselves around violently until the cord winds and
unwinds successively, for one or two days, when the hold breaks and
they fall to the ground.
If not already too much weakened, new incisions are made and cords
10 or 12 feet long are tied therein. To the ends of these cords are
attached three or four buffalo bulls’ heads and horns, each weighing
from 15 to 20 pounds, and they drag this weight over the ground, the
horns plowing it up until the holds break, or fainting from exhaustion
they are carried away by their relatives. Nothing is eaten or drunk
during all this time.[22]
[22] We perceive by the printed inquiry that this is not credited, yet
it is so common among these people as scarcely to attract the attention
of the traders.
These and other ceremonies are what they think appeases the anger,
averts the evil, or secures the aid of Wakoñda or Great Mystery. They
are not made with the view of any atonement whatever for bad deeds,
neither with the object of purifying their minds for communion with
him or it, but as a payment. The idea is that he who undergoes so much
voluntary punishment or pain, or destroys so much property to him
valuable, entitles him to the protection of that unknown power and that
it can and will favor those who thus remember and worship him.
They have no idea of national and individual atonement, nor that any
person was to or has come on earth to answer for them. To make this
idea reasonable to them they would first have to be taught that they
are guilty of crime and a correct knowledge of the attributes of the
Great Mystery, together with a moral sense of justice. To do this the
entire regeneration of the grown Indian must be brought about, which it
would be little less than a miracle to accomplish.
They would, to please any missionary, give a tacit consent to his
creed, whatever it was. Knowing him to be an educated and superior
man, not striving after personal gain, they would be induced to give
it a trial, but would continue their own ceremonies at the same time
in secret, and any failure of their expectations would be blamed on
the missionary. They might actually appear to him converted by outward
show, but their minds would undergo no change, unless it was to become
more confused and skeptical. This is the reason why all attempts at
reformation should be made with their children. Abstract truth will
not admit of general application, without taking into consideration
the existing state of things. The necessity of law must be felt before
it would avail; their ignorance made manifest before truth could be
introduced; a moral sense of justice and of their depravity implanted
before moral rectitude can be expected.
Horses sacrificed on an Indian’s grave are an offering to the Great
Mystery to conduct the soul of the departed immediately to the south,
where the Indian Paradise is said to be situated, and also includes a
desire that the Great Mystery should supply the place of the deceased
parent, as a father and protector. Dogs and other animals that are
killed in sacrifice, are eaten by those invited, and only appear to be
part of the ceremony, not of the sacrifice. The entrails of the animal
thus killed are neither eaten nor burned, but thrown away as on any
other occasion.
In eating these feasts small bits are thrown on the ground with these
words: “This to Wakoñda to keep us from, harm,” “This to the Sun,”
“This to the Thunder,” or to some of their dead relatives, and these
ejaculations are uttered in a very low voice, not always audible. They
offer no human sacrifices to Wakoñda, neither do their traditions
mention their forefathers to have done so. Though enemies are tortured
to death in many ways, yet it is only to satisfy their revenge and
thirst for savage glory. Within the last year several of these acts
have been committed a short distance from this place, which to convey
an idea of we may mention here. Five Blackfeet were caught stealing
horses from the Crow village in the spring of 1853, then at the mouth
of the Yellowstone River, and the enemies were pursued a mile or so,
when they took refuge in a cluster of bushes. The Crows surrounded them
and by constant firing killed all except one, who was shot through
the leg. This man they took out alive, scalped, and cut his hands
off, gathered their boys around who fired into his body with powder,
striking him in the face with his own scalp, and knocking on his head
with stones and tomahawks until he died. Afterwards the five bodies
were carried to camp, the heads, hands, feet, and privates cut off,
paraded on poles, and thrown around the camp, some of which found
their way to the fort, and were presented by the Crows to the Cree
Indians then here.
A few weeks before the period at which we write some Blackfeet stole
horses from the Cree camp, were pursued and 11 out of the 12 of which
the party consisted were killed. The remaining one was taken alive,
scalped, his right hand cut off, and thus started back to his own
nation to tell the news. Now as this man was leaving the Cree camp he
met a Cree[23] boy whom he managed to kill with his remaining hand, was
pursued and taken the second time, and was tortured to death by slow
mutilation.
[23] Evidently should be Blackfeet.
The trunks are generally burned, but all the members and the head are
carried about the camp, if near, and insulted by the old women and
boys in every possible manner. The Sioux, Assiniboin, and Cree will on
occasions tear out the heart of an enemy, place it on a stick and roast
it before the fire, dance around, sing, and each bite off and swallow
a small piece. There are no religious associations attending these
acts, and they are not made with the view of appeasing the anger or of
sacrifices to the Great Mystery; neither do their words and actions on
these occasions imply any such idea; all is insult to the dead enemy,
and savage glory and revenge to themselves.
The moral character of their priests or doctors does not differ in any
respect from that of ordinary Indians, which have by this time been
seen to possess no such qualities as sobriety, truth, etc. Whether they
actually believe in their own powers we can not say, but rather think
they do. Perhaps some strokes of fortune or remarkable coincidences
have produced this belief, or they may think that the pains and
exertions they use may induce the Wakoñda to aid them. We have already
noticed this class of priests in their medical capacity, and will now
state their other qualifications. They wear no badge of office, are
either of the male or female sex, are not hereditary, nor is their
number limited. As many as are believed to be Wa-con, or Divine, and
are willing to run the risk attending the profession, do so. They are
all called by the same general name of Wa-con, independent of their
individual or real name. They affect to cure diseases, reveal future
events, direct where lost articles are to be found, interpret dreams,
etc. The ceremony attending any of these things (except sickness) is
conducted by the medicine man, first being paid for his services.
Afterwards he enters a small lodge built for the purpose, like the
vapor bath and drums, rattles and sings alone the greater part of the
night, returning his answer to those concerned in the morning. These
answers partake of the nature of those of the ancient oracles, are
ambiguous, with the view of evading decided failure. They do not claim
the power of witchcraft, as this is a dangerous profession, but this
power is ascribed to them by the other Indians.
The majority of these people believe, or say they believe, that some of
these old conjurors can “shoot them with bad spells” (as they express
it) at the distance of 100 miles off, and it is on the assumption that
they are the cause of some of their deaths, that the lives of these
professors are sometimes forfeited. We believe their confidence in the
powers of these priests and medicine men is pretty general, though
some of them (the priests) are more divine or Wa-con than others. When
an Indian is sick they endeavor to cure him, as has been stated, and
if unsuccessful and death ensues they usually keep out of sight until
the first bursts of grief are over. Others of the same profession who
have not been called to administer to the patient attend the funeral,
their object being to secure whatever property they can by loud crying,
cutting their hair and bodies, and other display of profound grief.
Nothing resembling a prayer is said over the dead at the burial nor
anything spoken. Indeed, on account of their loud lamentations it
would be impossible to hear it if it were. Some weeks afterwards,
however, other ceremonies take place regarding the dead which will be
described in another place. The body is placed in the fork of a tree,
on a scaffold, or occasionally interred on the top of a high hill. No
device, inscription, or hieroglyphics are made at or near the place of
interment by any of these nations.
As far as we have proceeded with their religion, belief is the general
one, though it may be clothed in different language by different
Indians, sometimes superstitious and fabulous, but our object has been
to arrive at the philosophy of their religion by rejecting fables,
etc., which do not bear upon the inquiry.
From this point all other religion diverges into different minor
beliefs and superstitions according to the fancy of each individual.
Many believe in certain evil spells and troubles brought on them by
lesser spirits or ghosts and even of the spirits of monsters which
have no existence nor ever had except in their dreams and morbid
imagination. It appears that these ghosts are the cause of all petty
malice, vexations, or bad luck, not being of sufficient consequence to
attract the attention or induce the influence of Wakoñda. To relate
the different kinds of belief in these powers as each would explain
it would require the labor of years, and it is somewhat difficult to
generalize, owing to the prevailing differences. Under some of the
answers that will follow regarding charms, amulets, ghosts, etc., will
be detailed enough in conjunction with what has already been stated to
form a tolerably connected idea of this feature of their faith.
Sorcery or witchcraft has already been noticed, but we may in addition
state that the witchcraft imputed to some of their doctors is their
power to do evil at a great distance from the object, to produce death
or disease, though they do not believe these persons can transform
themselves into other shapes; think they can exercise the same power to
do good if they choose, and do exercise it in curing the sick. It is in
consequence of this belief that the doctor or divining man is punished
in case of failure and death, as they think it is his unwillingness,
not his inability, to cure which produces the result. They do not burn
them, but the writer has seen several shot at different times by the
relatives of the deceased, on the supposition they caused their death.
This custom is in as great force now as it ever was.
The divining man has a chance to become rich in horses and other
property in a short time, as his fees depend on himself; but these
advantages are more than counterbalanced by the risk attending the
profession. The doctor, priest, conjuror, wizard, prophet, and divining
man are all united in the same person; that is, to a divining man
(Wa-con), or divining woman (Wa-can), these powers, or some of them,
are ascribed, and they are believed to possess them in proportion as
their success has been developed. Some are simply doctors of medicine,
others in addition are conjurors and do tricks. Some go further,
interpret dreams, reveal the future, find lost articles, etc. The whole
united forms the entire divining man. The persons who profess and
perform some of these things are tolerably numerous; but the effective
diviner of established reputation, large practice, and possessing the
whole of the foregoing powers are very few, perhaps not more than six
or eight in the whole Assiniboin Nation. As has been observed, they
form no distinct body and have but little influence in council unless
they can add that of warrior to their many distinguished titles and
degrees.
The whole of these Indians most sincerely believe in the theory of
ghosts, that departed spirits have the power to make themselves visible
and heard, that they can assume any shape they wish, of animals or men,
and many will affirm that they have actually seen these apparitions
and heard their whistlings and moanings. They are much afraid of these
appearances, and under no consideration will go alone near a burial
place after dark. They believe these apparitions have the power of
striking the beholder with some disease, and many complaints are
attributed to this cause. They therefore make feasts and prayers to
them to remain quiet. Smaller evils and misfortunes are caused by their
power, and a great many stories are nightly recounted in their lodges
of the different shapes in which they appear.