other nations. Even those with whom they have for a long time been at
peace they look upon suspiciously and seldom act together in a large
body. We have known, however, a combination of Cree, Chippewa, and
Assiniboin, consisting of 1,100 men, who, having met in council, went
to war upon the Blackfeet. The council was formed by the Cree and
Chippewa sending tobacco to the Assiniboin during the winter, to meet
them at a certain place the ensuing spring, where, after deliberating
the matter at home, they went and formed the above-named expedition. It
is the misfortune of all large bodies of Indians formed of different
nations to meet with failure. They can not act in a body. Jealousies
arise between the soldiers of the different nations, often quarrels,
and always separations and defeat of the object. The evil appears to
be the want of a commander in chief whom all are content to follow and
obey; also their ignorance and unwillingness to submit to discipline,
restraint, or subordination. Opinions clash, rank is interfered with,
rebellion, dissatisfaction, and consequent separation follows; or
should any considerable body keep on, their march is conducted in such
a disorderly manner that their enemies have time and notice to enable
them to hide or prepare for them. These tribes are not yet far enough
advanced in civil organization to enable them to unite for any great
purpose, excepting their mutual and general interest require it. The
only way they could and do accomplish anything of importance at war by
combination is by each nation, being headed and commanded by their own
leaders and going to war upon the general enemy at different times and
entirely independent of each other. This increases the number of war
expeditions and annoys the enemy from different quarters, but does not
give them the advantage of bringing large armies into the field.
PRIVATE RIGHT TO TAKE LIFE.—Every Indian believes he has a right to
his own life and consequently to defend it. There being no persons
or body whose duty it is to punish crime, trespass, or insult, each
individual is taught when a boy, and by experience when a man, to
rely entirely on himself for redress or protecting his person,
family, and property. Every one is thus constituted his own judge,
jury, and executioner. Whether the person wronged is right in his
means of redress does not matter. He thinks he is right and risks the
consequences of retaliation. Every Indian being armed induces the
necessity of each using arms; therefore when an Indian strikes, stabs,
shoots, or attempts to do these things it is always with an intent to
kill, knowing if he misses his aim or only wounds, the other revenges
either on the spot or after, as occasion requires or opportunity
offers. Therefore he can not act otherwise. This being the state of
things, quarrels are not so common as might be supposed. When it is
universally known that a blow or a trespass would entail death as its
consequence they are avoided, or if unavoidable each endeavors to
gain an advantage over the other by acting treacherously or waiting a
favorable time when he least expects it to kill or strike him, stating
for his reason that if he had not killed him the other only waited the
same opportunity against himself. A fair chance to kill or strike does
not always present itself. The relations may be too numerous on one
side, and the object of contention (be it a horse or a woman) is given
up for the time by the weaker party, apparently willingly, yet he only
waits until their situations are reversed to seek redress. When a man
has killed another, if the relatives of the deceased are more numerous
than his own, he flies to a distant part of the country, joins another
band and seeks protection there, where he is not sought by the next of
kin at the time, but will be killed whenever they meet. In the meantime
the relatives of the offender pay much to stop the quarrel.
If the killed and the killer are both of the same band and equally
strong in relationship perhaps nothing would be done at the time as the
rest of camp would endeavor to stop a skirmish, and a good many guns,
horses, and other property would be raised and presented the relatives
of the deceased to stop further bloodshed. This generally concludes an
amnesty or respite for the time, but the revenge must be accomplished
at some time by the next of kin, otherwise it would be a great disgrace
to him or them. An opportunity to kill the offender with comparative
safety is then sought, perhaps for years, or as long as any of that
generation lives. Time and absence may have the effect of giving the
murderer a chance to die in some other way or of diminishing the force
of the revenge so that he does not find himself in a position to act
with any degree of safety when an occasion offers. Yet, if of standing
in camp, and a brother, father, or brother-in-law to the deceased,
he is bound to revenge at some time, though they make no scruple to
receive presents of horses, etc., to refrain in the meantime. Thus the
death of a man is never paid for by that generation, though by that
means the revenge may be delayed for some years, which is all they can
do except surrendering up their relative to the incensed party, which
would not for a moment be thought of. We have known three or four
horses to be given on the instant by the friends of the offender to
those of the deceased and the same to be repeated yearly for two to six
years and more, yet still revenge was consummated. On one occasion I
asked the man why he killed the other after so long a time and taking
property as payment from his relatives and friends. He answered that
the pay was well enough as long as the culprit kept out of his sight;
that remuneration only destroyed the disposition to seek him out and
kill him, although it did not affect the right to revenge if he was
fool enough, to thrust himself in his way.
When he saw him his blood boiled, his heart rose up, and he could
not help it. Besides (he observed) he was obliged to kill him, as
the other, being afraid of him, would do the same to him to save his
own life. Thus the killing of one induces the necessity of killing
another, and there is no end to the affair. The other party are
obliged to retaliate and so on through several generations. In this
way a good many of the family of the chief, Wah-he´ Muzza, have been
killed, and the smallpox settled the affair by taking off the offenders
on the other side. It will be inferred from this that vengeance is
not appeased by payment, absence, or the lapse of time, and in the
instances where retaliation has not followed after payment we believe
they may be ascribed to a decrease in the relationship of the deceased
or other domestic changes or reverses which render vengeance out
of their power, or too dangerous to accomplish, in which case the
relatives get over it by saying they have been paid or forgotten it,
yet at the same time would revenge, could they act with safety, or
even a chance of comparative safety. Sometimes, however, large offers
of recompense are rejected by the father or brothers of the deceased,
and the tender is then made to relatives not so closely connected, who
generally accept. Herein the cunning of the Indian is manifest. This is
a point gained. A negotiation is opened in the family of the deceased
and a difference of feeling established with regard to the offender,
slight to be sure, but it is there, and is worked by these distant
relatives to his advantage and their own, and opens a way through which
presents and overtures of compromise may be offered the brothers, etc.
But there is no dependence to be placed on anything a wild Indian does.
Neither do they depend on one another. They are suspicious in
everything, and more particularly so when life is at stake. In
these compromises no one is deceived—either he who takes or he who
receives—the minds of both are perfectly known to each other, the
object of the one party being to gain time, and of the other to lull
suspicion and make the offender and his relatives poor by accepting
their property.
We think we have presented their customs in this respect in their true
light, viz., that although the compromise be effected and vengeance for
the time suspended, yet the feeling is not changed or the right to
punish relinquished; but time may make such a change on either part as
to render revenge impracticable. There is no recognized principle or
means of escape for the murderer unless it be to flee and join another
nation with whom they are at peace, marry and remain there.
It will now be necessary to state that the Crow Indians are better
regulated in this respect than any of the prairie tribes. Private
murders are nearly unknown among them. Our knowledge of this nation
from certain sources extends through a period of 40 years and in all
that time but one Indian was killed by his own people. The offender
absconded and remained with the Snake Nation for 12 years, when he
returned, but was obliged again to leave, and since has not been heard
of. Stealing women or otherwise seducing others’ wives is revenged
by the party offended taking every horse and all private property
the offender owns, and in this he meets with no contention. It is
considered a point of honor to let everything be taken but keep the
woman. Now this nation has from 40 to 80 and sometimes 100 horses to
a lodge, and a large haul is made by the husband of the woman, in
company with his relatives. If the transgressor has no property that
of his nearest relatives is taken, and is suffered to be taken away
unmolested. After the excitement is somewhat over, these horses are
bought back by the relatives of the offender, each giving two, three,
or more as the case happens, which they hand over to him, who in the
course of time gets the most of his property returned.
All smaller quarrels or misdemeanors are paid in the same way, though
not so high, but they never strike or kill each other, yet are addicted
to using personal abuse and invective freely. Our gentleman in charge
of that nation states that he has seen the two principal bands of Crow
Indians, over 200 lodges, abusing and throwing stones at each other all
day, the Yellowstone River being between them. No damage could happen,
as the missiles could not be thrown a fourth of the distance, yet not a
shot was fired, although balls would reach, and this force was headed
by the two principal chiefs of that nation. In all the regulations
of these Indians (the Crows) we can discern great natural goodness of
heart, and absence of any useless barbarity and bloodshed except with
regard to their enemies, the males of whom they kill and cut to pieces,
but never kill women and children, whereas the Assiniboin, Sioux, and
Blackfeet kill everything. Very few feuds from polygamy result in
death, but should it so happen the other would be punished. If the
favorite wife had been killed, the least the other wife expected would
be a tomahawking, or an arrow shot into her, perfectly regardless as to
whether death would be the consequence or not. Women among Indians are
bought, paid for, and are the property of the purchaser the same as his
horses. Their lives are of course more valuable than those of animals,
and every Indian regrets the loss of his woman. Yet when he has bought
them he expects them to do their duty, not quarrel nor render his lodge
disagreeable, or if so they must expect to be severely punished.
Their lives are not, however, considered as valuable as men, nor are
they ever so much mourned for. When not bought, or unmarried, the
killing of a woman never happens and would be a great disgrace to any
man, though after marriage they are subject to the penalty of death
from different causes in which the man thinks he is justified.
Private debts are never settled by the chief, nor private disputes by
council. Advice may be given and taken, frequently is, though the usual
mode of settling trivial quarrels is by payment, and an invitation to a
feast. Everything except loss of life or personal chastisement can be
paid for among these Indians.
GAME LAWS, OR RIGHTS OF THE CHASE.—The roving tribes subsist by
hunting buffalo, and these animals being constantly on the move, they
are obliged to move after them. Therefore no particular section of
country is appointed to each as a hunting district.[14] There are,
however, certain regulations with regard to the hunting of these
animals which may as well be recorded here. A lodge or a few lodges
have no right to establish and hunt within 6, 8, or 10 miles from a
large camp, as by this the buffalo would be continually kept out of
the range of the latter, and a few people be the cause of distress and
starvation to the many. Therefore these obstructions are removed by the
soldiers. When hunting by surround has been agreed upon, individual
hunting is stopped for the same reason, and has met with explanation.
This is also the duty of the soldiers. Hunting deer, elk, beaver, etc.,
being of little consequence to these Indians, each one exercises his
pleasure in regard to these occupations. No right to any section of
country is claimed by any person to the exclusion of others. Should an
Indian wound a deer and not follow, and another pursue and kill it, the
former would have no right to either skin or meat, having relinquished
that right by abandoning the wounded animal. But should he be following
and arrive where the other has killed it, the hide and half the meat
would be his share. As a general rule he who draws the first blood of
the animal is entitled to the hide. This is often difficult to settle
when large buffalo surrounds are made on horseback with the bow and
arrow. Several hundreds of animals are slain in the course of an hour
or so, and some have the arrows of different Indians in them. Each
Indian, by his own mark, knows his arrow, but the matter of dispute is
whose arrow struck first? Therefore who is entitled to the hide?
[14] The statement here militates against any claim of private
ownership of hunting grounds among these tribes.
All that prevents this from being often the cause of serious quarrels
is that in large hunts a sufficient number or more is generally killed
than they can or do skin, and in smaller hunts the same confusion does
not occur. A wounded animal is also mostly pursued until killed, and
others usually pass by those that are stopped or have arrows sticking
into them. With regard to the meat all Indians are liberal. In a large
camp at least one-third of the men have no horses that they can catch.
There are also a good many old, infirm widows, etc., all of whom
must be fed. Every one who can, men and women, turn out and follow
the horsemen to the hunt; and, even while the hunt is going on at a
distance, commence cutting up the first buffalo they come to. The hide
is taken off, and laid aside with the arrow found in it. The tongue and
four of the choicest pieces are laid on the hide. This is the portion
of him who killed it; and the rest, which is the greater part of the
animal, is divided among those who skin it. This operation is going on
with numbers of buffalo at the same time, and by this division of labor
the hunters and all are ready to pack home their hides and meat nearly
as soon as the hunt is finished. In this way the hunters get as many
hides and as much meat as they can pack, and those who have not killed,
as much meat as they want. Whatever hides are remaining are given away
to those who have no horses to hunt with, and other poor people, and
all are satisfied and provided for. The soldiers’ lodge and others in
camp who have remained to guard the property in the absence of the
greater body of people are each supplied with meat by those who have
been at the hunt. Feasting is then commenced, and kept up day and night
until meat has become scarce, when another hunt follows. This method of
hunting is continued until they have hides and meat enough.
INDIAN TRADE
There is no doubt that the Indian trade has promoted the general cause
of civilization. Even within our recollection, tribes of Indians, from
being bloodthirsty robbers, have changed to orderly and civil people.
A foundation has been laid, and the road paved toward the civilization
of the prairie tribes, but nothing more. Stationary Indians have been
still further advanced. The few ideas of justice that are beginning
to be developed and the very first dawn of the light of knowledge
perceptible are in consequence of their traffic and communication with
the white trader. The introduction of firearms, articles of clothing,
utensils, and other articles manufactured by the whites must tend
to enlarge their ideas, set them to thinking, to show them their
uncultivated state, and to implant a desire to improve. Nevertheless
their progress is slow, more so with the Assiniboin than with any other
nations. They adhere with tenacity to old customs and superstitions,
which is vexatious and discouraging; but the Sioux, Mandan, Gros
Ventres, Cree, and Chippewa are undoubtedly much improved. The firm of
Pierre Chouteau, Jr., & Co., formerly the American Fur Co., has for
many years conducted the trade with all the Indians of the Missouri and
its tributaries, from Council Bluffs to the headwaters of the Missouri
and Yellowstone Rivers. The supplies for the trade are brought up each
spring and summer from St. Louis by steamboat and distributed at the
different forts along the Missouri River as far as Fort Union, mouth
of the Yellowstone; from which point they are transported with keel
boats to Fort Benton, near the mouth of Maria River, in the Blackfoot
country. From these forts or depots the merchandise is carried into the
interior in different ways, to wherever the Indians request trading
houses to be established.
The traders generally bear the character of trustworthy men and the
nature of the barter for robes and other skins is such that the Indian
receives what he considers an equivalent for his labor or he would
not hunt. There is no way in the nature of the business by which an
Indian can be made to hunt, nor any means of getting his skins without
paying a fair price. Should the merchandise be placed too high to be
easily purchased by them they would and can dispense with nearly all
the articles of trade. On the contrary should the price be too low
the business could not be continued; the prospects of gain not being
equivalent to the risk of the adventure or capital employed it would be
abandoned. Consequently a medium is and must be established whereby are
secured the advantage and comfort of the Indian and a tolerably fair
prospect of gain for the trader. The trade, when carried on without
competition, is in many respects a highly respectable and important
occupation. Therefore the Hudson’s Bay Co. have received the title
of honorable from the way in which they conduct it; but it is only
because they are alone that they are able to conduct it in this orderly
manner.[15] The Indian trade does not admit of competition. The effects
of strong rival companies have been more injurious and demoralizing
to the Indians than any other circumstance that has come within our
knowledge, not even excepting the sale of ardent spirits among them.
This we could easily prove, but as no monopoly can be allowed by the
nature of our government it is useless. When the American Fur Co. were
alone in the country a trader’s word or promise to the Indians was
sacred, the Indians loved and respected their traders, and still do
some of the old stock, but since corruption has been carried on we look
in vain for that reliance on and good feeling toward traders which was
once the pride of both Indian and white.
[15] Perhaps this title has been bought, but at all events they deserve
it.
The manner in which the trade is conducted in its operations is this:
A party of Indians, many or few, leave their camp for the trading post,
packing on dogs and horses all their buffalo robes and other skins.
When within a mile or two of the houses, they stop and send a few
persons to the trader with an account of how many persons their party
is composed of, how many skins, etc., they have, and all general news.
These are furnished with tobacco and sent back with an invitation for
the party to come to the house or fort. If a leading chief is then with
a large party, the American flag is raised in the fort and cannon fired
when he arrives. On arrival they are received at the fort gate by the
interpreter, who conducts them to a large reception room. The dogs,
horses, etc., are unpacked and each Indian takes charge of his own
skins in the same room. They are then smoked (with the pipe), feasted
on coffee, bread, corn, etc., after which the principal men and chiefs
are called into the public office, when they are counciled with by
the gentleman in charge. Speeches on both sides are made, and if the
Indians have any complaints to make they now state them. The general
situation of the camp and trade is adverted to, prospects mentioned,
and prices of goods stated, with all other matters relating to their
affairs. When this is finished the store is opened and the trade
commenced. Several Indians can trade at the same time with different
traders, handing their robes and skins over the counter, and receiving
immediate payment in such articles as they wish. When all are done, a
small present of ammunition and tobacco is given them and in a day or
two they leave for their camp.
The place of outfit being in St. Louis, all returns of buffalo robes
and other furs are taken there also every spring and summer in
Mackinaw boats made at each fort for the purpose, and manned by the
voyageurs who came up on the steamboat the year previous. The risks are
numerous, both in bringing up the supplies in steamers and in taking
down the returns in Mackinaws. In the spring of 1819 this company lost
two steamboats in bringing up the supplies, one burned with the cargo
at St. Louis and the other snagged and sunk. Also the Mackinaws down
are often snagged and sunk, swamped, or the robes wetted by rain and
leakage. The loss of an ordinary boatload of robes would be $10,000,
and every year losses more or less are incurred in some way. From
experience we know that the chance of loss is equal to that of gain in
a given period of 10 years, yet should everything prove fortunate for a
length of time money would be made.
All men of family who turn their attention to hunting and collecting
skins and robes are shrewd and sensible enough in the trading of
them, sometimes too much so for some of the traders. Knowing the
value of merchandise and of what kind they stand in need, they make
their calculations of purchases before they leave their homes and any
additional article they can beg or otherwise get is so much additional
gain. They do not purchase useless articles. Goods of all kinds having
stated prices enables them to deal to a fraction, nevertheless they
will quibble and beat down the price if possible, even in the least
thing, and are generally successful in getting something out of the
trader in this way.
As for their debts, they will not pay. An Indian does not contract
a debt actually with the intention of deceiving; but before he has
the means to pay, new wants arise, his family wants clothing, he,
ammunition, etc.; in short, he is always in need, consequently never in
a situation to pay. Therefore they use every argument to get clear of
the debt, many of which are very ingenious, and if none will answer,
say they will not pay and that the trader has no business to trust
them. This being the case, but few credits are made. Whenever their
wants are too great, or means too small to enable them to hunt, the
articles are given them, though not credited. In the few instances
where credits are made the Indians keep no accounts whatever of them,
their object being to forget them as soon as possible; until they
have their memory refreshed of the disagreeable fact by a reference
of the clerk to his blotter. Our books are full of unpaid debts of
20 years’ standing, which would make a handsome fortune if the value
could be realized. There is no worse pay in the world, and a credit is
considered lost as soon as given, or if afterwards the trader receives
half pay he considers himself very fortunate. This being the case, no
runners are employed to collect, as in the Mississippi trade. As they
(the Indians) are not honest, neither are they sober, nor moral, but
have discretion for their own advantage.
The tariff of exchanges is made with the double view of securing the
profit of the trader and encouraging the Indians to hunt. Were a gun,
an ax, or a kettle, for instance, rated at too high a price, then
one of these articles would be made to serve the purposes of several
lodges by turns, or should ammunition be sold too dear only as many
animals would be killed as would be sufficient to feed their families,
and no more skins traded than sufficient to meet their most pressing
necessities. Such proceedings would lead to the abandonment of the
trade as not profitable. The expenses of this business are enormous,
the risk great, the capital invested half a million dollars, and more
than 300 people employed; and yet a good northwest gun is sold for
six robes or $18, the cost of which is $9.67. As a general rule, all
goods are sold at an average profit of 200 per cent on original cost.
The cost of buffalo robes in merchandise is about $1.35 in cash and we
estimate the expenses in men, forts, animals, and other disbursements
at $1.20 more each robe, which would bring them to $2.55. Now the best
sale made of a large quantity is $3 each. Therefore, a loss of one or
two boats loaded with robes must show a loss on the outfit.