nation into bands, we will now proceed to describe other divisions
which we shall call clans. These are clubs or societies formed by the
young men of different bands or of the same band. There are not many
among the Assiniboin, they being a small nation, but are numerous
among the Sioux and the Blackfeet, bearing the names of Foxes, Foolish
Dogs, Strong Hearts, Bulls, Pheasants, etc. Among the Assiniboin are
first the braves, Na-pa´-shee-nee, Ceux qui sauvent, who are a picked
body of young men, said to be bound by the most solemn promises and
oath never to run from an enemy or leave one of their clan in danger.
They are chosen from all the bands on account of some previous brave
act, and are only known as a body at feasts of their own and on war
expeditions. They wear no badges but dance completely naked in public
and have different songs, different from those of other dances. The
Bulls, Tah-tun-gah, are another of the same kind of clans in the band,
Gens des Canots. Their badge is a bull’s head and horns painted on
their drums, shields, and robes, also in the Bull Dance they imitate
the motions of that animal, his bellowing, and shoot at each other’s
feet with powder. When dancing they wear the head and horns of a bull,
skinned to the neck, the bones taken out, and the skin dried. Into this
the head of the man is thrust, giving him the appearance of half man
and half animal.
THE SNDOO-KAH, “CIRCUMCISED.”—This is a large clan of the band, Gens
des Canots, consisting of at least 100 persons, young and old. They
have not actually had circumcision performed, but these are called so,
and belong to that class who are naturally minus the prepuce. These
assemble once or twice a year and their ceremonies are kept somewhat
secret. They are, however, obliged to display the part alluded to,
to prevent imposition. When wishing to be known in that capacity on
private occasions they paint the tip of their nose red. The end of a
feather painted red or the pod of the plant sketched as the comb root
stuck in their hair is equally significant.
The Fox and Wolf clans are small and only appear to differ in the
manner of their dances and songs. There does not seem to be much
importance attached to these clans, neither do they appear to be of
much use, and most likely are got up for the purpose of display,
dancing, and other ceremonies, but as soon as these are over mix up
with the bands they belong to, and are very little talked of. There are
no minor subdivisions except into families. These remarks answer nearly
all search for origins of bands in badges and names of bands. Now, as
far as the roving tribes are concerned, this is error. The names of the
Assiniboin bands we have mentioned and those of the Sioux now follow,
some of which consist of two, three, and four hundred lodges, and none
of them have the least reference to Bear, Wolf, Eagle, Fox, or Father,
Grandfather, Uncle, etc., or anything of the kind.
The names of the different bands of the Missouri and the Platte Sioux
are Lower Yanctons, Sechong-hoo (Burnt Thighs), Oglala, Sawone,[10]
Minneconzshu, Etasepecho (Sans Arcs), Honcpapa, Seah-sappah (Blackfeet
Band), Wohainoompa (Two Kettle Band), Mide-wahconto, Esantees,
Teezaptah, Zahbaxah (Tête Coupées), Waze-cootai (Tireur dans les Pines).
[10] This term is the same as Saone or Sanona.
As before remarked, not one of these names bears the most distant
resemblance to any living animal, bird, and so forth, neither have any
of them any general badge representing these things as symbolical of
their band.[11] The clans before referred to are of no importance in
their government and with the Sioux and with the Assiniboin are only
recognized as separate bodies during their dances and other ceremonies.
[11] Here Denig seems to refer to what is commonly called clan totems.
Is each band entitled to one or more chiefs? There is, as observed
before, but one nominal chief to each band, and it is he who leads
it. Yet this position does not destroy nor militate against the will
of several others in the same band whose voices are as much entitled
to a hearing and sometimes more so than his. No man’s rule over them
is absolute; their government is pure democracy. Their consent to be
governed or led by any man is voluntarily given and likewise withdrawn
at the discretion of the person. But their existence as a people
depends on forming themselves into bodies capable of defense. These
bodies must have leaders and these leaders must be brave, respected,
followed, and supported. In case of a treaty either with whites or
with Indians of other nations, the leading chief’s voice would have no
additional weight because he is in that position. He would be allowed
to state his opinions with others of the same standing as men in the
same band, but nothing more. As a good deal that is to follow will
depend upon receiving a correct idea of these chiefs or leaders we do
not like to leave any portion of these matters obscure or unanswered.
There are no bands more honorable than others; some are more powerful,
more rascally, or more tractable, but no aristocratic or honorable
distinctions exist.
SOLDIERS.—Having mentioned and explained the divisions of bands
and clans with the chiefs thereof, the next important body in their
government is the ah-kitch-e-tah,[12] or soldiers or guard. These
soldiers are picked from the band on account of their proved bravery
and disposition to see things well conducted. They are men of family
from 25 to 45 years old, steady, resolute, and respectable, and in them
is vested the whole active power of governing the camp or rather of
carrying out the decrees and decisions of councils. In a camp of 200
lodges they would number 50 to 60 men, and in a camp of 60 lodges 10 to
15 men. The soldiers’ lodge is pitched in the center of the camp and
occupied by some of them all the time, although the whole body are only
called when the chief wishes a public meeting or when their hunting
regulations are to be decided upon. This is their statehouse; all
business relative to the camp and other nations is transacted there,
and all strangers or visitors, white or red, are lodged therein.
[12] In form and sense this term _ah-kitch-e-tah_ is identical with
the Chippewa _kitchitwa_, “sacred, holy, honorable,” and with the Cree
_okitchitaw_, “a brave, a soldier, un soldat.”
Neither women, children, nor even young men are allowed to enter in
business hours and seldom are seen there at any time. All tongues of
animals killed in hunting belong to this lodge if they wish them, and
the choicest parts of meat are furnished them by the young hunters all
the time. A tax is also laid on the camp for the tobacco smoked here,
which is no small quantity, and the women are each obliged to furnish
some wood and water daily.
What are the general powers of chiefs in council? To explain this, it
will be necessary to describe a council as witnessed by me a few years
since. The camp when I was a visitor consisted of about 110 lodges and
in the neighborhood, say, 10 or 15 miles off were two other camps,
respectively 50 and 60 lodges, all being of the band Gens des Canots.
The council was held in the soldiers’ lodge, where, being a stranger, I
had a right to be, though having nothing to say regarding the question.
This question was, Will we make peace with the Crow Nation? A few days
previous the leading chief had received an intimation through me that
overtures for a peace were made to them by the Crow Nation, and that
the Crow tobacco sent for that purpose was in my possession at any
time the council assembled; also that a deputation of Crow Indians was
at the Fort, who had commissioned me to bear the tobacco with their
request and to await a reply prior to their visiting the camp in person.
To decide this runners were sent immediately to the two camps mentioned
with a message from the chief requesting the attendance of all chiefs,
counsellors, soldiers, and warriors who felt an interest in the affair
in question, who in due time arrived and took up their residence in
the different lodges around about until the hour for business arrived.
When it was ascertained that all or a sufficient number had come the
haranguer or public crier of the camp made the circle of the village,
speaking at the extent of his voice the object of the meeting and
inviting all soldiers, chiefs, and braves or warriors to attend and
hear what their chief would bring before them for their consideration.
This was repeated over and over again in different parts of the camp,
and shortly afterwards they began to assemble in the soldiers’ lodge.
Three skin lodges had been formed into one, making an area 24 feet in
diameter, which could with ease accommodate 60 to 80 persons. On this
occasion about 46 people presented themselves and when the whole had
entered the interior exhibited the form shown in Figure 31.
[Illustration: FIGURE 31.—Diagram of a council lodge, representing
the interior of a council lodge in which Mr. Denig met the Assiniboin
leaders to discuss peace overtures made by the Crow Indians to the
Assiniboin at the instigation of Mr. Denig. At a point directly
opposite the doorway Mr. Denig is seated with the proffered tobacco of
the Crow Indians lying in front of him, denoted by 3 parallel marks; at
Mr. Denig’s right sits the leading Assiniboin chief; to his right sit 6
other chiefs and councillors; next are seated 18 so-called “soldiers,”
i. e., official guards of the camp; the next 15 figures are 15 principal
young warriors. The small square figure with a central dot is a small
fire; and the small circlet beside the fire is a flagstaff running up
through the lodge top, flying a United States flag. The calumet pipe
lies in front of the leading chief.]
It was nearly sunset when they had assembled and no feast had been
prepared in this lodge, though after the council was over they were
feasted elsewhere. We have here the represented authority of 220
lodges, for the chiefs are largely connected, having from 10 to 20
or more lodges of their immediate relatives each. The soldiers are
the most respectable heads of families in camp, and the warriors are
the sons and relations of these and others of the camp. If this body
decides on carrying a point who are to object? Those about are also
related to those present and these being the principal leave only
young rabble, very old men, women, and children not represented, all
of whom combined could do nothing against the decision of this body.
We will now proceed with the ceremony. For nearly a half hour the pipe
was passed around in silence, it being filled with their own tobacco
and handed from mouth to mouth, making its circuit on the right-hand,
after which it was laid down by the leading chief and he opened the
meeting by thus stating its object, the words of whom and others were
taken down by us at the time and preserved. It will be necessary to
state here that the Crow Indians had massacred about 30 lodges of this
same band two years previous on the banks of the Yellowstone, yet had
succeeded in making a peace with some of the upper bands of Assiniboin
who had not suffered by them.
The leading chief spoke thus from where he sat:
“My children, I am a mild man. For upward of 20 years I have herded you
together like a band of horses. If it had not been for me, you would
long ago have been scattered like wolves over the prairies. Good men
and wise men are scarce; and, being so, they should be listened to,
loved, and obeyed. My tongue has been worn thin and my teeth loosened
in giving you advice and instruction. I am aware I speak to men as
wise as myself, many braver, but none older or of more experience. I
have called you together to state that our enemies (the Crows) have
sent tobacco, through the medium of the whites at the big fort, to me
and my children, to see if they could smoke it with pleasure, or if it
tasted badly. For my part I am willing to smoke. We are but a handful
of men surrounded by large and powerful nations, all our enemies. Let
us therefore by making a peace reduce this number of foes and increase
our number of friends. I am aware that many here have lost relatives
by these people, so have we by the Gros Ventres, and yet we have peace
with them. If it be to our interest to make peace all old enmities must
be laid aside and forgotten. I am getting old, and have not many more
winters to see, and am tired seeing my children gradually decrease by
incessant war. We are poor in horses—from the herds the Crows own we
will replenish. They will pay high and give many horses for peace.
The Crows are good warriors, and the whites say good people and will
keep their word. Whatever is decided upon let it be manly. We are men;
others can speak. I listen—I have said.”
This speech was received by a slight response by some of Hoo-o-o-o
and by the majority in silence. After a few minutes’ interval he
was replied to by another chief, the third or fourth from where he
sat. This was a savage, warlike, one-eyed Indian, and his speech was
characteristic. He said: “He differed from all the old chief had said
regarding their enemies. Individually as a man and as their leader he
liked his father, the chief, but he must be growing old and childish to
advise them to take to smoke the tobacco of their enemies, the Crows.
Tell the whites to take it back to them. It stinks, and if smoked
would taste of the blood of our nearest relations. He thought (he
said) his old father (the chief) should make a journey to the banks of
the Yellowstone, and speak to the grinning skulls of 30 lodges of his
children, and hear their answer. Would they laugh? Would they dance?
Would they beg for Crow tobacco or cry for Crow horses? If horses were
wanted in camp, let the young men go to war and steal and take them
as he had done—as he intended to do as long as a Crow Indian had a
horse. What if in the attempt they left their bones to bleach on the
prairie? It would be but dying like men! For his part it always pleased
him to see a young man’s skull; the teeth were sound and beautiful,
appearing to smile and say, ‘I have died when I should and not waited
at home until my teeth were worn to the gums by eating dried meat.’ The
young men (he said) will make war—must have war—and, as far as his
influence went, should have war. I have spoken.”
This speech was received with a loud and prolonged grunt of approbation
by more than two-thirds of the assembly.
Other speeches followed on both sides of the question, some long, some
short, until the council became somewhat heated and turbulent; not,
however, interrupting one another, but mixing a good deal of private
invective and satire with the question in their speeches. At a point
of violent debate and personal abuse, two soldiers advanced to the
middle of the lodge and laid two swords crosswise on the ground, which
signal immediately restored order and quiet. The debate was carried on
with spirit for about two hours but it was easily to be perceived long
before it terminated, by their responses and gestures, that the war
faction greatly predominated. The chief, after asking if all had spoken
and receiving an affirmative answer, remarked they could go and eat the
feast that had been prepared for them. The warriors gave a loud yell
and when out commenced singing their war song. We asked the old chief
what was the decision. He said, “It is plain enough; listen to that war
cry.” He then desired me to send the Crow tobacco back without delay
and tell them to leave the fort immediately and go home. A few days
after a large war party started to the Crow village. The morning after
the council’s decision was made known by the haranguer or public crier,
at the break of day, walking through the village and crying it out at
the top of his voice. From the foregoing it will be seen that the chief
only expressed his opinion as the others, yet the large majority or
rather the feeling evinced for war by the leaders of the war parties,
warriors, heads of families, soldiers, and all who could make war, left
none to contend with.
Had the same general exhibition for peace prevailed, the same powers
could make it, or rather force would be unnecessary when a unanimity of
such a body prevailed. Had the parties or feeling been equally manifest
the question would have been laid aside for another time, perhaps
years, and each went to war or remained at home as he pleased.
Most councils have this feature and termination, that is, if the
measure is not at once visibly popular, it is abandoned. This precludes
the necessity of vote and none is taken. Besides, except for camp
regulations, hunting, etc., they are not obliged to decide. Time is
not valuable to them. There is no constituent power in the rest of the
band, whose voices are not asked, nor required, to force a decision,
nor actual power to operate against any measures, that may be decided
upon by their parents, and soldiers of the camp. Wherever force is
necessary, however, to carry out these decisions, as in hunting
regulations, the soldiers are pledged to act in a body to effect it,
even at the risk of their lives. But should the decision be for a peace
and afterwards a war party be raised to go against the nation with
which peace has been made, the soldiers would not use force to prevent
it. They have too much good sense to strike or kill any of their own
people to benefit their enemies, and in this case the peace party being
the most numerous, and consequently the richer, would pay the partisan,
or leader of the party, to remain at home and a collection of horses,
guns, and other property made among them for that purpose, which being
handed the partisan and by him divided among his warriors, stops the
expedition.
This is done often among them, particularly at this time when “peaces”
have become tolerably general through the Laramie treaty. There are
cases, however, where force is necessary, and the soldiers are brought
to act, which we will shortly mention. To present any idea of their
government so that it can be understood, we must first proceed to
describe the component parts of a large camp, after which it will be
easy to perceive their principles of government. The regulations kept
up in the following description is only in large camps: Smaller ones,
from 10 to 20 lodges, hunt, every man when he pleases, and, as there
are but few persons to feed, they can always have meat in this way; but
where the camp is composed of from 50 to 100 or 200 lodges this is not
the case, as will presently appear.
COMPONENT PARTS OF A LARGE CAMP
1. The leading chief.
2. The other chiefs.
3. Chief of the soldiers.
4. Cook of the soldiers’ lodge.
5. The soldiers.
6. The elderly men.
7. The haranguer.
8. The master of the Park.
9. Warriors and hunters.
10. Partisans.[13]
11. Doctors and conjurors.
12. Very old men.
13. Young women.
14. Old women.
15. Middle-aged women.
16. Boys and girls.
17. Very small children.
[13] Denig employs the word partisan in the sense of “a leader of a war
party.”
The ordinary occupations of these several divisions of the camp will
now be taken up in order.
1. The leading Chief, Hoon-gah, being the head, is expected to devote
his time to studying the welfare of his people. It is for him to
determine where the camp shall be placed and when it should move; if
war parties are advisable, and with whom, how many, and at what time;
where soldiers’ camps and the soldiers’ lodge should be established;
when traders are wanted in camp, or when they shall go to the fort
to trade; to call councils on these and all other affairs of general
interest.
2. The other Chiefs, Hoo-gap-pe. These are sometimes counselled
privately in their lodges by their leader and their advice followed if
correct and according to his views. They sit in council when called,
and rank equally with the leader as men, warriors, counsellors,
etc., except they do not publicly attempt to lead or act without his
knowledge and consent.
3. Chief of the soldiers, Ah-kitche-tah Hoon-gah. This is the head man
in the soldiers’ lodge; sees to their property therein, whether there
is wood, water, tobacco, and meat enough; opens councils; sometimes
sends invitations for the others to assemble when the Chief requests,
and on small occasions of his own accord; makes feasts; lights the pipe
in large assemblies, and is the nominal head of this active body; is a
highly respected and useful officer in camp. He has much influence with
the young warriors and is selected from among the bravest of them.
4. Cook of the soldiers’ lodge. First, Wo-ha-nah; second, Wah-yu-tena.
This functionary is also a soldier and a highly respectable officer,
ranking next to the Chief of the soldiers.
Eating being one of the Indian’s most important occupations, the care
of the meat, choice of the parts, and separation of the whole depending
upon him, the station becomes at once of consequence and requires a
determined man. On feasting, which in that lodge is going on every
night, if not every day, he dishes out the meat into wooden bowls
and gives to each the parts he chooses. Of a dog, the head, paws,
and grease—bouillon—are the most honorable parts. There is great
etiquette shown in this respect, and it is too long a story to record
when there is so much yet to be written.
5. The soldiers, Ah-kitche-tah. These are the bravest and most orderly
men of from 25 to 35 years of age. They have been and are still
warriors and leaders of parties to war, are chosen expressly to carry
out the decrees of the council, even at the risk of their lives, to
punish people for raising the buffalo, setting the prairie on fire,
govern the camp, protect whites and strangers of other nations in
camp, entertain and feast the same, arrange preliminaries of peace,
trade, and generally to aid their chief in carrying out his views and
decisions of council.
6. Elderly men, We-chap-pe. These may be called the body of the camp,
being men of family, about 40 years old, have been warriors and
soldiers when younger, but have abandoned these occupations, devote
their time to hunting, are still good hunters, try to amass horses and
other property by making robes, endeavor to get their daughters married
well, send their sons to hunt or to war.
They are respectable, quiet, peaceable men, among their own people,
content to follow their leader and obey the council, rank as
councillors when they wish, are always invited though but few attend
except on interesting occasions.
7. The Public Crier. First name, Ponkewichakeah; second, Hoon-kee-yah.
This is some elderly or middle-aged man who has a strong voice and a
talent for haranguing. He answers the purpose of the daily newspaper
of the whites. A little before daybreak he walks around and through
the camp different times every morning, calling upon the young men to
get up and look after their horses and arms, to go on the hills and
look for buffaloes, watch if there be any signs of enemies about—to
the women to get up to bring wood and water, cook, dress hides, etc.
If any news has been received in camp the day before or any councils
held, he now states the results. Whenever the camp is to be moved or
hunts made, or enemies seen, or councils to be held, this man publishes
it in this way. He is in fact their publisher and a useful man, doing
more to preserve order and induce unanimity of action than any other,
is entitled to eat and smoke in any lodge he happens to enter without
invitation, receives many small presents, and is a general favorite for
the trouble he gives himself.
8. Master of the Park, Wo-wee-nah. A park or pen to catch buffalo is
not at all times made, though almost every winter there is one or two
among the Assiniboin. We will have occasion to refer to this original
method of hunting in another place; at present it suffices to say
that the person who superintends that employment is some old conjuror
or medicine man who is said to make the buffalo appear and to bring
them toward the pen. He makes sacrifices to the Wind, the Sun, and
to Wakoñda, etc., of tobacco, scarlet cloth, and other things; he is
a necromancer and is supposed to be possessed of supernatural powers
and knowledge; he has from four to six runners under his command whose
business it is to discover the buffalo within 20 or 30 miles around,
and to report to him.
9. Young men, Ko-ash-kah-pe. These are a numerous body, some warriors,
some hunters, some neither. Those who have killed or struck enemies or
stolen many horses from their foes are entitled to sit in the council
and are always invited, principally to hear and give their assent or
dissent in responses, gestures, etc. They, no doubt, would be allowed
to speak but they never do, because those who are older speak, and they
are generally the fathers and relations of these young men. In this
modesty of deportment they are much to be admired. They always conform
to the decisions of the soldiers and the chiefs. The partisans or
leaders of war parties are chosen sometimes from these young men, when
by their acts they have proved a capacity to lead, though mostly it is
one of the soldiers who raises and leads the war expedition.
The Partisan is in command during the entire expedition, directs their
movements, possesses the power of a military captain among the whites,
and receives the honors or bears the disgrace of success or failure,
his authority in that capacity ceasing on his return to camp from the
war.