do—wa-se-a-ure-chah-pe (north star)—and also know the Ursa Major,
sometimes calling it the “seven stars” and “the wagon.” They are aware
that it makes its revolution around the polar star, pointing toward
it, and this is the secret of their traveling by night when there is
no moon. They call no other stars by name. The Milky Way is said to be
moch-pe-achan-ka-hoo (the backbone of the sky). It is known by them to
be composed of clusters of small stars, but they suppose it to bear
the same relative position to the arch of the heavens, and to be as
necessary to its support as the backbone of any animal to its body.
Meteors are falling stars which become extinguished as they fall. They
attract but little attention as their effects are never perceived.
Aurora borealis is believed to be clouds of fire or something the same
as electricity. Being very common and brilliant it creates neither
wonder nor inquiry.
The moon is not believed to influence men or vegetables nor to have
any other properties than to give light by night.[6] They suppose it
to be made of some body wasting away during a given period. Some say
it is eaten up by a number of small animals (moles) and Wakoñda makes
a new one on the destruction of the old. They know very well that all
this is error and that the whites have a better philosophy, but will
not take the trouble or can not comprehend our views of the motions
of heavenly bodies. Having nothing else better explained to them,
they adhere to their own ideas, which are of the simplest and most
primitive kind, and do not appear to wish them superseded by others
which they can not understand. The same remark would apply to all their
astronomical and geographical opinions. They have a correct knowledge
of the cardinal points, and honor the east as the first from the fact
that the sun rises there. The pipe is first presented to the east, then
to the south, supposed to be the power of the spirits of their departed
friends, then west, then north, and lastly to the earth as the great
grandfather of all. The amount of facts or real information they can
give are mentioned and as for further explanations, as observed before,
they do not delight to talk about these matters but appear to think
them sacred or forbidden fields through which their thoughts ought not
to roam. The subject affords no scope for research unless a writer is
disposed to collect a number of fables, which would serve no purpose
unless it be to develop their ignorance and superstition.
[6] It is considered a fetish as a light at night and sacrificed to on
this account.
FUTURE LIFE
INDIAN PARADISE.—The Paradise of these Indians is in the south in
warm regions (not necessarily in the heavens, yet in some imaginary
country not belonging to earth), where perpetual summer, abundance of
game, handsome women, and, in short, every comfort awaits them; also
the satisfaction of seeing their friends and relatives. No quarrels,
wars, disturbances, or bodily pain are allowed to exist, but all live
in perfect harmony. Departed spirits have the power to revisit their
native lands, manifest themselves to their friends in dreams, and if
they have been neglectful in crying for or feasting them can trouble
them with whistling sounds and startling apparitions, many of which
are said to be seen and heard and are most religiously believed in by
all. Consequently, the dead are feasted (a long ceremony), smoked,
sacrificed to, and invoked, besides being cried for years after they
are gone, perhaps as long as any of the relatives are living. The
heavenly bodies they think may also be residences for spirits, but
we think this idea is derived from the whites. The other is the most
ancient and original tradition, if not the only one, and is universally
believed. This subject will meet with further notice in the course of
these pages.
ARITHMETIC
NUMERATION.—All these prairie tribes count by decimals and in no other
way. The names of the digits are:
One—washe´nah.
Two—noom´pah.
Three—yam´ine.
Four—topah.
Five—ta´ptah.
Six—sha´kpah.
Seven—shakkowee.
Eight—sha´kkando´gha.
Nine—noo´mpchewo´oukkah.
Ten—wixchemenah.
After ten the word akkai, dropping the name of the ten, serves until
twenty, thus:
Eleven—akka´i washe.
Twelve—akkai noompah.
Thirteen—akkai yammene.
Fourteen—akkai topah.
Fifteen—akkai zaptah.
Sixteen—akkai sha´kpah.
Seventeen—akkai shakko´.
Eighteen—akkai sha´kando´gha.
Nineteen—akkai noompchewoukkah.
Twenty—wixche´mmene noompa; i. e. for twenty, literally two tens.
From twenty to thirty the word “sum” or “more” (plus) is added,
thus:
21—wixchemmena noompa sum washena (two tens plus one).
22—wixchemmena noompa sum noompa (two tens plus two).
23—wixchemmena noompa sum yammene (two tens plus three), and so on
up to thirty, which is three tens or wixchemmene yam´mene.
31—wixchemmene yammene sum washena (three tens plus one).
32—wixchemmene yammene sum noompa (three tens plus two); the same as
after twenty, and the same after each succeeding ten as far as one
hundred, thus—
40—wixchemmene to´pah (four tens).
41—wixchemmene topah sum washena (four tens plus one).
50—wixchemmene zaptah (five tens).
51—wixchemmene zaptah sum washena.
52—wixchemmene zaptah sum noo´mpa.
60—wixchemmene shakpa (six tens).
61—wixchemmene shakpa sum washena.
62—wixchemmene shakpa sum noompa.
70—wixchemmene shakko (seven tens).
71—wixchemmene shakko sum washena (seven tens plus one).
72—wixchemmene shakko sum noompa.
73—wixchemmene shakko sum yammene.
74—wixchemmene shakko sum topah, etc.
80—wixchemmene shakandogha (eight tens).
90—wixchemmene noomchewouka (nine tens).
100—o-pah-wa-ghe.
101—o-pah-wa-ghe sum washea.
110—opahwaghe sum wixche´mmene.
160—opahwaghe sum wixche´mmene shakpa.
161—opahwaghe sum wixche´mmene shakpa sum washena.
170—opahwaghe sum wixche´mmene shakko.
180—opahwaghe sum wixche´mmene shakandogha.
190—opahwaghe sum wixche´mmene noomchewouka.
200—opahwaghe noompa.
300—opahwaghe yammene.
400—opahwaghe topah.
500—opahwaghe zaptah.
600—opahwaghe shakpah.
700—opahwaghe shakko.
800—opahwaghe shakandogha.
900—opahwaghe noomchewouka.
1,000—koke-to-pah-wa-ghe.
1,853—koketopahwaghe sum opahwaghe shakandoga sum wixche´mmene
zaptah sum yammene.
2,000—koketopahwaghe noompah.
3,000—koketopahwaghe yammene.
4,000—koketopahwaghe topah.
10,000—koketopahwaghe wixchemmene.
20,000—koketopahwaghe wixchemmene noompa.
50,000—koketopahwaghe wixchemmene zaptah.
100,000—opahwaghe koketopahwaghe.
500,000—opahwaghe zaptah koketopahwaghe.
600,000—opahwaghe shakpah koketopahwaghe.
10,000,000—opahwaghe wixehemmene koketopahwaghe.
Although the computation could thus be carried on to a million yet the
Indian would not appreciate the number. We think that after 5,000, or
at the utmost 10,000, their ideas fail them; that is, they can not
realize in thought more than that amount, yet are able mechanically
to count it. This is evident, as they have no distinct name for a
million, but are obliged to call it ten hundred thousand, and were
they requested to go further would proceed eleven, twelve, thirteen
hundred thousand, etc., but not comprehending the great number as a
body. They can not multiply or subtract uneven sums without the aid of
small sticks or some other mark. Thus to add 40 to 60 would be done
by the fingers, shutting down one for each succeeding ten, naming 70,
80, 90, 100. But to add 37 to 94 would require some time; most Indians
would count 37 small sticks and beginning with 94, lay one down for
each succeeding number, naming the same until all were counted. Now
tell them to add 76 to 47 and subtract 28. In addition to the first
process, and counting the whole number of sticks, he would withdraw 28
and recount the remainder. They are easily confused when counting and
consider the knowledge of figures one of the most astonishing things
the whites do.
In counting with the hand, an Indian invariably begins with the little
finger of the left, shutting it down forcibly with the thumb of the
right; when the five fingers are thus shut he commences on the thumb of
the right, shutting it with the left fist. When wishing to telegraph
by signs a certain number less than 10 he holds up that number of
fingers, beginning with the little finger of the left hand and keeping
the others shut. Should the number be 7, then all the fingers of the
left and thumb and finger of the right would be extended, holding up
his hands, the rest of the fingers closed. Tens are counted by shutting
and opening both hands; thus, 100 would be indicated by shutting and
opening both hands 10 times in succession. The number 7 has two names,
shakkowee and enshand (the odd number). They count fast enough in
continuation from 1 to 100 but must not be interrupted.
COIN.—There is not now nor have we any reason to suppose there ever
has been among them any coin, shells, wampum, or any other thing
constituting a standard of exchange, neither are they acquainted with
American money. Were a guinea and a button presented there is no
question but the Indian would take the latter. They barter their furs
for goods which have fixed prices, and are well acquainted with these
prices, as also of the value of their robes and furs as a means of
purchasing merchandise.
KEEPING ACCOUNTS.—The Indians themselves keep no accounts. The manner
in which accounts are kept by whites with them is as follows. We are
not exactly acquainted with the minor operations in accounts kept by
the Hudson’s Bay Co. with the Cree and the Chippewa, but from authentic
information the following appears to be their system. A plue is equal
to 1 pound beaver skin or 3 shillings sterling (say 67 cents); that
is, 1 pound of the fur is worth at their forts 67 cents in merchandise
at their fixed prices. Therefore a large beaver skin (2 pounds) is 2
plues; 6 muskrats, which are worth from 10 to 12½ cents each, is
a plue; 1 wolf skin is counted a plue, being equal in value to the
standard 67 cents; an otter skin is 2 plues, a red-fox 1, and so forth.
All skins and other articles of trade acquired by Indians are reckoned
into plues by the trader and the Indians and the prices of merchandise
are computed in the same manner. On the Missouri the plan is somewhat
different, to explain which we annex the following accounts copied from
our books. It will be necessary to observe that everything is brought
to the standard of buffalo robes which have an imaginary value of $3
each in the country.
THE CRAZY BEAR, ASSINIBOIN CHIEF
-------+-------------------------+----------++-------+------------------------+---------
1851 | | Dr. || 1852 | | Cr.
| | || | |
Dec. 3|To 1-3 pt. white blanket | 3 robes ||Jan. 8|By 6 robes | 6 robes
|To 2 yards blue cloth | 2 robes || |By 2 dressed cow skins | 1 robe
|To ¾ yard scarlet cloth | 1 robe || |By 30 pounds dried meat | 1 robe
|To 2½ pounds tobacco | 1 robe || |By 2 red fox skins | 1 robe
| | || |By 2 raw cowhides | 1 robe
1852 | | || |By 1 large elk skin, raw| 1 robe
| | ||Feb. 10|By 4 robes | 4 robes
Jan. 16|To 1 horse |10 robes || |By 12 wolf skins | 4 robes
|To 3 knives | 1 robe || |Balance forward | 2 robes
|To 1 kettle, 2 gallon | 2 robes || | |
|To 100 loads ammunition | 1 robe || | |
| |----------|| | |---------
| |21 robes || | |21 robes
1853 | |==========|| | |
| | || | |
Feb. 10|To balance on settlement | 2 robes || | |
-------+-------------------------+----------++-------+------------------------+---------
Pictorial or other signs are not used in accounts, either by them or
the white people.
ELEMENTS OF FIGURES.—A single stroke answers for 1 and each additional
stroke marks the additional number as far as 100. When a stroke is made
apart, the score is rubbed out and begun again. There are no written
nor marked records kept, either on graves or otherwise, of ages or
of events, scalps taken, or war expeditions.[7] Their transactions,
or coups, as they are called in this country, are pictured on their
robes, lodges, and shields, but these wearing out are seldom renewed,
particularly when the man becomes old. Also these coups are recounted
publicly by the performer on occasions appointed for the purpose, which
we shall notice hereafter, and moreover, are talked of often enough
around their firesides. Ages are numbered by particular events that
took place at the time they could first recollect, and afterwards by
certain remarkable years from time to time. Though no Indian can be
sure as to his exact age, yet he will not vary more than a year or two
as to the time. The cross (X) is not used in counting or for any other
purpose, neither does the dot or full comma signify a moon or anything
else.
[7] It is not intended by this that they make no use of picture
writing, but that these records are not preserved. For further
explanation see picture writing, p. 603. The devices on their robes are
not renewed after they have arrived at a very advanced age, or in other
words after their influence and standing has been destroyed by age and
helplessness.
MEDICINE
GENERAL PRACTICE.—They are careful of their sick relatives and
particularly so in regard to their children or men in the prime of
life. Very aged persons do not, however, meet with such kindness even
from their own children, having become useless as a help in camp.
Besides being a burden in traveling and a bore and expense, they
are anxious to get rid of them and leave them on the plains to die.
It must, by no means, be inferred from this that the Indian has no
paternal feelings or affection; from several instances of the kind that
have come under my observation I am assured it is their inability to
carry about and along with them aged people. These Indians are poor,
have but few horses and are constantly on the move, in all weather,
sometimes requiring flight; therefore everything that might encumber in
the way of baggage is thrown aside, and among other rubbish is classed
the aged of both sexes. I am also told that it is often the desire of
the aged to be left to die. To keep up appearances with his people,
the Indian will generally pay a small doctor’s bill for the relief of
his aged relatives, but nothing like the amount the same man would pay
for his wife or child. To explain their mode of practicing medicine,
surgery, etc., we must be somewhat prolix.
In every camp there are several doctors, both men and women, called by
them divining men, who have the double reputation of physicians and
sorcerers. This is generally some old wretch who is very ugly, of great
experience, and who has art enough to induce others to believe in his
knowledge, and can drum, sing, and act his part well.
The present great doctor and soothsayer is named “Bull’s Dry Bones,”
a very old man who is now with me. This man was once sick and died
while the camp was traveling. His friends packed and tied him up
in several envelopes of raw hides, blankets, etc., and, after duly
crying over him, placed the body in the fork of a tree as is their
custom. By some means, however, the man came to life and after great
difficulty worked himself out of his bonds, traveled and overtook the
camp some days after they had left him. He stated to them that during
his decease he had been in other worlds, seen much, knew everything,
past, present, and future, and from this circumstance he has ever after
been considered a great divining man and prophet. We will now state
how they proceed in case of sickness. A child falls sick. The father
or some other near relative immediately sends a gun or a horse to the
divining man to secure his services. Sometimes smaller articles are
sent, and the doctor, thinking them beneath his notice, will not pay
a visit until enough is offered, which amount varies in proportion as
the patient’s relatives are rich or poor. He then enters the lodge of
the sick person in his medical capacity. His instruments are a drum, a
chi-chi-quoin, or gourd rattle, and, perhaps, a horn cupping apparatus.
He must have (although not perceptible) some things concealed in
his mouth or about his person, as will presently appear, although
they go usually through their operations entirely naked (except the
breechcloth) and not in a hideous costume as has been represented. The
doctor is accompanied by five or six others as old and ugly as himself,
bearing drums, bells, rattles, and other noisy instruments.
All sing to the extent of their voices and make a terrible noise with
the instruments spoken of. The doctor slowly approaches the patient,
applying his mouth to his naked breast or belly, draws or appears to
draw therefrom by suction a worm, sometimes a bug, a wolf hair, or
even a small snake, making at the same time horrible gestures, grunts,
and grimaces. This object he displays to the lookers-on, stating he
has extracted the cause of the disease. This operation is repeated
several times with like results, and after he and the accompanying
band of music partake largely of a dog or other feast provided for
them they leave for the time. The whole performance, with the music,
incantations, preparations, and feast included, would occupy perhaps
from two to three hours and often the whole night, if the performers
are paid high. Frequently their diseases are colic from eating unripe
fruits and berries or overloading the stomach, which, of course, get
well in a short time and the credit is given to the doctor, each
recovery aiding to raise his reputation and enlarge his practice. But
if the case is serious and the patient gets worse, the doctor is then
paid again and another visit takes place. The forms are always somewhat
similar, but on this occasion, in addition to the full band of music
and cupping with the horn, besides the usual grimaces, noises, etc.,
the patient is made to drink decoctions of roots or powders made by
the doctors of pulverized roots, rattles of the rattlesnake, calcined
bones, etc., the properties of which he is entirely ignorant, and
probably the smallness of the dose preventing them from doing any harm.
This, with the noise of the instruments and feast, concludes the second
visit.
Sometimes the doctor performs alone and keeps up the drumming, etc.,
all night. In this way by a repetition of visits, if the case is of
long duration, the whole of the property of the relatives of the sick
person falls to the doctor and his assistants, who are also slightly
paid for the music. And this is the cause of great individual distress
and poverty, though the property given does not go out of the nation,
but only changes hands and is liable in like manner to revert to others
should the divining man fall sick. In case, after all, the patient
dies, it is then the doctor who is in danger, and runs great risk of
losing his life, by the parents or relatives of the deceased. Indeed,
being aware of this they generally abscond to other camps when death
approaches, and whatever property they leave behind is taken from them.
No later than last winter the writer paid an Indian to prevent his
killing the “Bull’s Dry Bones” (doctor) who the man said had poisoned
his two children six years ago. But the old doctor, although a humbug,
is an innocent man and would harm no one.
They have various forms of doctoring, in all of which the drum forms
a principal figure, and songs and incantations, all of which are
most religiously believed in by the Indians. Old women are as often
practitioners as old men and of as great celebrity. There is also
another reason why these Indians give away so much of their property to
the divining man. Independent of these payments securing the doctor’s
services, they are considered as sacrifices; that is, the man makes
himself poor with a view of propitiating the Great Spirit.
Also it is considered and spoken of as a great honor to give away large
articles to the divining man, such as horses, guns, etc., and goes to
prove the affection with which they regard their sick relatives. For a
long time afterwards the giver will boast of his liberality in these
respects and is also looked upon as a man with a “large heart.” We
must, at the risk of not being believed, state that on two particular
occasions, and before witnesses, we have examined the divining man’s
mouth, hands, and all his person, which was entirely naked, with the
view of discovering where these worms, snakes, etc., were hidden, and
that these examinations were made without any previous intimations
to him who, never having been subject to examinations of the kind by
Indians, was completely unprepared for the trial, yet he acquiesced
cheerfully, afterwards continued his performance, and repeated it in
our presence, drawing and spitting out large worms, clots of blood,
tufts of hair, skin, etc., too large to be easily secreted, and leaving
no visible mark on the patient’s body. The trick was well done and not
yet known to any of us.
Their knowledge of anatomy consists in being acquainted with the
larger bones and joints. They can set a broken arm or simple fracture
tolerably well, and even replace a dislocated shoulder, which they do
by pulling and outward pressure from the armpit, but this knowledge is
not confined to the divining man nor is it his business more than any
other who happens to be present. Most men of middle age have witnessed
so many accidents of the kind that they can do this.
They are, however, unacquainted with the circulation of the blood
and with any judicious treatment of internal diseases, for all of
which they resort to incantations and drumming. They do, however,
indiscriminately use the vapor bath or sweat house for various
complaints. This construction is a small lodge thrown over a basketwork
of willows stuck in the ground and bent in an oval or round form, the
skins well pinned down and every aperture well closed. The doctor after
heating some large stones red hot and putting them into the lodge
enters with the patient, both entirely naked and taking along a kettle
of water and, as usual, his drum. The lodge is then shut tight by the
people on the outside. A brisk singing and drumming is kept up in the
lodge by the doctor, who at intervals throws water on the stones and
steam is raised. A violent heat and perspiration takes place, which
they endure as long as they can; as soon as the patient is taken out he
is immersed in cold water, which in nine cases out of ten results in
his death. In this way the Crow Indians lost nearly 200 persons three
years since during a prevailing influenza. The Mandan and Gros Ventres,
however, being accustomed to cold bathing from their youth, are said
seldom to suffer any inconvenience but often receive benefit from the
vapor bath and immediate cold immersion. They have no names for fevers,
consumptions, obstructions of the liver, etc., and can not explain
further than by pointing out that part of their body which is in a
state of pain.