asked, and yet how impossible to give any definite reply, the
conditions of use, and requirements of each worker being so widely
different. One, desires a form of apparatus, capable of being closed
up into the smallest space, weighing but the least possible number
of ounces, the necessary movements, confined to touching a spring,
or pressing a button, and the total cost not to exceed two or three
pounds, while others do not care so much as to its possessing these
qualities, if by a little increase in bulk, weight, and cost, it is
capable of use in a less restricted manner, on subjects of wide
variety, and under such conditions of light, and atmospheric
effects, as, when shutter exposures are being given, call for the
_maximum light passage_ to the plate.
Assuming the camera to be intended exclusively for use without a
tripod, then it becomes not a difficult matter to point out its
essential features. First and foremost, it should be characterized
by simplicity in construction, and every part be easily accessible,
complicated movements being rarely found necessary, except perhaps,
to raise the price of the instrument. When being employed in the
field, the camera and its working parts ought not to need the
slightest consideration, each movement, whether they be few, or
many, being made, without requiring troublesome attention at the
moment when every thought should be devoted to the subject.
The component parts of an instrument, complete and effective for
this class of work, may be taken to be a good lens capable of
covering at _f_/8, a shutter, some simple means of focussing,
adequate finders, and the means of carrying plates either in some
form of magazine, or ordinary dark slides.
Each system of holder for plates possesses its own distinctive
advantages, which are preferable, depending entirely on individual
needs, or tastes. Some admire one method, and some the other.
When plates are carried in one of the many forms of magazine which
cameras are nowadays fitted with, it is _important when re-charging
it_, that care be taken to see _each sheath and plate is laid true_
in its place, as the slightest irregularity at this point, means
certain trouble when changing a plate after exposure, indeed,
perhaps fifty per cent. of the misfortunes which occur when out at
work, from failure to act of the changing arrangements, _are
directly caused by carelessness when laying the plates in the
magazine_. Given reasonable care in this matter, almost any of the
modern automatic changing methods, may be relied on to answer
satisfactorily. When however the slight additional bulk, weight, and
it may be increase of cost is not objected to, then there can be no
denying separate dark slides possess many and important advantages.
No need to fear a wasted day, caused by some plate sticking, and
rendering further work impossible, without having recourse to a
dark-room, which probably is miles away; and again, one must not
overlook the opportunity they give of carrying plates of different
degrees of sensitiveness, a matter of service, when subjects to be
dealt with are varied, such as, say, clouds and water, landscapes
and figures. In the first case, when light is fairly good, the
ordinary speed plate will be found amply quick enough during the
daytime, and fifty per cent cheaper in price. When open landscapes
are being taken, during summer time, medium rapid plates generally
will be quick enough, but many opportunities, for pictorial work,
arise under conditions of atmosphere and light, in which to obtain
fully exposed negatives with a shutter, demands a plate of extreme
sensitiveness, and if for no other reason than that they offer this
opportunity of carrying a varied assortment of plates, many workers
prefer dark slides, to any form of magazine.
There are advantages, and disadvantages, with both systems, and it
becomes simply a question for each worker to consider which fulfills
his requirements best.
_The Lens._--Good work can be, and is done, with cheap single
lenses, but the opportunities offered are considerably restricted,
what is needed, being such a lens as may be used at full aperture of
_f_/8 or _f_/6, and will then cover the plate from corner to corner,
sharply. This is necessary not only because the actinic quality of
light is not always over good, but that moving subjects demand the
shutter should be working with rapidity, sometimes indeed with
considerable speed: under which conditions two factors are
absolutely essential, a large working lens aperture, and a rapid
plate. It is well, therefore, to _buy the best lens you can afford_,
it more than pays in every way. For 1/4-plate work, a _rectilinear_
of 5, or 5-1/2 in. focus, working say at _f_/5.6, and with iris
diaphragm, by one of the best makers, will allow work being done
under any condition of weather, or other circumstances, when shutter
work is possible.
_Finders._--Years ago, the question of whether finders were
necessary, or not, in a camera of this kind, was a matter on which
some at least expressed very different opinions, from those now held
by most workers. Further experience has shown that when certainty in
working is desired, some kind of finder is an absolute necessity as
part of the working mechanism. It usually takes the form of a small
camera obscura, what is required being, that it should not be too
small, should give a perfectly discernible image, and be so
adjusted, that only so much of it is shown, as will be projected on
to the sensitive plate, when the exposure is made. The reason of its
importance is that it _enables the subject being arranged_
tastefully, as well as ensuring that the whole of it is on the
plate.
Where no attempt at pictorial work is intended, and the important
matter is simply that the object being photographed should be in the
_centre of the plate_, then it is only necessary that the finder
should show as wide an angle of vision, or a little wider than the
lens being employed inside the camera. But when something more is
aimed at, _viz._: _Tasteful composition over the whole plate_, then
it is necessary to block out on the finder all excess of view,
beyond what will be received on the sensitive plate.
_The Shutter._--What particular form may be best is a matter of
doubt, but whatever it be, exposure must be possible without
vibration, it should give greater exposure to the foreground than
the sky, and ought to allow of being regulated for exposures ranging
from 1/4th of a second up to perhaps 1/100th for ordinary work.
Where shutter work has to be done, which demands anything less than
1/100th of a second, then special shutters for the purpose are
needed, but after having used hand cameras of one form or another
for the last nine or ten years on such classes of subjects as are
ordinarily dealt with, the occasions on which any greater speed than
1/30th of a second has been called for have been extremely rare. It
may be said this would not allow of taking subjects such as a close
finish of a cycle race and such like, which is quite true; did
occasion arise for so doing, then a shutter such as the focal plane
would be employed as a matter of course. But by far the greater
amount of work done with hand cameras would be the better for
receiving a longer exposure, better because light action on the
sensitive plate would be more thorough, and far better because when
slowly moving objects, such as waves rolling shoreward, are given
1/10th instead of 1/100th of a second, we get less of "_petrified
naturo_," and a more natural appearance in the resulting
photographs. As a general rule it is well to give the _slowest
exposure possible_.
_The Focussing Arrangements._--These need be only very simple, and
generally are done by scale to distances. As a rule with the lens
working at _f_/11, and the scale set at 15 feet, it will be found
that the depth of focus is sufficient for most ordinary work, and
any alteration in the focussing seldom necessary, when dealing with
subjects where figures are included, that are not required to be
approached much closer than the distance mentioned.
So far as may be necessary for _hand-camera work_ simply, the
instrument should be without complications, is better for having a
_good rectilinear lens_, needs a shutter easily adjusted for
exposures ranging if possible, from a 1/4th of a second, up to say
1/100th, properly adjusted finders, some means of quickly altering
the focus of lens, one or other method of carrying the plates or
films, and for _purely hand-camera_ work, there is _no need_ for any
other addition to it.
Passing away from the camera to its use, one is faced immediately
with the fact, that in spite of the multitude of such instruments
now in use, the _general average of results_ produced by its means
are, in quality, unmistakably below those done with a camera and
tripod, nor is the reason for this far to seek. In the latter case,
a plate of medium rapidity is generally employed, such an exposure
given, as makes no serious _strain_ on the developer used to bring
the latent image fully out; the action of light having been ample,
and the plate not so easily spoiled, as one of higher sensitiveness,
there is not that call for such skilful treatment, as where light
action on a highly delicate emulsion, has been but brief, and needs
to receive careful handling, before good, well-graded negatives may
be produced.
To use a hand camera is the simplest matter imaginable, to properly
employ it the most difficult--simple, because of the facility with
which plates may be exposed, difficult, because to succeed, demands
careful practice, and a thorough understanding of photographic
manipulation. We must have _learnt to see_, and that quickly, must
have gained coolness and self-restraint, and perhaps not the _least
qualification necessary is that of being a good photographer_.
Whether content to produce good straightforward representations of
such scenes as come before you, or more ambitious attempts at
pictorial work be made, they can both be done with the hand camera
quite as well, nay indeed, given sufficient technical skill, and
trained perception to see the beauty presented in line and mass,
it is by no means clear this form of implement does not offer
greater facilities for successful working, than the more complicated
form used with a tripod.
[Illustration: BIRCH AND BRACKEN. W. THOMAS.]
The choice of subject is only bounded by the limits of exposure,
speed of plate and actinic action of light available. The first has
already been touched upon, when the lens, and shutter, were dealt
with.
Plates have recently been so increased in speed, that it becomes
necessary to somewhat modify advice, which a year or two ago, might
have been perfectly correct, _viz._, to work with the fastest plate
procurable. But there is this advantage now, as then, that if some
convenient form of actinometer be used to test the light, we are
able to judge at once, what speed of plate will be necessary to deal
with each subject as it arises. There are several forms available,
amongst which, the one introduced by Watkins, made so that it
becomes a permanent part of the camera, answers remarkably well,
especially as it cannot be left at home, without being noticed. In
developing shutter-exposed plates, if full exposure has been
obtained, then the ordinary modes of procedure suffice, so also when
over-exposure occurs, but by far the greater proportion of failures
one sees in this class of work, arise simply _from under-exposure_.
There seems so much charm in driving a shutter at its highest speed,
and at the same time using the lens stopped down, to secure sharp
definition, the wonder is, not that failures flourish, but that any
good work is done at all.
With regard to particular developers there is only this to be said.
Whatever agent be employed, so arrange that before density is
obtained, _all the detail you require_ is first brought out; this
simply means, if pyro is being used, it is kept low, until the plate
is ready to be treated for density, then a further addition of pyro
and bromide will generally suffice to rapidly finish off the work.
When a batch of exposed plates is being dealt with, a most certain
method of negative making, will be found in employing in one dish,
either one or other of the following one-solution developers:--
NO. 1 FORMULA.
Amidol 20 grains
Sodium sulphite 1/2 oz.
Water 7 "
NO. 2 FORMULA.
Dissolve in water 20 oz.
Metol 75 grains
then add
Sodium sulphite 1-3/4 oz.
Carbonate of soda (crystals) 1-3/4 "
Bromide of potassium 6 grains
NO. 3 FORMULA.
Sodium sulphite 1-1/4 oz.
Carbonate of potassium 1/2 "
Eikonogen 1/4 "
Boiling water 12 "
Any of the above developers will be found to rapidly bring out all
there is in the plate, and if over-exposure is feared, they may all
with advantage be diluted, with an equal quantity of water, in order
to slow down their action.
In another dish, it is advisable to have the following
_re-developer_, to impart density to the plates, as they become
ready for that operation, or to successfully deal with any, which
are found to have been considerably over-exposed, and upon which,
the first developer is acting too vigorously.
RE-DEVELOPER.
NO. 1.
Hydroquinone 1/4 ounce
Sodium sulphite 2 "
Potassium bromide 1/4 "
Boiling water 12 "
NO. 2.
Washing soda 2 ounces
Sodium sulphite 2 "
Water to make 12 "
For use mix equal quantities.
By employing two different developers in the manner suggested, it
becomes a simple matter to produce good negatives, from plates
having had all kinds of exposures, some under, some over, and it may
be some which have had about the right exposure; in this way one of
the most fruitful causes of failure in the production of hand-camera
pictures, _error in exposure and development_, is minimized, if not
altogether done away with.
There are sometimes occasions when out with a hand camera, when
subjects present themselves, offering exceedingly good opportunities
for securing pleasing little pictures, but which require one, or two
seconds' exposure, to render them successfully. At such times it may
generally be arranged to rest the camera on a stone, wall, or gate,
or to hold it pressed against a tree, or some other rigid support.
As an example, the illustration of a woodside with birch trees,
facing page 136, may be pointed to. In this instance, when out
cycling, the place and lighting on the tree trunks, struck us as
pleasing, and worth trying to secure a record of, even though but a
hand camera was being carried at the time.
Having dismounted, and found a point from where it might be
attempted, and where conveniently grew a single tree, the lens was
opened to (if recollection does not deceive) _f_/11. Then the camera
jammed close to the tree trunk, and two seconds' exposure given,
taking especial care that no movement took place.
The plate being in due time carefully developed, and as far as
possible contrasts kept down, the result proved satisfactory
enough.
It could more conveniently have been photographed, of course, if a
camera and tripod had been available, but it is one of many such
instances, where, when shutter exposures only had been prepared for,
occasions arose, demanding longer exposures than were possible,
unless, some such temporary support be pressed into use, as in this
instance.
For successful work, see that the camera is simple, its parts, of
the best your pocket can afford. Give the slowest exposures your
subject will allow. Develop for softly modelled negatives first,
getting what density is required afterwards. See that the camera is
held perfectly steady, during exposure, and don't forget it is
simply a camera, and lens, and will require _you behind it_, just
the same as any other employed with a tripod, and in conclusion bear
always in mind, _it is the simplest form of camera work and the most
difficult_, making the utmost demands on your skill, if high-class
results are to be the outcome of its use.
_W. Thomas._
_Lantern Slides._
[Illustration]
A lantern Slide is a transparent positive on glass or other
transparent support, usually 3-1/4 inches square, and is placed in
the lantern in such a way that by suitable illumination and optical
arrangements the image on the slide is made to intercept some of the
light given off by the illuminant from a screen, which without the
screen would be wholly and evenly illuminated by the light.
In viewing a paper print we are really observing the paper by
reflected light, part of our view being intercepted by the image
formed of pigment or reduced metal; the amount of light not being
very great a very thin layer of pigment is required to produce the
appearance of a sufficiently robust image. If the image alone or
with its vehicle be stripped from a good print on paper this image
viewed by transmitted light will be found to be extremely faint, far
too faint to be of any use as a "transparency," and also too thin to
be of any use as a lantern slide. On the other hand, what we know as
a "transparency," such as is often used for window decoration,
backed, perhaps, with ground glass, would be found much too dense or
robust for use as a lantern slide. In density, then, a "slide," as
it shall hereafter be called, comes between the image on a paper
print and that on a "transparency." In "gradation," or gamut of
tones, the slide ought to be superior to either the paper print with
its almost absolute clearness over large areas, or the transparency
with its dense shadows and its comparatively heavy lights. In fact,
in a good slide we have every grade of deposit from perfect
transparency to nearly complete opacity. But the extremes must be
very sparingly present, and the transition from one tone to another
must be gradual, all intermediate notes between highest and lowest
should be represented.
Other qualities go to make the perfect slide; the metallic or other
deposit forming the image must be in the utmost degree fine, no
approach to "grain" must be perceptible even under the highest
magnification. The colour, or "tone," must be not only pleasant but
appropriate.
The loss of light in its journey from the illuminant to our eyes is
enormous; the disc on the screen is simply a greatly magnified image
of the light, and here is great loss; add to this the interception
of some light by the opacity of the slide, and the fact that much
more is lost in reflection from the screen, and absorption by the
screen, and it is easy to realize that the image from the screen
reaching our eyes is vastly less bright than that reaching the eye
when, for instance, we examine a slide in the hand by transmitted
light. And loss of light means increase of contrast, so that a
slide which would seem about right in gradation in the hand would be
altogether soot-and-chalk as a screen-image. So too if we have in
the slide already shut out much light, by making the slide foggy, or
over dense, it is easy to see that when the image reaches our eyes
from the screen this vicious opacity will be immensely increased in
its mischievous properties. The first style of slide gives
screen-images sometimes called "midsummer snow-scenes"; the other
slide is simply called "foggy." Both must be assiduously avoided.
It need hardly be said that the plates prepared by some processes
are more likely to yield good slides, such as are described above,
than plates prepared by other processes; no one process can claim to
possess in itself superiority in all respects. Collodion, for
instance, is less apt to give foggy slides, and it is easier to
intensify than gelatine, but it is also more prone to give "hard"
images. Collodion is at its finest in the form of collodio-bromide
emulsion, which gives slides remarkable for fineness of grain, for
clearness, and for richness of tones; but when we have to copy in
the camera, the operation with collodion emulsion is protracted,
unless we have bright daylight or a condensing arrangement, which
with large negatives is often out of the question. On the whole it
may be taken that gelatine-bromide emulsion is the process to be
recommended, not only on account of its convenience and celerity,
but in view of the many inherent points of excellence that it
possesses. In any case, want of space will cause us to confine
attention here to that process, and any one mastering the use of
gelatine-bromide slide-plates will have nothing to fear from
competition with other processes in all-round work. The writer has a
leaning towards slide-plates as slow as he can procure them, because
slowness almost always goes hand in hand with fineness of grain and
freedom from fog.
There is one point of importance that should be noted in working
with gelatine for this purpose. Distilled water should be used if
possible for all solutions. Tap water--especially hard water--is apt
to produce with the gelatine a certain amount of scum which, if
present in any appreciable degree, cannot fail to affect the quality
of the slides; but treatment with an acid alum bath as described
later has a very salutary effect in removing any scum that may have
formed during the "liquid" operations.
In the mechanics of making a slide from a negative we have only two
methods to consider. If the slide-image is to be the same size as
the negative, or a part of the negative, we print by _contact_, that
is, we put the negative and the slide-plate face to face in contact,
and we expose to light, the negative being next to the light; this
corresponds with making a print on paper. But when we desire to make
a slide including all the subject of a negative larger than a
slide-plate, or, in fact, when we desire to alter the size of the
image at all, we copy the negative "in the camera." The simplest
method of doing this is to fix up the negative so that it is evenly
lighted and make a photograph of it in a camera; but the adjustments
necessary for such an operation would be found awkward, and so a
"reducing camera" of some kind is generally used. Many such cameras
are on the market, and consist of devices for holding the negative
in a suitable position with regard to a small camera furnished with
a lens and a dark slide holding a lantern plate. Either the
negative-holder or the camera should have possible movement in all
directions vertical to the optical axis of the whole, and in
addition it is often desirable to have a certain amount of movement
in other planes, in order to correct certain optical defects that
are sometimes found in negatives. The writer has for many years used
a small camera with its front stuck into the front of a large
camera, one or other of these cameras has every necessary movement.
The device is figured here.
[Illustration]
Whatever arrangement is used the end of the apparatus bearing the
negative is directed towards a good and even light; and it is well
to place about two inches in front of the negative towards the light
a piece of finely ground glass for ordinary negatives; this glass is
with advantage omitted with extra dense negatives.
It goes without saying that the exposure, whether we are working by
contact or in the camera is of the utmost importance; but it is not
possible in an article such as this to give even an approximate idea
of the exposure suitable under any concatenation of conditions. The
best clue to exposure is to be found in development, and in results.
It is necessary to know what happens after normal exposure with a
given developer, and then if any variation is noticed to alter the
exposure. If a plate develops more rapidly than the normal, it may
fairly be deduced that the exposure has been too long; but if we are
dealing with a specially contrasted negative it is better so. On the
other hand, when we are dealing with a thin negative, especially if
the scale of gradation is short, we require an exposure less than
what would under normal conditions lead to complete development in
the normal time. And again some plates require to be developed to a
greater point of apparent density than others; this is a matter of
experience. Briefly put, there is no royal road to good
slide-making, experience is necessary.