EARLY BOOK-MAKING
§1. The "Didachê"
Evidently the Teaching (Didachê) of the Twelve Apostles was humbly
used by some of the early Jesuists as an authoritative Jewish manual
which supplied them with their rule of conduct, they only later
supplying (c. ix) their special rite of the "Eucharist" of wine and
broken [357] bread, and vaguely mentioning "the life and knowledge
which thou hast made known to us by Jesus thy Servant." There is
no mention of crucifixion, no naming of Jesus as Messiah. We are
confronted with a primary Judaic Jesuism which is not that of the
gospels, nor that of the Paulines, nor that of the Acts, though it
agrees with the latter in calling Jesus the Servant of the Lord. It
is even of older type than Ebionism; for the Ebionites carried their
cult of poverty and asceticism to the point of using water instead
of wine in the Eucharist; [358] whereas the Didachê specifies wine,
the older practice. The cup of the Eucharist is "the holy wine of
David thy servant, which thou hast made known to us through Jesus thy
servant"; and the thanks which follow (c. 10) are to the holy Father
"for thy holy name, which thou hast caused to dwell in our hearts,
and for the knowledge and faith and immortality which thou hast made
known to us through Jesus thy servant."
It is quite clear that in this form of Jesuism, visibly early as
compared with that set forth in the gospels and the Acts, we have
something different from that in its derivation. The Eucharist,
here so called ostensibly for the first time, is only inferribly
derived from a sacrament of the body and blood of the sacrificed
Jesus. Eucharistia means thanksgiving or thank-offering, and this
ritual-meal is intelligibly so named. Applied, as by Justin Martyr
and later Fathers, to the sacrificial sacrament of the gospels and the
epistles, the name is a false description: yet the false description
becomes canonical. The licit inference appears to be that the cult
of a Jesus who outside of Judaism was a Sacrificed Saviour-God had
here, under Judaic control, been presented as that of a Hero-Jesus,
connected like Dionysos with the gift of the vine, and associated
with a ritual meal of thanksgiving to Yahweh, whose "servant" he is.
Taking the Didachê as a stage in the Christian evolution, we further
infer that the conception and name of a "Eucharist" was thence imposed
on another and older species of ritual-meal, in which the Jesus is
slain as a sacrifice and commemorated in a sacrificial sacrament. The
more Judaic form of the cult absorbs an older and non-Judaic form,
forced to the front by a death-story which gives to its sacrament a
higher virtue for the devotee. It is a case of competition of cult
forms for survival, the weaker being superseded. And as the sacrament,
so the Jesus, is developed on other lines. He of the Didachê is
neither Son of God nor Saviour, as he is not the Messiah, though
he has somehow conveyed "knowledge and faith and immortality." What
the Didachê does is to begin the process of a doctrinal and ethical
teaching which coalesces with that of evolving the God.
In the eighth section, the "Lord's Prayer" is introduced with the
formula "Nor pray ye like the hypocrites, but as the Lord commanded
in his gospel." Now "the Lord" has in every previous mention
clearly meant, not Jesus, who is mentioned solely in the "servant"
passages, but "God," "the Father," the Jewish deity. Either, then,
"the Lord ... in his gospel" refers to some "gospel" of Yahweh or,
as is highly probable, the whole clause is a late interpolation. This
is the more likely because the seventh section, prescribing baptism in
the name of "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit," is flagrantly
interpolated. That being so, the provision at the end of c. 9, that
no one shall partake of the Eucharist except those baptized in the
name of the Lord, must be held to be also a late interpolation. Thus
the document has been manipulated to some extent even in its early
portions. The only other mentions of the gospel are in chapters 11
and 15, which follow after the "Amen" of the tenth, and represent the
progressive provisions for the apostles and prophets of the growing
church. The introduction of Jesuism in chapters 9 and 10 is pre-gospel.
This will be disputed only by those who, like the first American and
German editors, cannot see that the first five or six sections are
purely Judaic. After Dr. Charles Taylor and other English editors
did so, coinciding with an early suggestion of M. Massebieau, [359]
the rest have mostly come into line; and even the American editors at
the outset saw that the Epistle of Barnabas, which has so much of the
matter of the Teaching, is the later and not the earlier document. Thus
the Lord's Prayer takes its place as originally a Jewish and not
a Christian document; and the passages in the early chapters which
coincide with the Sermon on the Mount are equally Jewish. [360]
We can now understand the tradition that Matthew, of which the present
opening chapters are so plainly late, was the first of the gospels,
and was primarily a collection of logia. But the logia were in the
terms of the case not logia Iesou at all, being but a compilation of
Jewish dicta on the lines of the Teaching, and, as regards the form
of beatitude, probably an imitation of other Jewish literature as
exampled in the "Slavonic Enoch." [361]
It must be repeated, however, that the ninth and tenth sections of
the Teaching are not to be taken as giving us "the" original Jesus
of the Jesuist movement. We have posited, with Professor Smith, a
"multifocal" movement; and concerning the Jesus here given we can only
say that the document tells of the primary connection of the Jesus-Name
with a non-sacrificial Eucharist. Whether the name stood historically
for Joshua or for the Jesus of Zechariah, or for yet another, it is
impossible to pronounce. What is clear is that it does not point to
the Jesus of the gospels. When the Jesus-sections of the Teaching were
penned, the gospels were yet to come; and the crucified Saviour-God of
Paul was not preached, though his myth was certainly current somewhere.
§ 2. The Apocalypse
The "Revelation of John the Theologian" is also, in respect of much of
its matter, pre-gospel, and even in its later elements independent of
the gospels. It is noteworthy that the latest professional criticism
has after infinite fumbling come (without acknowledging him) to the
view of Dupuis that the episode of the woman and the child and the
dragon belong to sun-myth; [362] and the exegetes would probably save
themselves a good deal of further guessing by contemplating Dupuis's
solution that the special details are simply derived from an ancient
planisphere or fuller zodiac, in which the woman and the dragon and
the hydra are prominent figures. [363] It is in any case particularly
important to realize that this palpably mythical conception of a Jesus
Christ, figured as "the Lamb," evidently with a zodiacal reference,
is found in one of the earliest documents of the cult, outside of
the gospels.
In these, as we have seen, the original God-Man is progressively
humanized from the hieratic figure of the opening chapters of Mark,
through Matthew and Luke, till in the fourth, which declares him Logos
and premundane, he has close personal friends and (ostensibly) weeps
for the death of one. But not even the thoughtless criticism which
professes to find a recognizable human figure in Mark can pretend
to find one in Revelation. There, admittedly on Jewish bases, there
is limned an unearthly figure, who has been "pierced," we are not
told where; who has the keys of death and Hades, and carries on his
right hand seven stars; and has eyes like a flame of fire and feet
like unto burnished brass. With this pre-Christian apparatus, which
on the astrological side goes back to Persia and Babylon, there is
carried on a fierce polemic against certain of the "seven churches,"
the sect of the Nicolaitans, and "them which say they are Jews and
are not, but are a synagogue of Satan." The churches named are not
those of the Acts and the Pauline epistles: Jerusalem and Antioch are
not named, though Ephesus is. Jewish and pre-Jewish myth and doctrine
overlay the Jesuist, which at many points is visibly a mere verbal
interpolation; so that the question arises whether even the seven
churches are primarily Christian or Jewish.
If "Babylon" stands for Rome, it is but an adaptation of an older
polemic; for Babylon is declared to have actually fallen, before it is
announced that she "shall be cast down." [364] The eleventh chapter
dilates on the Jewish temple; again and again we listen to a purely
Jewish declamation over Jewish woes; the four-and-twenty elders and the
Lamb "as though it had been slain, having seven horns, and seven eyes,
which are the seven Spirits of God," are of Babylonian and Persian
derivation; and the "second death" is Egyptian. In the new Jerusalem,
"coming down out of heaven," twelve angels are at the gates, which
bear the names of the twelve tribes; and the "twelve apostles of the
Lamb" are represented only by "twelve basement courses" of the wall.
How much such a document stood for in the early building-up of the cult
it is impossible to gather from the records, which indicate that it
was long regarded askance by the gospel-reading and epistle-reading
churches. But it gives a definite proof that the cult had roots
wholly unlike those indicated in the "catholic" tradition, and wholly
incompatible with the beginnings set out in the gospels and the Acts.
§ 3. Epistles
The outstanding problem in regard to the Epistles in the mass is that
while criticism is more and more pressing them out of the "apostolic"
period into the second century, they show practically no knowledge of
the gospels. As little do they show any trace of the "personality"
of the Founder, which is posited by the biographical school as the
ground for the resurrection myth. Of Jesus as a remarkable personality
there is no glimpse in the whole literature; and it must be a relief
for the defenders of his historicity to be invited to pronounce both
James and Jude pseudepigraphic documents, the former written with
direct polemic reference to the Pauline doctrine of faith. [365]
The puzzle is to conceive how, on that view, the document can still
remain so destitute of Jesuist colouring.
Save for the two namings of Jesus (i, 1; ii, 1) at the beginnings
of chapters, there is no trace of Jesuine doctrine; the epistle is
addressed to "the twelve tribes of the Dispersion"; and there is a
reference (ii, 2) to "your synagogue," not to "your ecclesia." When
therefore we note the extremely suspicious character of the second
naming of Jesus, "our Lord Jesus Christ of glory," we are doubly
entitled to diagnose interpolation; and the first naming at once comes
under suspicion. It is not surprising therefore that such a critic
as Spitta pronounces the epistle a Jewish document. [366] Even if it
were true, then, that the eschatological matter has a gospel colouring,
that would carry us no further than a surmise that the Jewish document
had been slightly developed for Jesuine purposes. And this may be
the solution as to the anti-Pauline element. An originally Jewish
document may have been used by a Judæo-Christian to carry an attack
on a doctrine of Gentilizing Christism. The residual fact is that a
section of the Jesuist movement in the second century was satisfied
with a quasi-apostolic document which has no hint of the teaching of
a historical Jesus. Naturally it soon passed into "catholic" disfavour.
But the remaining epistles differ historically from this only in
respect of their asseveration of a crucified Christ, by faith in
whom men are saved. They too are devoid of biographical data. Neither
parable nor miracle, doctrine nor deed, family history nor birthplace,
of the Founder is ever mentioned in the epistolary literature,
any more than in the Apocalypse or the Didachê. And yet the mass of
the epistles are being, as aforesaid, more and more pressed upon by
criticism as pseudepigraphic. Second Peter was always in dispute;
and First Peter has few save traditionalist supporters. If First John
is to be bracketed with the fourth gospel, it is dismissed with that
as outside the synoptic tradition: and the second and third epistles
are simply dropped as spurious. Hebrews is anonymous, though our
Revisers saw fit to retain its false title; and that epistle too is
utterly devoid of testimony to a historical Jesus. It tells simply of
a human sacrifice, in which the victim "suffered without the gate,"
in accordance with the regular sacrificial practice. Late or early,
then, the epistles give no support to the gospels--or, at least,
to the biographical theory founded on these.
It is thus quite unnecessary to argue here the interesting question
of the genuineness of any of the Pauline epistles. Long ago, nine
were given up by the Tübingen school, and four only claimed to be
genuine. Remembering the datum of Eusebius that Paul personally
penned "only a few very short" epistles, though specially gifted in
the matter of style, we are not unprepared to find even these called
in question. And latterly the Dutch school whose work culminated in
Van Manen has built up an impressive case [367] for the rejection
of the whole mass, the supreme "four" included; and the defence so
far made by the traditionalists is the reverse of impressive. [368]
The ablest counter-criticism comes from other men of the left wing,
as Schmiedel, who makes havoc of the Acts.
From the point of view of the historical as distinguished from
the documentary critic, all that need here be said on the issue is
that the negative case may have to be restated if there is faced
the hypothesis that the Jesuine movement was of comparatively old
standing, and of some degree of development, when Paul came on the
scene. Van Manen assumes the substantial historicity not only of
Jesus but of the Jesuine movement as set forth in the Gospels; and
whereas he found it hard to make that assumption on the view that any
of the Paulines was genuine, he had no difficulty about it when he
relegated them all to the second century. It should be asked, then,
whether the view that the Jesus-cult is "pre-Christian" might not
re-open the case for some of the Paulines.
Having put that caveat, the historical critic has simply to consider
the question of the historicity of Jesus in relation to the Paulines
from both points of view, asking what evidence they can be supposed
to yield either on the view of the genuineness of some or on that
of the spuriousness of all. And the outcome is that on neither view
do they tell of a historical Jesus. If "the four" are genuine, Paul,
declared to be so near the influence of the "personality" of Jesus,
not only shows no trace of impression from it but expressly puts
aside the question. In the Epistle to the Galatians he declares that
he had not learned his gospel from the other apostles but received
it by special revelation, actually avoiding intercourse with the
other apostles apart from Peter--a proposition certainly savouring
strongly of post-Pauline dialectic, as does the text (2 Cor. v, 16):
"Even though we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now we know
[him so] no more." Instead then of the Paulines, on the view of their
genuineness, confirming the conception of a remarkable personality
which had profoundly impressed those who came in contact with it,
they radically and unmanageably conflict with that conception. So
far Van Manen is justified.
If on the other hand we accept the strongly supported thesis that
they are all pseudepigraphic, the historicity of the gospels is in no
way accredited. We reach the view that early in the second century,
when such early gospels as the Matthew and Mark of Papias may be
supposed to have been current, even the devotees who wrote in Paul's
name took no interest in the human personality of Jesus, but were
concerned simply about the religious significance of his death. The
passages in First Corinthians (xi, 23 sq.; xv, 3 sq.) which deal with
the Supper and the Resurrection expressly repudiate knowledge of the
gospels; the first claiming to have "received of the Lord" the facts
retailed, and the second, after a similar formula, proffering data
not given in any gospel. And both passages have been demonstrably
interpolated, even if we do not pronounce them, as we are entitled
to do, interpolations as wholes. The first breaks the continuity
of an exhortation as to the proper way of eating the Lord's Supper;
the second is introduced (xv, 1) with a strange profession to "make
known unto you the gospel which I preached unto you." And even the
second passage, with its mention of "the twelve," excludes knowledge
of the story of Judas; while the first, at the point at which our
revisers translate "was betrayed," really says only "delivered up"
(paredidoto), which may or may not imply betrayal.
How Van Manen could find in all this any support for the gospel
story in general he never explained; and obviously no support
is given. Historically considered, the epistles undermine the
biographical theory whether we reckon them early or late, genuine
or pseudepigraphic. If early, they discredit completely the notion
of a historical Jesus of impressive personality. If as late as Van
Manen makes them (120-140) they tell not only of indifference to the
personality of Jesus but of ignorance of the gospel story as we have
it, strongly suggesting that the complete story of the tragedy was
yet unknown, and that only in still later interpolations, made before
the Judas story was current, was it to be indicated.
What is more, the Paulines, like other Epistles, tell of vital
unbelief as to the reality of Jesus. Paul is made to protest that
"some among you say that there is no resurrection of the dead"
(1 Cor. xv, 12). These Jesuists, then, held at most only a faith in
future salvation by virtue of the sacrament. So in First John it is
implied (iv, 2-3) that some of the adherents confess not that Jesus
is come in the flesh, which is declared to be the doctrine of "the
antichrist," a type of which "many" (ii, 18) have arisen.
We are critically forced, then, to the conclusion that for a century
after the alleged death of the Founder the Jesuist movement had either
no literature whatever save one of primarily Jewish documents such as
the Didachê or problematic short Pauline epistles which have either
disappeared or been absorbed in much longer documents of later date,
which in turn still tell of no Jesuine Sacred Books. All alike exclude
the conception of a historical Jesus of remarkable personality. In
the doctrinal quarrels which have already driven deep furrows in the
faith, the personality of Jesus counts for nothing. In that connection
no one cites any teaching of the Master. He is simply an abstract
sacrifice; and even in that aspect he is not clearly present in
the Jewish-Christian Didachê. Of his earthly parentage, domicile,
or career, there is not a word. Everything goes to confirm our
hypothesis that the cult is of ancient origin, rooted in a sacrament
which evolved out of a rite of human sacrifice and connected with
non-Jewish as well as Jewish myths which from the first tended to
the deification of the Slain One.
It remains, then, to consider the gospels anew as compilations made in
the second century of (1) previously current Jewish lore, written and
unwritten; (2) doctrinal elements indicated by the sectarian disputes
already active; (3) pseudo-historic elements justifying Messianic
doctrine and practice; and (4) the Mystery-Drama, now developed under
Gentile hands. Upon all this followed (5) the new theology and new
pseudo-biography of the fourth gospel, which was but another stage
in the general process of myth-making.