Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
are listed at the end of the text.
* * * * *
['e] signifies "e acute"; [`e] "e grave"; and so forth.
* * * * *
ELEMENTS
OF
GAELIC GRAMMAR
IN FOUR PARTS
I. OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY
II. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH
III. OF SYNTAX
IV. OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION
BY
ALEXANDER STEWART
MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL AT DINGWALL
HONORARY MEMBER OF THE HIGHLAND SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND
Royal Celtic Society Edition.
FOURTH EDITION REVISED.
WITH PREFACE BY THE REV. DR McLAUCHLAN
EDINBURGH
JOHN GRANT, GEORGE IV. BRIDGE
1892
* * * * *
{iii}
PREFACE.
* * * * *
For several years the Grammar of the Gaelic language by the Rev. Dr Stewart
of Moulin has been out of print. This has been a source of regret to
scholars and students of that tongue. Not but that there are other Grammars
of real value, which it would be unjust either to ignore or to depreciate,
and which have served, and are serving, an excellent purpose in connection
with Celtic Literature. But the Grammar of Dr Stewart has peculiar features
of its own which give it a permanent value. It is distinguished by its
simplicity, conciseness, and philosophical accuracy. No Grammar of any
language bears on its pages the marks of real and profound scholarship, in
so far as it goes, more than does the Grammar of Dr Stewart. One cannot
read a sentence of it without seeing how carefully he had collected his
materials, and with what judgment, caution, and sagacity he has compared
them and drawn his conclusions. His discussions upon the Article, the Noun,
the Verb, and the Preposition, are ample evidence of this. It is no doubt
true that a much fuller discussion is, with the more abundant resources of
modern scholarship, {iv} competent and desirable, but, so far as he goes,
Dr Stewart's treatment of the subject is of a masterly character.
That there are defects to be found in the work is very true. On the subject
of Syntax his disquisitions are deficient in fulness, and there is a want
of grammatical exercises throughout. It was at first thought desirable by
the publishers and their advisers to remedy these defects by introducing
fuller notices on the subject of Syntax, and a considerable number of
grammatical exercises from other sources open to them. But it was finally
deemed best in every view of it to give Stewart's work just as he had left
it, and that is done here with the exception of a list of subscribers'
names in the introduction. Messrs Maclachlan and Stewart are doing the
literary community a service in republishing this volume, and thanks are
specially due to the Royal Celtic Society of Edinburgh, a society which has
done much to foster the interests of education in the Highlands, and which
has given substantial aid towards the accomplishment of this undertaking.
THOS. MCLAUCHLAN.
EDINBURGH, _1st August 1876._
* * * * *
{v}
CONTENTS.
* * * * *
PAGE
INTRODUCTION.
PART I.
Of Pronunciation and Orthography, 1
PART II.
OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
CHAP. I.--Of the Article, 37
CHAP. II.--Of Nouns, 37
Of Gender, 38
Of Declension, 43
CHAP. III.--Of Adjectives, 55
Of Numeral Adjectives, 59
CHAP. IV.--Of Pronouns, 61
CHAP. V.--Of Verbs, 65
Formation of the Tenses, 76
Use and import of the Moods and Tenses, 85
Irregular Verbs, 95
Defective Verbs, 99
Reciprocating state of Verbs, 102
Impersonal use of Verbs, 105
Auxiliary Verbs, 107
CHAP. VI.--Of Adverbs, 109
CHAP. VII.--Of Prepositions, 116
Idiomatic phrases, 125
CHAP. VIII.--Of Conjunctions, 134
CHAP. IX.--Of Interjections, 136
{vi}
PART III.
OF SYNTAX.
CHAP. I.--Of Concord, 137
Sect. 1. Of the agreement of the Article with a Noun, 137
Sect. 2. Of the agreement of an Adjective with a Noun, 141
Sect. 3. Of the agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent, 146
Sect. 4. Of the agreement of a Verb with its Nominative, 149
Sect. 5. Of the agreement of one Noun with another, 152
CHAP. II.--Of Government, 154
Sect. 1. Of the Government of Nouns, 154
Sect. 2. Of the Government of Adjectives, 159
Sect. 3. Of the Government of Verbs, 159
Sect. 4. Of the Government of Adverbs, 160
Sect. 5. Of the Government of Prepositions, 160
Sect. 6. Of the Government of Conjunctions, 162
PART IV.
OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.
CHAP. I.--Of Derivation, 164
CHAP. II.--Of Composition, 168
Exercises in Reading, &c., 175
* * * * *
{vii}
INTRODUCTION.
* * * * *
The utility of a Grammar of the Scottish Gaelic will be variously
appreciated. Some will be disposed to deride the vain endeavour to restore
vigour to a decaying superannuated language. Those who reckon the
extirpation of the Gaelic a necessary step toward that general extension of
the English which they deem essential to the political interest of the
Highlands, will condemn every project which seems likely to retard its
extinction. Those who consider that there are many parts of the Highlands,
where the inhabitants can, at present, receive no useful knowledge whatever
except through the channel of their native tongue, will probably be of
opinion that the Gaelic ought at least to be tolerated. Yet these too may
condemn as useless, if not ultimately detrimental, any attempt to cultivate
its powers, or to prolong its existence. Others will entertain a different
opinion. They will judge from experience, as well as from the nature of the
case, that no measure merely of a literary kind will prevail to hinder the
progress of the English language over the Highlands; while general
convenience and emolument, not to mention private emulation and vanity,
conspire to facilitate its introduction, and prompt the natives to its
acquisition. They {viii} will perceive at the same time, that while the
Gaelic continues to be the common speech of multitudes,--while the
knowledge of many important facts, of many necessary arts, of morals, of
religion, and of the laws of the land, can be conveyed to them only by
means of this language,--it must be of material service to preserve it in
such a state of cultivation and purity, as that it may be fully adequate to
these valuable ends; in a word, that while it is a living language, it may
answer the purpose of a living language.
To those who wish for an uniformity of speech over the whole kingdom, it
may not be impertinent to suggest one remark. The more that the human mind
is enlightened, the more desirous it becomes of farther acquisitions in
knowledge. The only channel through which the rudiments of knowledge can be
conveyed to the mind of a remote Highlander is the Gaelic language. By
learning to read and to understand what he reads, in his native tongue, an
appetite is generated for those stores of science which are accessible to
him only through the medium of the English language. Hence an acquaintance
with the English is found to be necessary for enabling him to gratify his
desire after further attainments. The study of it becomes, of course, an
object of importance; it is commenced, and prosecuted with increasing
diligence. These premises seem to warrant a conclusion which might at first
appear paradoxical, that, by cultivating the Gaelic, you effectually,
though indirectly, promote the study and diffuse the knowledge of the
English.
To public teachers it is of the highest moment that the medium through
which their instructions are communicated be properly adapted to that use,
and that they be enabled to avail themselves of it in the fittest manner. A
language destitute of grammatical regularity can possess neither {ix}
perspicuity nor precision, and must therefore be very inadequate to the
purpose of conveying one's thoughts. The Gaelic is in manifest danger of
falling into this discreditable condition, from the disuse of old idioms
and distinctions, and the admission of modern corruptions, unless means be
applied to prevent its degenerating. It is obvious that a speaker cannot
express himself with precision without a correct knowledge of grammar. When
he is conscious of his ignorance in this respect, he must deliver himself
sometimes ambiguously or erroneously, always with diffidence and
hesitation, whereas one who has an accurate knowledge of the structure and
phraseology of the language he speaks, will seldom fail to utter his
thoughts with superior confidence, energy, and effect.
A competent degree of this knowledge is requisite to the hearer also, to
enable him to apprehend the full import and the precise force of the words
of the speaker. Among the readers of Gaelic, who are every day becoming
more numerous, those only who have studied it grammatically are qualified
to understand accurately what they read, and to explain it distinctly to
others. Yet it cannot be denied that comparatively few ever arrive at a
correct, or even a tolerable knowledge of grammar, without the help of a
treatise composed for the purpose. Whoever, therefore, allows that the
Gaelic must be employed in communicating to a large body of people the
knowledge of revealed Truth and the way of eternal Life, will readily admit
the extensive utility of investigating and unfolding its grammatical
principles. Impressed with this conviction, I have been induced to offer to
the public the following attempt to develop the grammar of the Scottish
Gaelic.
While I have endeavoured to render this treatise useful to those who wish
to improve the knowledge of Gaelic which {x} they already possess, I have
also kept in view the gratification of others, who do not understand the
Gaelic, but yet may be desirous to examine the structure and properties of
this ancient language. To serve both these purposes, I have occasionally
introduced such observations on the analogy between the Gaelic idiom and
that of some other tongues, particularly the Hebrew, as a moderate
knowledge of these enabled me to collect. The Irish dialect of the Gaelic
is the nearest cognate of the Scottish Gaelic. An intimate acquaintance
with its vocables and structure, both ancient and modern, would have been
of considerable use. This I cannot pretend to have acquired. I have not
failed, however, to consult, and to derive some advantage from such Irish
philologists as were accessible to me, particularly O'Molloy, O'Brien,
Vallancey, and Lhuyd. To these very respectable names I have to add that of
the Rev. Dr Neilson, author of "An Introduction to the Irish Language,"
Dublin, 1808, and E. O'C., author of "A Grammar of the Gaelic Language,"
Dublin, 1808; to the latter of whom I am indebted for some good-humoured
strictures, and some flattering compliments, which, however unmerited, it
were unhandsome not to acknowledge. I know but one publication professedly
on the subject of Gaelic grammar written by a Scotsman[1]. I have consulted
it also, but in this quarter I have no obligations to acknowledge.
With respect to my literary countrymen who are proficients in the Gaelic,
and who may cast an eye on this volume, less with a view to learn than to
criticise, while I profess a due deference to their judgment, and declare
my anxiety to obtain their favourable suffrage, I must take the liberty to
entreat their attention to the following considerations.
{xi}
The subject of Universal Grammar has been examined in modern times with a
truly philosophical spirit, and has been settled on rational and stable
principles; yet, in applying these principles to explain the grammar of a
particular language, the divisions, the arrangements, and the rules to be
given are, in a good measure, mechanical and arbitrary. One set of rules
may be equally just with another. For what is it that grammatical rules do?
They bring into view the various parts, inflections, or, as they may be
termed, the _phenomena_ of a language, and class them together in a certain
order. If these _phenomena_ be all brought forward, and stated according as
they actually appear in the language, the rules may be said to be both just
and complete. Different sets of rules may exhibit the same things in a
different order, and yet may all be equally just. The superiority seems, on
a comparison, to belong to that system which follows most nearly the order
of nature, or the process of the mind in forming the several inflections;
or rather, perhaps, to that system which, from its simplicity, or clear and
comprehensive arrangement, is most fitted to assist the memory in acquiring
and retaining the parts of speech with their several inflections.
In distributing the various parts of language into their several classes,
and imposing names on them, we ought always to be guided by the nature of
that language, and to guard against adopting, with inconsiderate servility,
the distributions and technical terms of another. This caution is the more
necessary because, in our researches into the grammar of any particular
tongue, we are apt to follow implicitly the order of the Latin grammar, on
which we have been long accustomed to fix our attention, and which we are
ever ready to erect into a model for the grammar of all languages. To force
the several parts of speech into moulds formed for the {xii} idioms of the
Latin tongue, and to frame them so as to suit a nomenclature adapted to the
peculiarities of Latin grammar, must have the effect of disguising or
concealing the peculiarities, and confounding the true distinctions, which
belong to the language under discussion.
Although, in treating of Gaelic grammar, the caution here suggested ought
never to be forgotten, yet it is needless to reject indiscriminately all
the forms and terms introduced into the grammar of other languages. Where
the same classifications which have been employed in the grammar of the
Latin, or of any other well-known tongue, will suit the Gaelic also, it is
but a convenient kind of courtesy to adopt these, and apply to them the
same names which are already familiar to us.
In stating the result of my researches into Gaelic grammar, I have
endeavoured to conform to these general views. The field of investigation
was wide, and almost wholly untrodden. My task was not to fill up or
improve the plan of any former writer, but to form a plan for myself. In
the several departments of my subject that distribution was adopted which,
after various trials, appeared the most eligible. When there were terms
already in use in the grammars of other languages that suited tolerably
well the divisions which it was found requisite to make, I chose to adopt
these, rather than load the treatise with novel or uncommon terms. If their
import was not sufficiently obvious already, it was explained, either by
particular description, or by reference to the use of these terms in other
grammars. In some instances it was found necessary to employ less common
terms, but in the choice of these I endeavoured to avoid the affectation of
technical nicety. I am far from being persuaded that I am so fortunate as
to have hit on the best possible plan. I am certain that it must {xiii} be
far from complete. To such charges a first essay must necessarily be found
liable. Still there is room to hope that the work may not prove wholly
useless or unacceptable. Imperfect as it is, I may be allowed to think I do
a service of its kind to my countrymen by frankly offering the fruits of my
labour to such as may choose to make use of them. It has been, if I mistake
not, the misfortune of Gaelic grammar that its ablest friends have done
nothing directly in its support, because they were apprehensive that they
could not do everything.
I confess that my circumscribed knowledge of the varieties of dialect used
in different parts of the Highlands, may have left me unacquainted with
some genuine Gaelic idioms which ought to be noticed in a work of this
kind. The same cause may have led me to assert some things in too general
terms, not being sufficiently informed concerning the exceptions which may
be found in use in some particular districts. I respectfully invite, and
will thankfully receive, the correction of any person whose more accurate
and extensive information enables him to supply my omissions, or to rectify
my mistakes.
In a few particulars I have differed from some of the highest living
authorities,--I mean those gentlemen whose superior abilities are so
conspicuous in the masterly translation of the sacred Scriptures with which
the Highlands of Scotland are now blessed.[2] Here I have been careful to
{xiv} state the grounds on which my judgment was formed. In doing this, I
would always be understood to advance my opinion and propose my reasons
with the view of suggesting them to the consideration of my countrymen,
rather than in the expectation of having my conclusions universally
sustained and adopted.
Among my grammatical readers, it is probable that some may have formed to
themselves arrangements on the subjects different from mine. Of these I
have to request that they do not form a hasty judgment of the work from a
partial inspection of it, nor condemn it merely because it may differ from
their preconceived schemes. Let them indulge me with a patient perusal of
the whole, and a candid comparison of the several parts of the system with
each other. To a judicious critic, some faults and many defects may appear,
and several improvements will occur. On this supposition, I have one
request more to make: that he join his efforts with mine in serving a
common cause, interesting to our country, and dear to every patriotic
Highlander.
* * * * *
{xv}
ADVERTISEMENT
TO THE
SECOND EDITION.
* * * * *
In preparing a Second Edition of the following treatise, the author has
endeavoured to avail himself of every assistance in his power, from books,
observation, and the communications of some literary friends, to whom he is
indebted for several judicious remarks. In comparing the opinions of
different critics, it was not to be expected that all should be found to
agree together. It sometimes happened that one approved what another would
have rejected. If the author has not adopted every hint that was offered
him, but used the privilege of exercising his own judgment, the
responsibility must rest with himself. He hopes those gentlemen who most
obligingly favoured him with their remarks will forgive him for mentioning
their names, for he is unwilling to withhold from the public the
satisfaction of knowing that he has had the best assistance which his
country could afford him in compiling and modelling his work. He thankfully
acknowledges his obligations to the Rev. Dr Robertson, of Callander; Dr
Graham, of Aberfoyle; Dr Stuart, of Luss; Dr Macleod, of Kilmarnock; and Mr
Irvine, of Little Dunkeld.
From these sources of emendation, omissions have been {xvi} supplied,
idiomatic phrases have been collected and inserted, some alterations have
been made by simplifying or compressing particular parts, and new examples
and illustrations have been introduced throughout, according as the
advantages which the author enjoyed enabled him to extend his knowledge of
the language, and served to correct, or to confirm, his former judgments.
He thought it might be acceptable to Gaelic scholars to have a few lessons
subjoined as exercises in translating and analysing. For this purpose he
has selected some specimens of original prose composition, extracted from
unpublished manuscripts, and from the oldest Gaelic books that are known to
be extant. These specimens, short as they are, may suffice to exhibit
something of the powers and elegances of the language in its native purity,
unmixed with foreign words and idioms, as well as to show the manner in
which it was written two or three centuries ago.
The present edition owes its existence to the generous patronage of Sir
John Macgregor Murray of Lanrick, Bart., to whom the author is happy in
avowing his obligations for the unsolicited and liberal encouragement given
him in the execution and publication of his work. To the same gentleman he
is indebted for the honour of being permitted here to record the names of
those patriotic sons of Caledonia who, in concert with the honourable
baronet, and at his suggestion, though residing in the remote provinces of
India, yet mindful of their country's fame, contributed a liberal sum of
money for promoting Celtic literature, more especially for publishing the
poems of Ossian in their original language. It is owing, in a principal
degree, to their munificent aid, that the anxious expectation of the public
has been at last so richly gratified by Sir John Sinclair's elegant and
elaborate edition of the poems of that tender and lofty bard.
* * * * *
{1}
ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR.
* * * * *
PART I.
OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY.
The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h,
i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, u; the
rest consonants.
In explaining the powers of the letters, and of their several combinations,
such obstacles lie in the way that complete success is not to be expected.
In order to explain, in writing, the sounds of a particular language, the
only obvious method is to represent them by the letters commonly employed
to exhibit similar sounds in some well-known living language. But there are
sounds in the Gaelic to which there are none perfectly similar in English,
nor perhaps in any modern European tongue. Besides, the same combination of
letters does not invariably represent the same sound in one age that it did
in a former, or that it may do in the next. And this may be equally true of
the letters of the Gaelic alphabet, whose powers are to be taught; and of
the letters of any other language, by whose sounds the powers of the former
are to be explained. A diversity of pronunciation is very distinguishable
also in different districts of the Highlands of Scotland, even in uttering
the same words written in the same manner. Though the powers of the
letters, then, may be explained to a certain degree of accuracy, yet much
will still remain to be learned by the information of the ear alone. {2}
Although the chief use of the vowels be to represent the _vocal sounds_ of
speech, and that of the consonants to represent its _articulations_, yet,
as in many languages, so in Gaelic, the consonants sometimes serve to
modify the sound of the vowels with which they are combined; while, on the
other hand, the vowels often qualify the sound of the consonants by which
they are preceded or followed.
It may not appear obvious at first sight how a vowel should be employed,
not to represent a vocal sound, but to modify an articulation. Yet examples
are to be found in modern languages. Thus, in the English words, George,
sergeant, the _e_ has no other effect than to give _g_ its soft sound; and
in guest, guide, the _u_ only serves to give _g_ its hard sound. So in the
Italian words giorno, giusto, and many others, the _i_ only qualifies the
sound of the preceding consonant. The same use of the vowels will be seen
to take place frequently in Gaelic orthography.
Besides the common division of the letters into Vowels and Consonants, it
is found convenient to adopt some further subdivisions.
The Vowels are divided into _broad_ and _small_: a, o, u, are called
_broad_ vowels; e, i, _small_ vowels.
The Consonants are divided into _Mutes_ and _Liquids_: _Mutes_, b, c, d, f,
g, m, p, t; _Liquids_, l, n, r, s[3]. They are also divided into _Labials_,
_Palatals_, and _Linguals_, so named from the organs employed in
pronouncing them: _Labials_, b, f, m, p; _Palatals_, c, g; _Linguals_, d,
l, n, r, s, t.
The aspirate _h_ is not included in any of these divisions[4].
{3}
OF THE SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS[5].
All the vowels are sometimes long, sometimes short. A long vowel is often
marked with an accent, especially when the _quantity_ of the vowel
determines the meaning of the word; as, b[`a]s _death_, s[`a]il _the heel_,
c[`a]raid _a pair_, r[`i]s _again_, m[`o] _more_, l[`o]n _a marsh_; which
are distinguished by the accent alone from bas _the palm_ of the hand, sail
_a beam_, caraid _a friend_, ris _to_, lon _the elk_.
All the vowels, but especially the broad ones, have somewhat of a nasal
sound when preceded or followed by m, mh, n, nn. No vowels are doubled in
the same syllable like _ee_, _oo_, in English.
In almost all polysyllables, excepting some words compounded with a
preposition, the accent falls on the first syllable[6]. The other syllables
are short and unaccented, and the vowels in that situation have in general
the same short obscure sound. Hence it happens that the broad vowels in
these syllables are often used indiscriminately.
There are no quiescent final vowels.
A.
A has three sounds.
1. The first is both long and short; long, like _a_ in the English words
_far_, _star_; as, [`a]r _slaughter_, [`a]th _a ford_, gr[`a]dh, {4}
_love_, s[`a]ruich _oppress_; short, like _a_ in _that_; as, cath _a
battle_, alt _a joint_; abuich _ripe_.
2. Both long and short, before _dh_ and _gh_. This sound has none like it
in English. Long, as, adhbhar _a cause_, adhradh _worship_; short, as, lagh
_a law_, magh _a field_, adharc _a horn_.
3. Short and obscure, like _e_ in _mother_; as, an, a _the_, ar _our_, ma
_if_, and in the plural termination a or an.
E.
_E_ has three sounds.
1. Both long and short: long, like _e_ in _where, there_; as, [`e], s[`e]
_he_, r[`e] _during_. This _e_ is generally marked with a grave accent.
Short, like _e_ in _met_; as, le _with_, leth _half_.
2. Long, as, r['e] _the moon_, c['e] _the earth_, and d['e] _yesterday_.
This _e_ is commonly marked with an acute accent.
3. Short, like _e_ in _mother_; as, duine _a man_, ceannuichte _bought_.
I.
_I_ has two sounds.
1. Both long and short, like _ee_ in _seem_: long, as, m[`i]n _smooth_,
righ _a king_; short, as, min _meal_, crith _trembling_.
2. Short and obscure, like _i_ in _this_; as, is _am_, _art_, &c.
O.
_O_ has three sounds.
1. Both long and short: long, somewhat like _o_ in _more_; as, m[`o]r
_great_, [`o]r _gold_, d[`o]chas _expectation_; short, like _o_ in _hot_;
as, mo _my_, do _thy_, dochann _harm_.
2. Both long and short: long, nearly like _o_ in _old_; as, lom _bare_,
toll _a hole_; short, as, lomadh _making bare_, tolladh _boring_.
3. Both long and short, like (2) a[7]: long, as, foghlum _to learn_; short,
as, roghuinn _choice_, logh _to forgive_.
{5}
U.
_U_ has one sound, both long and short, like _oo_ in _fool_: long, as,
[`u]r _fresh_, [`u]raich _to renew_; short, as, ubh _an egg_, urras _a
surety_.
OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
There are thirteen Diphthongs reckoned in Gaelic; ae, ai, ao, ea, ei, eo,
eu; ia, io, iu; oi; ua, ui. Of these, ao, eu, ia, ua, are always long; the
others are sometimes long, sometimes short.
AE.
The sound of _ae_ is made up of (1) _a_ long, and (1) _e_ short. This
diphthong hardly occurs, except in Gael _a Gaul_ or _Highlander_, and
Gaelic the _Gaelic_ language[8].
AI.
The sound of _ai_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or
like that of the former.
1. Made up of (1) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as,
f[`a]idh _a prophet_; the _a_ short, the _i_ short; as, claidheamh _a
sword_.
2. Made up of (2) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as, saighde
_arrows_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ often loses its
sound, and only serves to qualify the sound of the following consonant[9];
hence,
3. Like (1) _a_ alone: long, as, f[`a]isg _squeeze_, f[`a]ilte
_salutation_; short, as, glaic _a hollow_, tais _soft_.
4. Like (2) _a_ alone: short, as, airm _arms_, gairm _a call_.
AO.
1. The sound of _ao_ is like (2) _a_, long: as, caora _a sheep_, faobhar
_the edge of a tool_, saothair _labour_.
{6}
EA.
The sound of _ea_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or
like that of one of them.
1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _a_: _e_ very short, _a_ long, as, beann _a
summit_, _pinnacle_, feall _deceit_; _a_ short, as, meal _to enjoy_, speal
_a scythe_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _a_ frequently loses its
sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _e_, long: as, dean _do_; short, as, fear _a man_, bean _a
woman_.
3. Like (2) _e_, long: as, easlan _sick_; short, as, fead _whistle_.
After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and
only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,
4. Like (1) _a_, long: as, c[`e]ard _an artificer_; short, as, geal
_white_.
5. Like (3) _a_, short: as, itheadh _eating_, coireach _faulty_.
EI.
The sound of _ei_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or
like that of _e_ alone.
1. Made up of (1) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, sgeimh
_beauty_; _e_ short, as, meidh _a balance_.
2. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, feidh _deer_;
_e_ short, as, greigh _a herd_, _stud_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and
only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
3. Like (1) _e_ alone: long, as, m[`e]ise _of a plate_.
4. Like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, ['e]igin _necessity_; short, as, eich
_horses_.
EO.
The sound of _eo_ is either made up of the sounds of both vowels, or like
that of _o_ alone. {7}
1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _o_: _e_ very short, _o_ long, as, beo
_alive_, eolas _knowledge_; _o_ short, as, beothail _lively_.
After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and
only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _o_: long, as, leomhann _a lion_; short, as, deoch _drink_.
EU.
The sound of _eu_ is like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, teum _to bite_, gleus
_trim, entertainment_.
One of the most marked variations of dialect occurs in the pronunciation of
the diphthong _eu_, which, instead of being pronounced like long _e_, is
over all the North Highlands commonly pronounced like _ia_; as, nial, ian,
fiar, for neul, eun, feur.
IA.
The sound of _ia_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels.
1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _a_: both of equal length, as, fial
_liberal_, iar _west_.
2. Made up of (1) _i_ and (2) _a_: of equal length, as, fiadh _a deer_,
ciall _common sense_.
In cia _which?_ iad _they_, _ia_ is often found like (1) _[`e]_.
IO.
The sound of _io_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or
like one of them alone.
1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (3) _o_: _i_ long, _o_ short, as, diol _to pay_,
fior _true_; _i_ short, as, iolach _a shout_, ionnsuidh _an attack_.
Before a Lingual or Palatal, not quiescent, the _o_ sometimes loses its
sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _i_: long, as, iodhol _an idol_; short, as, crios _a girdle_,
biorach _pointed_.
After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ {8} sometimes loses
its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,
3. Like _u_ in _fun_, short and obscure: as, cionta _guilt_, tiondadh _to
turn_.
IU.
The sound of _iu_ is either made up of the sound of both the vowels, or
like _u_ alone.
1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _u_: _i_ short, _u_ long, as, fi[`u]
_worthy_; _u_ short, as, iuchair _a key_.
After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and
only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _u_: long, as, di[`u] _worst part, refuse_; short, as, tiugh
_thick_, giuthas _fir_.
OI.
The sound of _oi_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or
like that of _o_ alone.
1. Made up of (1) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, [`o]igh _a
virgin_; _o_ short, as, troidh _a foot_.
2. Made up of (3) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, oidhche
_night_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and
only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
3. Like (1) _o_ long: as, m[`o]id _more_; short, as, toic _wealth_.
4. Like (2) _o_ long: as, f[`o]id _a turf_; short, as, fois _rest_.
5. Like (3) _o_ short; as, coileach _a cock_, doire _a wood_.
UA.
The sound of _ua_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels.
1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _a_, equally long; as, cuan _the sea_, fuar
_cold_.
2. Made up of (1) _u_ and (2) _a_; as, tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_.
{9}
UI.
The sound of _ui_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or
like that of _u_ alone.
1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _i_: _u_ long, _i_ short, as, suigheag _a
rasp-berry_; _u_ short, as, buidheann _a company_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and
only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _u_ long: as, d[`u]il _expectation_, c[`u]ig _five_; short, as,
fuil _blood_, muir _the sea_.
OF THE TRIPHTHONGS.
There are five Triphthongs, in each of which _i_ is the last letter: aoi,
eoi, iai, iui, uai. In these the two first vowels have the same sounds and
powers as when they form a diphthong. The final _i_ is sounded short; but
before a Palatal or a Lingual, not quiescent, it loses its sound, and only
qualifies that of the following consonant.
AOI.
1. Made up of _ao_ and (1) _i_; as, caoidh _lamentation_, aoibhneas _joy_,
laoigh _calves_.
2. Like _ao_; as, caoineadh _wailing_, maoile _baldness_.
EOI.
1. Made up of (2) _eo_ and (1) _i_; as, geoigh _geese_.
2. Like (1) _eo_; as, meoir _fingers_.
3. Like (2) _eo_; as, deoir _tears_, treoir _ability_.
IAI.
1. Like (1) _ia_; as, fiaire _more awry_.
IUI.
1. Like (2) _iu_; as, ci[`u]il _of music_, fliuiche _more wet_. {10}
UAI.
1. Made up of (1) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, luaithe _quicker_.
2. Made up of (2) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_.
3. Like (1) _ua_; as, uair _time, an hour_, cluaise _of an ear_.
OF THE POWERS OF THE CONSONANTS.
The simple powers of the consonants differ not much from their powers in
English. Those called _mediae_ by the writers on Greek grammar, viz., _b_,
_d_, _g_, approach nearer in force to the corresponding _tenues_ _p_, _t_,
_c_, than they do in English.
In accented syllables, where, if the vocal sound be short, the voice
necessarily rests on the subsequent articulation, the consonants, though
written single, are pronounced with the same degree of force as when
written double in English; as, bradan _a salmon_, cos _a foot_; pronounced
braddan, coss. No consonants are written double except _l_, _n_, _r_.
A propensity to aspiration is a conspicuous feature in the Gaelic
tongue[10]. The aspirating of a consonant has been {11} usually marked, in
the Irish dialect, by a dot over the letter aspirated; in the Scottish
dialect by writing _h_ after it. All the consonants have their sounds
changed by being aspirated, and the effect is different on different
consonants. In some cases the articulation is changed, but still formed by
the same organ. In others the articulation is formed by a different organ.
In others the _h_ alone retains its power. And sometimes both the _h_ and
the consonant to which it is subjoined become entirely quiescent.
{12}
In treating of the consonants separately, it will be convenient to depart a
little from the alphabetical order of the letters, and to consider first
the _Labials_, next the _Palatals_, and lastly the _Linguals_.
LABIALS.
P.
1. Plain. Like _p_ in English; as, poll _a pool_, pill _return_.
2. Aspirated. Like _ph_ or _f_ in English; as, a' phuill _of the pool_,
phill _returned_[11].
B.
1. Plain. Like _b_ in English; as, baile _a town_, beo _alive_.
2. Aspirated. Like _v_ in English, as, bhuail _struck_. In the end of a
syllable the articulation is sometimes feeble, and often passes into the
vocal sound of _u_[12]; as in marbh[13] _dead_, garbh _rough_, dabhach _a
vat_.
M.
1. Plain. Like _m_ in English; as, mac _a son_, cam _crooked_.
2. Aspirated. Somewhat like _v_ in English, but more feeble and nasal; as,
mhathair _O mother_, lamh _the hand_. The sound _mh_ has the same relation
to that of _bh_, as the sound of _m_ has to that of b. Sometimes, like
_bh_, it becomes a vocal sound like a nasal _u_; as, in damh _an ox_,
samhradh _summer_: and sometimes the articulation becomes so feeble as not
to be perceived; as, comhradh _speech_, domhainn _deep_.
{13}
F.
1. Plain. Like _f_ in English, as, faigh _to get_, f[`o]id _a turf_.
2. Aspirated. Quiescent; as, fheara _O men_. In fhuair _found_, the
aspiration is retained, and the word is pronounced as if written _huair_.
It is probable that it was originally written and pronounced fuair[14];
that huair is but a provincial pronunciation[15]; and that to adapt the
spelling in some shape to this pronunciation, the word came to be written
fhuair.
PALATALS AND LINGUALS.
In treating of the Diphthongs (ai, ea, ei, &c.) notice has been often taken
of the powers of certain vowels in modifying the sound of the adjoining
consonants. This refers to a twofold mode of pronouncing the Palatal and
Lingual consonants, whether _plain_ or _aspirated_. The difference between
these two modes of pronunciation is, in some consonants, abundantly
striking; in others it is minute, but sufficiently discernible to an ear
accustomed to the Gaelic. The one of these modes of articulation belongs to
Palatals and Linguals, chiefly when connected with a _broad vowel_; the
other belongs to them when connected with a _small vowel_. Hence, the
former may be called the _broad_ sound, the latter the _small_ sound of a
_Palatal_ or a _Lingual_.
These sounds are not distinguished in writing, but may be known, for the
most part, by the relative situation of the letters.
C.
1. Plain. _Broad_: like _c_ in _come_, _curb_; as, c[`u]l _the back_,
cridhe _the heart_.
{14}
2. _Small_: like _c_ in _care_, _cure_; as, taic _support_, circe _of a
hen_[16].
3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like the Greek [chi], as pronounced in Scotland, in
[Greek: chora]; as, croch _to hang_, chaidh _went_.
4. _Small_: like [chi] in [Greek: chion]; as, chi _shall see_, eich
_horses_.
G.
1. Plain. _Broad_: like _g_ in _go_, _rogue_; as, gabh _to take_, glor
_speech_, bog _soft_.
2. _Small_: like _g_ in _give_, _fatigue_; as, gin _to produce_, thig
_shall come_, tilg _to throw_.
3. Aspirated. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; ghabh _took_,
ghleidh _kept_.
4. _Small_: nearly like _y_ in _young_; as, ghin _produced_.
5. _Gh_ in the end of a syllable is often quiescent; as, righ _a king_,
tiugh _thick_, fuigheall _remainder_.
T.
1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _t_ in _tone_, _bottom_; as, tog _to raise_,
trom _heavy_, brat _a covering_.
{15}
2. _Small_: like _ch_ in _cheek_, _choose_; as, tinn _sick_, caillte
_lost_.
3. Aspirated. Like _h_ in _house_; as, thig _shall come_, throisg _fasted_,
maith _good_.
4. _Quiescent_: in the middle of a polysyllable, in the end of a long
syllable, and in certain tenses of a few irregular verbs when preceded by
_d'_; as, snitheach[17] _watery_, s[`i]th _peace_, an d' thug e? _did he
give?_ also in the pronoun thusa _thou_.
D.
1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _d_ in _done_; as, dol _going_, dl[`u]
_near_, _close_, ciod _what_.
2. _Small_: like _j_ in _June_, _jewel_; as, di[`u] _refuse_, maide _a
stick_, airde _height_.
_D_, after _ch_, is commonly sounded like _c_; as, bochd _poor_, pronounced
as if written bochc[18].
{16}
3. Aspirated[19]. _Broad_: like broad _gh_, as, dhruid _did shut_, gradh
_love_.
4. _Small_: like small _gh_; as, dhearc _looked_.
5. Quiescent; as, f[`a]idh _a prophet_, cridhe _a heart_, radh _saying_,
bualadh _striking_.
RULE.--_The consonants c, g, t, d, have their _SMALL_ sound, when, in the
same syllable, they are preceded, or immediately followed, by a _SMALL
VOWEL_; in all other situations they have their _BROAD_ sound._
S.
1. Plain. _Broad_: like _s_ in _sun_, _this_; as, speal _a scythe_, cas _a
foot_, s[`u]il _an eye_, scian _a knife_.
2. _Small_: like _sh_ in _show_, _rash_; as, bris _to break_, s[`e]imh
_quiet_, sniomh _to twine_, st['e]idh _foundation_.
3. Aspirated: like _h_ in _him_; as, shuidh _sat_, shrann _snorted_. Before
_l_ and _n_, it is almost, if not altogether, quiescent; as, shlanuich
_healed_, shniomh _twisted_. _S_ followed by a _mute_ consonant is never
aspirated.
RULE.--_S has its _SMALL_ sound, when, in the same syllable, it is preceded
or followed by a _SMALL VOWEL_, with or without an intervening Lingual. In
all other situations it has its _BROAD_ sound._ EXCEPT. _S_ is _broad_ in
is _am_. It is _small_ in so _this_, sud _yon_. It is customary to give _s_
its _broad_ sound in the beginning of a word, when the former word ends
with _r_, in which case the _r_ also has its broad sound; as, chuir sinn
_we put_, air son _on account_.
{17}
OF L, N, R.
A distinction between a consonant when _plain_, and the same consonant when
_aspirated_, has been easily traced thus far. This distinction readily
discovers itself, not only in the pronunciation and orthography, but also
(as will be seen in its proper place) throughout the system of inflection.
It takes place uniformly in those consonants which have been already
considered. With respect to the remaining linguals, _l_, _n_, _r_, a
corresponding distinction will be found to take place in their
pronunciation, and likewise in the changes they suffer by inflection. This
close correspondence between the changes incident to _l_, _n_, _r_, and the
changes which the other consonants undergo, seems to be a sufficient reason
for still using the same discriminative terms in treating of their powers,
though these terms may not appear to be so strictly applicable to these
three consonants as to the rest. The powers of _l_, _n_, _r_, shall
accordingly be explained under the divisions _plain_ and _aspirated_,
_broad_ and _small_.
L.
1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; lom _bare_, labhair
_speak_, mall _slow_, alt _a joint_, ald _a brook_, slat _a rod_, dl[`u]
_near_.
2. _Small_: like _ll_ in _million_; as, linn _an age_, lion _fill_, pill
_to return_, slighe _a way_.
3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like _l_ in _loom_, _fool_; as, labhair _spoke_, lom
feminine of lom _bare_, mol _to praise_, dhl[`u] feminine of dl[`u] _near_.
4. _Small:_ nearly like _l_ in _limb_, _fill_; as, a linn _his age_, lion
_filled_, mil _honey_, dligheach _due, lawful_.
N.
1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; nuadh _new_, naisg
_bind_, lann _a blade_, carn _a heap of stones_.
2. _Small_: like _n_ in the second syllable of _opinion_; as, nigh _wash_,
binn _melodious_, cuirn _heaps of stones_. {18}
3. Aspirated. _Broad:_ like _n_ in _no_, _on_; as, nuadh feminine of nuadh
_new_, naisg _bound_, shnamh _swam_, sean _old_[20], chon _of dogs_, d[`a]n
_a poem_.
4. _Small_: like _n_ in _keen_, _near_; as, nigh _washed_, shniomh
_twisted_, coin _dogs_, d[`a]in _poems_.
In an when followed by a Palatal, the _n_ is pronounced like _ng_ in
English; as, an gille _the lad_, an comhnuidh _always_.
_N_, after a mute, is in a few instances pronounced like _r_[21]; as in
mnathan _women_, cnatan _a cold_, an t-sn[`a]th _of the yarn_; pronounced
mrathan, cratan, &c.
R.
1. Plain. Nearly like _r_ in _roar_; as, ruadh _reddish_, righ _a king_,
ruith _run_, torr _a heap_, ceartas _justice_.
2. Aspirated. _Broad_: nearly like _r_ in _rear_; as, car _a turn_, ruith
_ran_, m[`o]r _great_.
3. _Small_: has no sound like it in English; a righ _O king_, seirbhe
_satiety_, m[`o]ir gen. of m[`o]r _great_.
The _plain_, _aspirated_, _broad_, and _small_ sounds of these Linguals are
not distinguished in writing; but they may, for the most part, be known
from the relative position of the letters.
RULE.--L, N, R, _have their _PLAIN_ sound when, in the same syllable, they
are immediately preceded by a plain Liquid, or immediately followed by a
plain Lingual; also in the beginning of certain cases and tenses; in all
other situations, they have their _ASPIRATED_ sound. They have their
_SMALL_ sound when, in the same syllable, they are preceded or followed by
a small vowel, with or without an intervening Liquid; in other situations,
they have their _BROAD_ sound._
{19}
H.
H is never used as an independent radical letter. When prefixed to a word
beginning with a vowel, it is pronounced like h in _how_; as, na
h-[`o]ighean _the virgins_, na h-oidhche _of the night_.
The following scheme exhibits a succinct view of the letters, both singly
and in their several combinations. The first column contains the letters
whose sound is to be exhibited; the prefixed figures marking the number of
different sounds denoted by the same letter. The second column explains the
sounds by examples or by references. The third column contains Gaelic
words, with their translation, in which the several sounds are exemplified.
VOWELS.
1 a {long far star [`a]r _slaughter_, [`a]th _a ford_.
{short that ar _to plow_, abu[^i]ch _ripe_.
2 a {long adhradh _worship_, adhbhar _reason_.
{short adharc _a horn_, adhart _a bolster_.
3 a short similar ma _if_, an _the_, a _his, her_.
1 e {long there [`e] s[`e] _he_, gn[`e] _sort, kind_.
{short met le _with_, leth _half_.
2 e long an d['e] _yesterday_, c['e] _the earth_.
3 e short mother duine _a man_, briste _broken_.
1 i see {m[`i]n _smooth_, righ _a king_.
{min _meal_, crith _a shaking_.
2 i short this is _am, art, is_.
1 o {long more m[`o]r _great_, l[`o]n _food_.
{short hot mo _my_, do _thy_, lon _the ouzle_.
2 o {long } old lom _bare_, toll _a hole_.
{short} lomadh _making bare_.
3 o {long } (2) a roghnuich _to choose_.
{short} roghuinn _choice_.
{20}
1 u {long } fool {[`u]r _fresh_, s[`u]gh _juice_.
{short} {ubh _an egg_, tur _quite_.
DIPHTHONGS.
1 ae (1) a (2) e laeth _days_.
1 ai (1) a (1) i f[`a]idh _a prophet_, claidheamh _a sword_.
2 ai (2) a (1) i saidhbhir, _rich_.
3 ai (1) a f[`a]isg _squeeze_, tais _soft_.
4 ai (2) a airm _arms_, gairm _to call_.
1 ao (2) a faobhar _edge_ of an instrument.
1 ea (2) e (1) a beann _a pinnacle_, meal _enjoy_.
2 ea (1) e dean _to do, make_, bean _a woman_.
3 ea (2) e easlan _sick_, fead _whistle_.
4 ea (1) a ceard _an artificer_, geal _white_.
5 ea (3) a coireach _faulty_.
1 ei (1) e (1) i sg[`e]imh _beauty_, meidh _a balance_.
2 ei (2) e (1) i feidh _deer_, greigh _a herd_.
3 ei (1) e m[`e]ise _of a plate_.
4 ei (2) e ['e]igin _necessity_, eich _horses_.
1 eo (2) e (1) o beo _alive_, beothail _lively_.
2 eo (1) o leomhann _a lion_, deoch _a drink_.
1 eu (2) e teum _to bite_, gleus _trim_.
1 ia (1) i (1) a fial _liberal_, fiar _oblique_.
2 ia (1) i (2) a fiadh _a deer_, biadh _food_.
1 io (1) i (3) o diol _to pay_, iolach _a spout_.
2 io (1) i iodhol _an idol_, crios _a girdle_.
3 io fun cionta _guilt_.
1 iu (1) i u fi[`u] _worth_, iuchair _a key_.
2 iu u di[`u] _refuse_, tiugh _thick_.
1 oi (1) o (1) i [`o]igh _a virgin_, troidh _a foot_.
2 oi (3) o (1) i oidhche _night_.
3 oi (1) o m[`o]id _more_, toic _wealth_.
4 oi (2) o f[`o]id _a turf_, fois _rest_.
5 oi (3) o coileach _a cock_, goirid _short_.
1 ua u (1) a cuan _the sea_, fuath _hatred_.
2 ua u (2) a tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_.
{21}
1 ui u (1) i s[`u]igheah _a raspberry_, buidheann _a company_.
2 ui u d[`u]il _expectation_, fuil _blood_.
TRIPHTHONGS.
1 aoi (1) ao (1) i caoidh _lamentation_.
2 aoi (1) ao caoin _mild_, saoil _to think_.
1 eoi (2) eo (1) i geoigh _geese_.
2 eoi (1) eo meoir _fingers_.
3 eoi (2) eo deoir _tears_.
1 iai (1) ia fiaire _more oblique_.
1 iui (2) iu ci[`u]il _of music_.
1 uai (1) ua (1) i luaithe _quicker_.
2 uai (2) ua (1) i cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_.
3 uai (1) ua gluais _to move_, uair _time_.
CONSONANTS
_Labials._
1 p part poll _a pool_, streap _to climb_.
2 ph Philip phill _returned_.
1 b boil baile _a town_, breab _to kick_.
2 bh vile bhuail _struck_, gabh _to take_.
1 m my m[`o]r _great_, anam _life, soul_.
2 mh mhothuich _perceived_, damh _an ox_.
1 f feel fill _to fold_.
2 fh _quiescent_ fheara _O men_.
_Palatals._
1 c cock can _to say, sing_, creid _to believe_.
2 c kick ceann _end, head_, reic _to sell_.
3 ch [Greek: chora] chaidh _went_, rach _go_.
4 ch [Greek: cheimon] chi _shall see_, cr[`i]che _of a boundary_.
1 g go gabh _to take_, rag _stiff_.
{22}
2 g give geinne _a wedge_, ruig _to reach_.
3 gh ghabh _took_, ghleidh _kept_.
4 gh you gheibh _will get_.
5 _quiescent_ righ _a king_, sluagh _people_.
_Linguals._
1 t tone tog _to raise_, slat _a rod_.
2 t chin tinn _sick_, [`a]ite _a place_.
3 th have thainig _came_.
4 th _quiescent_ maith _good_, f[`a]th _occasion_.
1 d done dol _going_, dragh _trouble_.
2 d join diom _resentment_, maide _a stick_.
3 dh (3) gh dhall _blind_.
4 dh (4) gh dhearc _looked_.
5 dh _quiescent_ radh _saying_, bualadh _threshing_.
1 s so sannt _desire_, sloc _a pit_.
2 s show s[`e]imh _gentle_, so _this_.
3 sh how shuidh _sat_, shaoil _thought_.
1 l lom _bare_, slat _a rod_, moll _chaff_.
2 l million l[`i]nn _an age_, caillte _lost_.
3 l look bl[`a]th _blossom_, shlanuich _healed_.
4 l believe leum _leaped_, shleamhnuich _slipped_.
1 n crann _a tree_, naomh _holy_, naisg _bind_.
2 n opinion seinn _to sing_, nigh _wash_.
3 n no fan _to stay_, naisg _bound_.
4 n near coin _dogs_, nigh _washed_.
1 r roar fearr _better_, righ _a king_, ruith _run_.
2 r rear fear _a man_, ruith _ran_.
3 r fir _men_, a righ _O king_, treoir _strength_.
There is no doubt that the Gaelic has been for many ages a written
language. It is equally certain that its orthography, since it was first
committed to writing, has undergone {23} considerable changes. In this
respect it has shared the common fate of all written languages.
In the first exhibition of the sounds of a living language, by alphabetical
characters, it is probable that the principle which regulated the system of
orthography was, that every elementary sound should be represented by a
corresponding character, either simple or compounded, and that the same
sound should be represented by the same character. If different sounds were
represented by the same letter; if the same sound were represented by
different letters; if more letters were employed then were necessary to
exhibit the sound; or if any sound were not represented by a corresponding
character; then the _written_ language would not be an adequate
representation of the _spoken_. It is hardly to be supposed that, in the
first rude attempts at alphabetical writing, the principle above laid down
could be strictly and uniformly followed. And though it had, yet, in the
course of a few generations, many causes would occur to bring about
considerable departures from it. A gradual refinement of ear, and
increasing attention to _euphonia_; contractions and elisions brought into
vogue by the carelessness or the rapidity of colloquial speech, or by the
practice of popular speakers; above all, the mixture of the speech of
different nations would introduce numberless varieties into the
pronunciation. Still, those who wrote the language might choose to adhere
to the original orthography for the sake of retaining the radical parts,
and preserving the etymon of vocables undisguised, and for maintaining an
uniformity in the mechanism of the inflections. Hence the pronunciation and
the orthography would disagree in many instances, till at length it would
be found expedient to alter the orthography, and to adapt it to such
changes in the speech or spoken language as long use had established, in
order to maintain what was most necessary of all, a due correspondence
between the mode of speaking and the mode of writing the same language.
It will probably be found on inquiry that in all languages when the
_speech_ has undergone material and striking changes, {24} the _written
language_ also has varied in a considerable degree in conformity to these
changes, but that it has not scrupulously kept pace with the spoken
language in every smaller variation. The written language of the Greeks
suffered many changes between the time that the old Pelasgic was spoken and
the days of Demosthenes. The various modes of pronunciation used in the
different districts of Greece are marked by a diversity in the orthography
of the written language. The writing of the Latin underwent considerable
alterations between the era of the _Decemviri_ and the Augustan age,
corresponding, no doubt, to the changes which had taken place during that
interval in speaking the Latin. English and French books printed within the
last century exhibit a mode of orthography very different from what is
found in books printed two or three hundred years ago. These instances show
the tendency which the written language has to follow the lead of the
spoken language, and to maintain a certain degree of conformity to those
modes of pronunciation which are from time to time adopted by those who
speak it.
On the other hand, numberless examples might be adduced from any living
language to prove that the written language does not adapt itself, on all
occasions and with strict uniformity, to the sounds of speech. Words are
written differently which are pronounced alike. The same combinations of
letters, in different situations, represent different sounds. Letters are
retained in writing, serving to point out the derivations of words, after
they have been entirely dropped in speaking.
From such facts as these, it appears a just conclusion that _written
language_ generally follows the _spoken language_ through its various
revolutions, but still at a certain distance,--not dropping so far behind
as to lose sight of its precursor, nor following so close as to be led
through all its fantastic deviations.
Here a question occurs of importance in settling the orthography of any
particular tongue: How near ought the _written language_ to correspond to
the _spoken_, and where may a disagreement between them be allowed with
{25} propriety? The following observations may serve to throw some light on
the subject of this question, though by no means sufficient to furnish a
complete answer.
It is obvious that in speech the _articulations_ (which are represented by
consonants in writing) are the least liable to variation. _Vowel sounds_
are continually varying. In this variety chiefly consists that diversity of
tone and dialect which is found in the speech of different districts of the
same country, where the same words are spoken. The changes, too, which are
introduced by time fall with greater effect on the vowel sounds than on the
articulations. This circumstance will strike an observer who steps into any
deliberative assembly, where the speakers are of different ages. St Jerome
makes a remark on the reading of Hebrew, which is applicable, in some
measure, to the pronunciation of all languages: "Nec refert utrum _Salem_
aut _Salim_ nominetur; cum vocalibus in medio literis perraro utantur
Hebraei; et pro voluntate lectorum, ac _varietate regionum_, eadem verba
_diversis sonis_ atque accentibus proferantur." It may be observed that the
superior stability of the articulations above the vowel sounds is the
natural consequence of the position of the organs of speech in uttering
them. The different modifications of the vowel sounds are effected by
minute changes in the conformation of the organs; those of the
articulations are made by more distinct and operose inflections of the
organs.
It seems, then, a warrantable conclusion that, of the elementary
constituents of speech, viz., articulations and vowel sounds, the
_articulations_ are, in their own nature, ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and
PREDOMINANT; the _vowel sounds_, comparatively considered, are ADJUNCTIVE,
FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE.
Further, all the vowel sounds that usually occur in speech seem to be
uttered with equal ease, in whatever situation they occur, as the same
organs are employed for all. In forming the common articulations of speech,
as different organs are employed, a degree of difficulty is sometimes felt
in making a transition from one articulation to another. {26} Thus a
difficulty will occasionally occur in pronouncing certain words, where the
general analogy of inflection or of collocation has brought together
articulations which do not easily coalesce. Hence a necessity arises of
departing in such a case from the general analogy, and altering or
displacing some of those discrepant articulations, for the sake of ease and
convenience in pronunciation, and to relieve the ear from an offensive
discordant sound. Departures are made from the general rules of speech in
the case of the vowel sounds also, of which the Greek tongue abounds with
examples. These departures, however, seem to have been made from a desire
to indulge the ear in certain national predilections or aversions which it
had conceived with regard to particular sounds. In examining the anomalies
of speech, or those peculiarities which have been reckoned anomalous, it
will be found that such of them as affect the articulations have, for the
most part, been adopted for the purpose of ease and convenience in
pronunciation; while those which affect the vowel sounds have proceeded
from the peculiar taste of the speakers. Thus the former spring from a
cause urgent and constant in its nature, and uniform in its operation; the
latter, from a cause local and temporary in its nature, and variable in its
operation.
If this theory be just, it ought to follow that, in all polished tongues,
an agreement will be found among those irregularities which affect the
articulations, that is not so observable in those which affect the vowel
sounds. There is reason to believe that, if a full comparison were made
between different languages, this would accordingly be found to be the
case. Let it be observed, then, that in speech a deference has been usually
paid to the articulations which has not been paid to the vowel sounds,
inasmuch as the latter have been changed from the state in which the
structure of each tongue had at first placed them, frequently and from
peculiar taste or humour; the former more rarely, and for the most part
from necessity. If this observation be found to be well supported, we shall
have the sanction of general practice in favour of the conclusion that was
formerly {27} drawn from the nature of articulate sounds, viz., that the
articulations are ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and PREDOMINANT; the vowel sounds
ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE.
If it appear, then, that the vowel sounds in speech are perpetually varying
in the mouths of different speakers, from causes which either elude our
search, or, when discovered, are seen to be of small importance, may we not
judge that it would be equally vain and improper to attempt to make
_Writing_ follow all these minute variations; and that, however it may
happen that the same vowel sound may be represented in many instances by
different letters, and different vowel sounds by the same letters, yet this
disagreement between _Speech_ and _Writing_ must be connived at, for the
sake of preserving some degree of uniformity, where alone it can be
preserved, in the _written language_? If it appear, again, that the
variations from the established analogy which are made on the articulations
are less frequent, and proceed from causes obvious and cogent, ought not
these variations to be exhibited in writing, for preserving that general
correspondence between the written and the spoken language which ought to
be preserved, as far as the limited powers of letters will permit, and
without which the words I speak and those I write do not belong to the same
language?
One exception from this principle seems allowable in the case of quiescent
consonants. It may be inferred, from the practice of all living languages,
that consonants whereof the corresponding articulations have been
suppressed in speaking may yet be retained with propriety in writing, when
they are requisite to point out the derivation of vocables, or the radical
part of declinable words. But this exception ought to be allowed only to a
moderate extent, for the reasons already assigned; to which it may be
added, that the far greater part of the suppressed articulations can be
easily discovered and retraced to their roots, without any index in the
_written_ any more than in the _spoken_ language to point them out. {28}
These observations being premised, I shall proceed to explain the present
state of Gaelic Orthography, and shall endeavour to assist the reader in
forming a judgment of its merit, and how far it may admit of improvement.
I. It may be laid down as one settled principle in orthography, that each
letter or combination of letters in the written language ought always to
denote one and the same sound. From the explanation that has been given of
the powers of the letters, it may be seen how far this principle has been
regarded in the Gaelic. Though almost every one of the letters represents
more than one sound, yet there is an evident affinity between the several
sounds of the same letter. And it may be readily allowed that less
confusion and inconvenience follow from exhibiting a few kindred sounds by
the same letter, than would have taken place had the characters been
multiplied to such a degree as that a separate one could have been
appropriated to each minute variety of sound.
It is obvious to remark, as a departure from this principle, that in the
case of the consonants _l_, _n_, _r_, the distinction between their _plain_
and their _aspirated_ state is not marked in writing, but that in both
states the consonant is written in one way. In the middle and end of words,
as has been shown, this distinction may be known from the relative
situation of the letters. In the beginning of certain cases and tenses of
declinable words, it may often be known from their _grammatical_
connection, but is not marked by any _graphical_ index whatever. The proper
reading is to be determined by the sense of the passage, instead of the
sense being understood by the proper reading. It is not easy to discover
how those who first committed the Gaelic to writing neglected to mark such
a material distinction. Inconveniencies and ambiguities not unfrequently
arise from this cause, which have been long felt and regretted. Is there
room to hope that it is not yet too late to recommend a method of remedying
this defect? The method I would suggest is the most simple and obvious of
any. It is to annex to the initial _l_, _n_, and _r_, in their aspirated
state, the letter _h_, just as has been {29} done to all the other
consonants. The analogy of orthography would thus be maintained, the system
of inflection would be more justly exhibited, and carried on by an uniform
process in _Writing_ as it is in _Speech_, and errors in reading and
ambiguities in syntax would be avoided[22].
II. Another principle of authority in regulating orthography is, that each
sound ought always to be represented by one and the same letter, or
combination of letters. The deviations from this rule in Gaelic are
extremely few. The sound of _ao_ is represented sometimes by _a_ alone,
sometimes by _o_ alone. The sound of _gh_ is represented also by _dh_; and
final _c_ often, though corruptly, represents the same sound with _chd_.
III. A third principle in orthography is, that no more letters ought to be
employed than are necessary to represent the sound. There are probably few
polished languages in which departures from this rule are not found in
abundance. Reasons have been already mentioned which render it expedient to
retain letters in writing many words, after the corresponding sounds have
been dropped in pronouncing the same words. Quiescent letters, both vowels
and consonants, are not unfrequent in Gaelic. Though these quiescent
letters have no sound themselves, they are not always without effect in
pronunciation, as they often determine the sound of other letters. Most, if
not all, the quiescent vowels seem to have been introduced for this
purpose. They ascertain the _broad_ or the _small_ sound of the adjoining
{30} consonants. This has been made sufficiently clear in treating of the
vowels and diphthongs separately. A consonant, as has been shown, has its
_broad_ sound, both when preceded and when followed by a broad vowel; and
in like manner has its _small_ sound, both when preceded and when followed
by a small vowel. If a consonant were preceded by a vowel of one quality,
and followed by one of a different quality, the reader, it has been
thought, might be doubtful whether that consonant ought to be pronounced
with its broad or with its small sound. Hence this rule has long obtained
in Gaelic orthography, that in polysyllables the last vowel of one syllable
and the first vowel of the subsequent syllable must be both of the same
quality[23]. To the extensive application and the rigid observance of this
rule it is owing that so many diphthongs appear where one vowel is
sufficient to express the vocal sound, and that the homogeneous vowels,
when used in their quiescent capacity, are often exchanged for each other,
or written indiscriminately[24]. From the former of these circumstances,
most of the words in the language appear loaded with superfluous vowels;
from the latter, the orthography of many words appears, in some respects,
arbitrary and unsettled. Even a partial correction of these blemishes must
be desirable. It may therefore be worth while to examine this long
established canon of Gaelic orthography, with a view to discover whether it
has not been extended farther than is necessary, and whether it ought not
in many cases to be set aside.
We have seen that the Labials _b_, _m_, _f_, _p_, whether aspirated or not,
have no distinction of broad and small sound.
{31} It cannot, then, be necessary to employ vowels, either prefixed or
postfixed, to indicate the sound of these. Thus, abuich _ripe_, gabhaidh
_will take_, chromainn _I would bow_, ciomaich _captives_, have been
written with a broad vowel in the second syllable, corresponding to the
broad vowel in the first syllable; yet the letters abich, gabhidh,
chrominn, ciomich, fully exhibit the sound. The prepositive syllable im,
when followed by a small vowel, is written im, as in imlich _to lick_,
imcheist _perplexity_. But when the first vowel of the following syllable
is broad, it has been the practice to insert an _o_ before the _m_, as in
iomlan _complete_, iomghaoth _a whirlwind_, iomluasg _agitation_. Yet the
inserted _o_ serves no purpose, either in respect of derivation, of
inflection, or of pronunciation. The unnecessary application of the rule in
question appears most unequivocally in words derived from other languages.
From the Latin words _imago_, _templum_, _liber_, are formed in Gaelic
iomhaigh, teampull, leabhar. Nothing but a servile regard to the rule under
consideration could have suggested the insertion of a broad vowel in the
first syllable of these words, where it serves neither to guide the
pronunciation, nor to point out the derivation.
Another case, in which the observation of this rule seems to be wholly
unnecessary, is when two syllables of a word are separated by a quiescent
consonant. Thus in gleidheadh _keeping_, itheadh _eating_, buidheann _a
company_, dligheach _lawful_, the aspirated consonants in the middle are
altogether quiescent. The vocal sound of the second syllable is
sufficiently expressed by the last vowel. No good reason, then, appears for
writing a small vowel in the second syllable.
Thus far it is evident that the rule respecting the correspondence of
vowels is wholly impertinent in the case of syllables divided by Labials,
or by quiescent consonants. If we examine further into the application of
this rule, we shall find more cases in which it may be safely set aside.
Many of the inflections of nouns and verbs are formed by adding one or more
syllables to the root. The final {32} consonant of the root must always be
considered as belonging to the radical part, not to the adjected
termination. The sound of that consonant, whether broad or small, falls to
be determined by the quality of the vowel which precedes it in the same
syllable, not by the quality of that which follows it in the next syllable.
It seems, therefore, unnecessary to employ any more vowels in the adjected
syllable than what are sufficient to represent its own vocal sound. The
rule under consideration has, notwithstanding, been extended to the
orthography of the oblique cases and tenses, and a supernumerary vowel has
been thrown into the termination, whenever that was requisite to preserve
the supposed necessary correspondence with the foregoing syllable. Thus, in
forming the nominative and dative plural of many nouns, the syllables _an_
and _ibh_ are added to the singular, which letters fully express the true
sound of these terminations. If the last vowel of the nominative singular
is broad, _an_ alone is added for the nominative plural; as, lamh-an
_hands_, cluas-an _ears_. But if the last vowel be small, an _e_ is thrown
into the termination; as, s[`u]il-ean _eyes_, sr[`o]in-ean _noses_. Now if
it be observed that, in the two last examples, the small sound of the _l_
and _n_ in the root is determined by the preceding small vowel _i_, with
which they are necessarily connected in one syllable, and that the letters
_an_ fully represent the sound of the termination, it must be evident that
the _e_ in the final syllable is altogether superfluous. So in forming the
dative plural: if the last vowel of the root be small, _ibh_ is added; as,
s[`u]il-ibh, sroin-ibh. But if the last vowel of the root is broad, the
termination is written _aibh_; as, lamh-aibh, cluas-aibh, where the _a_,
for the reason already assigned, is totally useless.
These observations apply with equal justness to the tenses of verbs, as
will be seen by comparing the following examples: creid-idh _will believe_,
stad-aidh _will stop_; chreid-inn _I would believe_, stad-_a_inn _I would
stop_; creid-_e_am _let me believe_, stad-am _let me stop_; creid-ibh
_believe ye_, stad-_a_ibh _stop ye_.
The same observations may be further applied to derivative words, formed by
adding to their primitives the syllables {33} _ach_, _achd_, _ag_, _an_,
_ail_, _as_; in all which _e_ has been unnecessarily introduced, when the
last vowel of the preceding syllable was small; as, sannt-ach _covetous_,
toil-_e_ach _willing_; naomh-achd _holiness_, doimhn-_e_achd _depth_;
sruth-an _a rivulet_, cuil-_e_an _a whelp_; cauch-ag _a little cup_,
cail-_e_ag _a girl_; fear-ail _manly_, caird-_e_il _friendly_[25]; ceart-as
_justice_, caird-_e_as _friendship_.
The foregoing observations appear sufficient to establish this general
conclusion, that in all cases in which a vowel serves neither to exhibit
the vocal sound, nor to modify the articulations of _the syllable to which
it belongs_, it may be reckoned nothing better than an useless incumbrance.
There seems, therefore, much room for simplifying the present system of
Gaelic Orthography, by the rejection of a considerable number of quiescent
vowels[26].
{34}
Almost the only quiescent consonants which occur in Gaelic are _d_, _f_,
_g_, _s_, _t_, in their aspirated state. When these occur in the
inflections of declinable words, serving to indicate the Root, or in
derivatives, serving to point out the primitive word, the omission of them
might, on the whole, be unadvisable. Even when such letters appear in their
absolute form, though they have been laid aside in pronunciation, yet it
would be rash to discard them in writing, as they often serve to show the
affinity of the words in which they are found to others in different
languages, or in different dialects of the Celtic. The aspirated form of
the consonant in writing sufficiently shows that, in speaking, its
articulation is either attenuated or wholly suppressed.
The writers of Gaelic seem to have carefully avoided bringing into
apposition two vowels which belong to different syllables. For this purpose
they have sometimes introduced a quiescent consonant into the middle of
compound or of inflected words; as, gneidheil, or rather gnethail _kindly_,
made up of gn[`e] and ail; beothail _lively_, made up of beo and ail;
diathan _gods_, from the singular dia; lathaibh _days_, from the singular
l[`a], &c. It may at least bear a question, whether it would not be better
to allow the vowels to denote the sound of the word by their own powers,
without the intervention of quiescent consonants, as has been done in {35}
mnaibh _women_, d['e]ibh _gods_, rather than insert consonants which have
nothing to do with either the radical or the superadded articulations of
the word.
From the want of an established standard in orthography, the writers of
Gaelic, in spelling words wherein quiescent consonants occurred, must have
been often doubtful which of two or three consonants was the proper one,
and may therefore have differed in their manner of spelling the same word.
Accordingly we find, in many instances, the same words written by different
writers, and even at different times by the same writer, with different
quiescent consonants. This variation affects not indeed the pronunciation,
or does it in a very slight degree. Hence, however, some who judge of the
language only from its appearance in writing, have taken occasion to vilify
it, as unfixed and nonsensical[27]. A proper attention to the affinity
which the Scottish Gaelic bears to some other languages, particularly to
other dialects of the Celtic, might contribute to fix the orthography in
some cases where it appears doubtful, or has become variable[28].
IV. The last principle to be mentioned, which ought to regulate
orthography, is that every sound ought to be represented by a corresponding
character. From this rule there is hardly a single deviation in Gaelic, as
there is no sound in the spoken language which is not, in some measure,
{36} exhibited in the written language. The fault of the Gaelic orthography
is sometimes a redundancy, but never a deficiency of letters.
A few observations on the mode of writing some particular words, or
particular parts of speech, remain to be brought forward in the sequel of
this work, which it would be premature to introduce here.
The Scottish writers of Gaelic in general followed the Irish orthography,
till after the middle of the last century. However that system may suit the
dialect of Ireland, it certainly is not adapted to the Gaelic of this
country. In the Gaelic translation of the New Testament, printed in 1767,
not only were most of the Irish idioms and inflections which had been
admitted into the Scottish Gaelic writings rejected, and the language
adapted to the dialect of the Scottish Highlands, but the orthography also
was adapted to the language. In later publications, the manner of writing
the language was gradually assimilated to that pattern. The Gaelic version
of the sacred Scriptures lately published has exhibited a model, both of
style and orthography, still more agreeable to the purest Scottish idiom,
and has a just title to be acknowledged as the standard in both. Little
seems to be now wanting to confer on the orthography of the Scottish Gaelic
such a degree of uniformity as may redeem its credit and ensure its
stability. This, it is to be hoped, may be attained by a judicious regard
to the separate, and especially the relative powers of the letters, to the
most common and approved modes of pronunciation, to the affinity of the
Scottish Gaelic with other branches of the Celtic tongue, to the analogy of
inflection and derivation, and, above all, to the authority of some
generally received standard, to which pre-eminence the late Gaelic version
of the Scriptures has the only indisputable claim.
* * * * *
{37}
PART II.
OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
The parts of speech in Gaelic may be conveniently divided and arranged as
follows:--Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition,
Conjunction, Interjection. Of these, the first five are declinable; the
other four are indeclinable.
CHAPTER I.
OF THE ARTICLE.
The Gaelic article an corresponds to the English definite article _the_.
There is in Gaelic no indefinite article corresponding to the English _a_
or _an_. The inflections of the article are but few. They depend on the
gender, the number, and the case, of the noun to which it is prefixed.
Hence the article is declined by gender, number, and case, as follows:
Singular. Plural.
_Masc._ _Fem._ _Masc. & Fem._
_Nom._ an, am an, a' na
_Gen._ an, a' na nan, nam
_Dat._ an, a', n' an, a', n' na
In the singular, final _n_ of the article is sometimes cut off, and its
absence marked by an apostrophe. The same happens to the initial _a_ of the
dative singular.