EXTENT TO WHICH CHILDREN ENGAGE IN STREET ACTIVITIES IN AMERICA AND
EUROPE
There are no reliable figures either official or unofficial showing
the number of children engaged in street activities in any city of the
United States or in the country at large. The figures given by the
United States Census of 1900 are so inadequate that they can hardly
mislead any one endowed with ordinary powers of observation. It
solemnly declares that in that year there was a grand total of 6904
newspaper carriers and newsboys, both adults and children, in the
entire United States, of whom 69 were females.[13] In all probability
there was a greater number at that time in some of our larger cities
alone. In the group called "other persons in trade and transportation"
only 3557 children ten to fifteen years of age are reported, although
this group embraces nine specified occupations, of which that of the
newsboy is only one. Besides these, many other occupations (in which
63 per cent of the total number of persons reported are engaged) are
not specified.[14] Consequently the number of newsboys ten to fifteen
years old reported by the enumerators for the entire country must have
been ridiculously small.
Again, the total number of bootblacks ten years of age and upwards in
the country was reported as 8230, they being included in the group
called "other domestic and personal service." Only 2953 children ten
to fifteen years of age were reported in this group, which includes
five specified occupations, of which that of the bootblacks is only
one, and many others (in which 67 per cent of the total number of
persons reported are engaged) which are not specified.[15]
The inadequacy of these figures to convey any idea whatsoever as to
the extent of child labor in street occupations in this country is
painfully apparent; they are quoted here merely to show the poverty
of statistics on this subject. Their inaccuracy is practically
conceded by the report itself in the following words: "The limitations
connected with the taking of a great national census preclude proper
care upon the question of child employment. There is great uncertainty
as to the accuracy of a mass of information of this character taken by
enumerators and special agents, who either do not appreciate the
importance of the investigation or find it impracticable to devote the
time to the inquiry necessary to secure good results."[16]
There is reason to hope for more reliable data from the 1910 census;
but unfortunately the figures will probably not be available until
1913. The enumerators employed by the Federal government for the
Census of 1910, were instructed to make an entry in the occupation
column of the population schedule for every person enumerated, giving
the exact occupation if employed, writing the word "none" if
unemployed, or the words "own income" if living upon an independent
income. It was stated positively that the occupation followed by a
child of any age was just as important for census purposes as the
occupation followed by a man, and that it should never be taken for
granted without inquiry that a child had no occupation.[17]
However, upon inquiry by enumerators at the time of the census taking
as to the occupation of children, many parents undoubtedly replied in
the negative, even though their children may have been devoting
several hours daily outside of school to street work, under the
impression that this was not an occupation. Consequently it is safe to
assume that the figures for street-working children in the United
States according to the Census of 1910 when published will be under
the true number. Nevertheless, they can hardly fail to reflect
conditions far better than did the figures for 1900.
_Chicago_
It is only from the reports of occasional and very limited local
investigations that material as to the actual state of affairs can be
obtained. Social workers of Chicago had a bill introduced into the
Illinois legislature at its session of 1911, providing that boys
under ten years and girls under sixteen years should be prohibited
from selling anything in city streets, and some material was gathered
to be used in support of this measure. In connection with what has
already been said in Chapter I, it is interesting to note that
although the provisions of this bill were very mild, and strong
efforts were put forth by social workers to secure its passage, it was
not allowed to become a law largely because of the absence of public
opinion and partly because of the opposition by newspaper publishers
and others who were afraid that their interests might suffer through
the granting of protection to such little children.
In one of the schools of Chicago, pupils were found to be trading in
the streets in addition to attending school in the following
percentages:--
65 per cent of 5th grade children
35 per cent of 4th grade children
15 per cent of 2d grade children
12 per cent of 1st grade children
(Figures for 3d grade were not given.)
All of these children were attending school twenty-five hours a week,
and many cases of excessive work out of school hours were found. Some
allowance should be made for possible exaggeration on the part of
these children, but nevertheless it is certain that many of them were
working to an injurious extent. The hours given were as follows:--
1 boy over 50 hours
4 boys over 40 hours
5 boys over 35 hours
7 boys over 30 hours
18 boys over 20 hours
Their average earnings per week were found to be as follows:[18]--
5th grade children $1.18
4th grade children .85
3d grade children .60
2d grade children .43
1st grade children .36
In referring to the weekly income of the children from this source,
the Handbook of the Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit declared that it was
"a pitiable sum to compensate for the physical weariness and moral
risk attending street trades in a large city. School reports show that
street trades, when carried on by young children, lead to truancy,
low vitality, dullness and the breaking down of parental control.
Since the children are on the streets at all hours, careless habits
are developed which often lead to moral ruin to both boys and
girls."[19]
An instance was related wherein the teacher of a fifth grade in a
Chicago school asked those of her pupils who worked for money to raise
their hands. In the class of 38 pupils, 26 acknowledged that they were
little breadwinners! One boy said he worked ten hours a day besides
attending school; others had less striking records, spending from
twenty to forty hours a week selling chewing gum and newspapers,
blacking boots and pursuing the various other street occupations which
the Illinois law leaves open to children of all ages.[20]
Referring to the economic and home conditions surrounding young
children in Chicago and the many phases of danger to their moral
well-being, the Vice Commission of that city reported that its agents
had found small boys selling newspapers in segregated districts and
that one night an investigator had counted twenty newsboys from eleven
years upwards so engaged at midnight and after. Besides these
newsboys, many little boys and girls were found peddling chewing gum
near disorderly saloons where prostitutes were soliciting. Numerous
examples of employment in vicious environment are cited, principally
of the peddling of newspapers and chewing gum by young children at all
hours of the night in the "red light" districts, about saloons and
museums of anatomy. Even in the rear rooms of saloons, boys were seen
offering their wares and heard to join in obscene conversation with
the patrons of these resorts.[21]
A folder published in Chicago by the advocates of street-trade
regulation calls attention to these conditions, and states, with
regard to little newsgirls who sell papers in the vice regions: "It is
not surprising if some of them, becoming so familiar with the
practices of the district, take up the profession of the neighborhood.
The Juvenile Protective Association reports one little girl who
entered the life of a professional prostitute at the age of fourteen,
after having sold newspapers for years in the district."[22]
Another element of this problem, seldom considered, is described also
in this folder--the vagrants, who constitute a large and growing class
deserving the attention of both city and citizen. "Three classes of
persons, who add little to the general circulation, while detracting
much from the tone of the business and working a real injury to
themselves, are engaged in selling newspapers; these are the small
boy, the semi-vagrant boy, and the young girl. The business of selling
newspapers in Chicago is so systematized that the 'vagrant' cannot
prosper, and yet the 'vagrant' is in our midst. He can be found on
State Street at 11 o'clock on a Saturday night with one newspaper
under his arm--not attempting to sell it, but using it as a bait to
beg from the passers-by. He can be found in the _American_ news alley,
sometimes fifty, sometimes a hundred strong, sleeping on bags, under
boxes, or on the floor of the newspaper restaurant. With this boy,
and with all those who are obviously too young to be permitted to
engage in street trading, it is our duty to deal if we are to preserve
the attitude the American city takes toward the dependent child."
NATIONALITIES OF BOSTON CHILD STREET TRADERS
====================================+======+==========
PLACE OF BIRTH |NUMBER|PERCENTAGE
------------------------------------+------+----------
{ Boston 1,556 | |
America { Elsewhere in Mass. 171 | 1860 | 70.
{ Other states 133 | |
Russia | 473 | 17.5
Italy | 161 | 6.
Other foreign countries | 162 | 6.
Not given | 8 | .5
|----- | ------
| 2664 | 100.0
====================================+======+==========
_Boston_
In Boston, during the year 1910, there were issued to newsboys,
peddlers and bootblacks from eleven to thirteen years of age
inclusive, 2664 licenses. Of these nearly all (2525) were issued to
newsboys, while 114 were issued to bootblacks and 25 to peddlers. Of
these license holders 904 were eleven years old, 900 were twelve
years old, and 860 were thirteen years old. It is interesting to note
that nearly three fourths of these children were born in the United
States; the table on page 33 shows their distribution among
nationalities.
_New York City_
The actual number of children engaged in street activities at any
given time is less than the number of licenses issued during the year,
inasmuch as not all such children persist in pursuing this work, many
of them working only a few weeks, while a few never enter upon the
tasks which they have been licensed to perform. This is borne out by
the experience of investigators in New York City; the report of a
study made there recently says: "We are told by the department of
education issuing newsboy badges that 4500 boys have these badges, yet
when we secured the addresses of some of these from their application
cards ... we found that not 30 per cent of the 100 cases investigated
lived at listed addresses. Many such were bogus numbers, open lots,
factories, wharves, and in some cases the middle of East River would
wash over the house number given. When we did find a correct address,
the children so located in six cases out of ten were not following the
trade. In some instances they never sold papers, obtaining badges
simply because other boys were applying for them, and after receiving
a badge tucked it away in a drawer or maybe sold it or gave it
away."[23]
_Cincinnati_
In Cincinnati from June to December, 1909, 1951 boys from ten to
thirteen years of age were licensed to sell newspapers, this number
being about 15 per cent of the total number of boys of these ages in
the city. Their distribution according to age was as follows:--
10 years 424
11 years 466
12 years 539
13 years 522
----
Total 1951
The Cincinnati figures do not include bootblacks, peddlers or market
children, as no licenses were issued for such occupations, although
they are specifically covered by the municipal ordinance regulating
street trades.
The above data were available only because there has been some attempt
in Boston, New York and Cincinnati to restrict the employment of
children in street occupations; as in the great majority of cities and
states there is absolutely no regulation of this kind, there are of
course no figures to indicate conditions.
_The Padrone System_
In almost every city of the United States having a population of more
than 10,000, there is to be found the padrone system, which is
operated principally in the interests of the bootblacking business
which the Greeks control. The peddling of flowers, fruit and
vegetables in Chicago and New York is partly subject to the same
methods. The labor supply furnished by this system for peddling and
bootblacking consists generally of children from twelve to seventeen
years of age.[24]
The Immigration Commission states in its report that there are several
thousand shoe-shining establishments in the United States operated by
Greeks who employ boys as bootblacks, and that with few exceptions
they are under the padrone system.[25] A few boys under sixteen years
of age are employed under the Greek padrone system as flower vendors,
and these are found chiefly in New York City. They are hired by
florists to sell flowers in the streets and public places--largely old
stock that cannot be handled in the shops. These boys usually live in
good quarters, are well fed and receive their board and from $50 to
$100 a year in wages. When not engaged in peddling, they deliver
flowers ordered at the shops. The boys employed by the padrones to
peddle candy, fruit and vegetables usually live in basements or in
filthy rooms; here they are crowded two, three and sometimes four in
one bed, with windows shut tight so as to avoid catching cold. The
fruit and vegetables still on hand are stored for the night in these
bedrooms and in the kitchen. In each peddling company there are
usually three or four wagons and from four to eight boys.[26]
_Minor Street Occupations_
There are a few so-called street trades in which a relatively small
number of children are engaged which so far have not been mentioned in
this volume. These are the leading of blind persons and the
accompanying of beggars in general, little children being found
valuable for such work because they help to excite the sympathy of
passers-by. A few children also are employed as lamplighters to go
about towns lighting street lamps in the evening and extinguishing
them in the early morning. A class of street boys who have as yet
received no name in this country, but in England are called "touts,"
haunt the neighborhood of railroad depots and lie in wait for
passengers with hand baggage, offering to carry it to the train for a
small fee.
Some children are used as singers or performers upon musical
instruments, but this is in reality only another form of begging. The
writer found one instance of a young boy who was employed by the
public library of one of our large cities to gather up overdue books
about the city and to collect the fines imposed for failure to return
the same. Very frequently in the course of his work this boy had to
enter houses of prostitution, as the inmates are steady patrons of the
public library, reading light literature, and are quite negligent in
the matter of returning the books within the prescribed time.
Immediately upon the librarian's learning of the situation, he was
relieved of this duty, and a man was detailed to perform the task.
Such special occupations as these do not constitute a real factor in
the problem because of the small number of children involved, and
hence they are omitted from consideration.
_Conditions in Great Britain_
Turning to Europe we find much more information on this subject. In
Great Britain the House of Commons in 1898 ordered an inquiry to be
made into the extent of child labor among public school pupils, and
the education department sent schedules to the 20,022 public
elementary schools in England and Wales for the purpose of determining
the facts. A little more than half of the schools returned the
schedules blank, stating that no children were employed; this
introduced a large element of error into the return, as many of the
schoolmasters misunderstood the meaning of the schedules, and
consequently quite a number of children who should have been included
were omitted from the total. The 9433 schedules which were filled and
returned showed that 144,026 children (about three fourths boys and
one fourth girls) were in attendance full time at the public
elementary schools of England and Wales and known to be employed for
profit outside of school hours.
The ages of these children reported as employed were as follows:[27]--
Under 7 years 131
7 years 1,120
8 years 4,211
9 years 11,027
10 years 22,131
11 years 36,775
12 years 47,471
13 years 18,556
14 and over 1,787
Not given 817
-------
Total 144,026
The standards or school grades in which these working children were
enrolled and the total enrollment for the year ended August 31, 1898,
were as follows:[28]--
==========================+============
| TOTAL
WORKING CHILDREN | ENROLLMENT
--------------------------+-----------
No Standard 329 |
1st standard 3,890 | 2,875,088
2d standard 11,686 | 723,582
3d standard 24,624 | 679,096
4th standard 36,907 | 590,850
5th standard 37,315 | 421,728
6th standard 21,975 | 212,546
7th standard 6,382 | 66,442
Ex-7 standard 382 | 7,534
Not stated 536 |
------- | ---------
Total 144,026 | 5,576,866
==========================+============
The occupations followed by these children were divided into three
main groups, and each of these groups was further divided into three
classes. These divisions and the number of children in each were as
follows:[29]--
=======================+=======================+=========================
| | DOMESTIC EMPLOYMENT,
PIECEWORK, CHIEFLY | TIME-WORK, CHIEFLY | GIRLS ONLY, WITH ONE
BOYS | BOYS | OR TWO EXCEPTIONS
-----------------------+-----------------------+-------------------------
Selling | In shops or | Minding babies 11,585
newspapers 15,182 | running |
| errands for | Other housework,
Hawking goods 2,435 | shopkeepers 76,173 | including
| | laundry work,
Sports, taking | Agricultural | etc. 9,254
dinners, | occupations 6,115 |
knocking-up, | | Needlework and
etc. 8,627 | Boot and knife | like occupations 4,019
| cleaning, etc. |
| (house boys) 10,636 |
=======================+=======================+=========================
The return revealed a surprising variety of occupations followed by
these children--about 200 different kinds in all.
HOURS PER WEEK NUMBER OF CHILDREN
Under 10 39,355
10-20 60,268
21-30 27,008
31-40 9,778
41-50 2,390
51-60 576
61-70 142
71-80 59
Over 81 16
Not stated 4,434
-------
Total 144,026
The number of hours per week devoted by these children to the various
employments will be found in the above table; it should be remembered
that these hours were given to work in addition to the time spent at
school.[30]
It was recognized that the figures given by this parliamentary return
did not represent the real situation, but nevertheless its revelations
were sufficiently startling to show the need of further investigation.
Accordingly in 1901 there was appointed an interdepartmental committee
which after careful study reported that the figures in the
parliamentary return were well within the actual numbers, but that the
facts it contained were substantially correct.[31] This committee
estimated the total number of children who were both in attendance at
school and in paid employments in England and Wales at 300,000;[32] it
declared that cases of excessive employment were "sufficiently
numerous to leave no doubt that a substantial number of children are
being worked to an injurious extent."[33]
Referring to the amount of time devoted by the children to gainful
employment outside of school, the committee reported, "On a review of
the evidence we consider it is proved that in England and Wales a
substantial number of children, amounting probably to 50,000, are
being worked more than twenty hours a week in addition to twenty-seven
and one-half hours at school, that a considerable proportion of this
number are being worked to thirty or forty and some even to fifty
hours a week, and that the effect of this work is in many cases
detrimental to their health, their morals and their education, besides
being often so unremitting as to deprive them of all reasonable
opportunity for recreation. For an evil so serious, existing on so
large a scale, we think that some remedy ought to be found."[34] The
committee estimated the total number of children selling newspapers
and in street hawking at 25,000.[35]
With reference to conditions in Edinburgh, an English writer says, "Of
the 1406 children employed out of school hours in Edinburgh, 307 are
ten years of age or under. Four of them are six years old, and eleven
are seven years of age. We hear of boys working seventeen hours (from
7 A.M. to 12 P.M.) on Saturday. For children to work twelve, thirteen
and fourteen hours on Saturday is quite common. The average wage seems
to be three farthings an hour, but one hears of children who are paid
one shilling and sixpence for thirty-eight hours of toil."[36]
In New South Wales boys are permitted to trade on the streets at the
age of ten years, and up to fourteen years may engage in such work
between the hours of 7 A.M. and 7 P.M. except while the schools are in
session; after they are fourteen years old they may trade between 6
A.M. and 10 P.M. Such children are licensed, and during the six months
ending March 31, 1910, 714 licenses were issued, 72 per cent of them
being to children under fourteen years of age; 92 per cent of these
children were engaged in hawking newspapers, the others being
scattered through such occupations as peddling flowers, fruit and
vegetables, fish, fancy goods, matches, bottles, pies and milk.[37]
_Conditions in Germany_
In December, 1897, the German Imperial Chancellor, referring to the
incomplete census returns as to child labor, requested the
governments to furnish him with information as to the total number of
children under fourteen employed in labor other than factory labor,
agricultural employment and domestic service, and the kinds of work
done. In this circular he said: "But, above all, where the kind of
occupation is unsuitable for children, where the work continues too
long, where it takes place at unseasonable times and in unsuitable
places, child labor gives rise to serious consideration; in such cases
it is not only dangerous to the health and morality of the children,
but school discipline is impaired and compulsory education becomes
illusory. For children cannot possibly give the necessary attention to
their lessons when they are tired out and when they have been working
hard in unhealthful rooms until late at night. I need only instance
employment in skittle alleys late in the evening, in the delivery of
newspapers in the early morning and the employment of children in many
branches of home industry. The most recent researches undertaken in
different localities show that the employment of children in labor
demands earnest attention in the interests of the rising
generation."[38]
Inquiries extending over almost the whole German Empire were
accordingly made by the different states from January to April, 1898.
It was found that 544,283 children under fourteen years were employed
in labor other than factory labor, agricultural employment and
domestic service. This was 6.53 per cent of the total number of
children of school age (8,334,919).
With regard to the effects of such work, this German report says: "As
the children who carry around small wares, sell flowers, etc., go from
one inn to another, they are exposed to evil influences, and are
liable to contract at an early age, bad habits of smoking, lying,
drinking.... The delivery of newspapers is a particularly great strain
on the children, as it occupies them both before and after school
hours."
Seven divisions of these children were made according to occupation,
four of them relating to street work. Under the heading _Handel_ were
included children in many kinds of work, among them hawking fruit,
milk, bread, brooms, flowers, newspapers, etc.; under _Austragedienste_
were included only the delivery and carrying around of bread, milk,
vegetables, beer, papers, books, advertisements, circulars, bills,
coals, wood, boots and shoes, washing, clothes, etc.; under
_Gewöhnliche Laufdienste_ were included only errand boys and
messengers; under _Sonstige gewerbliche Thätigkeit_ were included,
among other occupations, blacking boots, leading the blind, street
singers and players, etc.
========================+========+========+=========+=========+============
| | | SEX NOT | |
| BOYS | GIRLS | STATED | TOTAL | PERCENTAGE
------------------------+--------+--------+---------+---------+------------
Handel (retail trade) | 7,507 | 4,540 | 5,576 | 17,623 | 3.31
| | | | |
Austragedienste | | | | |
(delivery service) | 67,188 | 36,966 | 31,676 | 135,830 | 25.52
| | | | |
Gewöhnliche Laufdienste | | | | |
(general messenger | | | | |
service) | 23,321 | 2,134 | 10,454 | 35,909 | 6.75
| | | | |
Sonstige gewerbliche | | | | |
Thätigkeit (other forms | | | | |
of labor) | 6,281 | 2,387 | 3,119 | 11,787 | 2.21
========================+========+========+=========+=========+============
_Conditions in Austria_
The Austrian Ministry of Commerce began an investigation of actual
conditions in Austria late in 1907 in response to the agitation for a
new law that would regulate child labor not only in factories, but
also in home industries, in commerce, and even in agriculture. In his
Report on Child Labor Legislation in Europe, Mr. C. W. A. Veditz
refers to the findings of this investigation in a number of the
provinces. In Bohemia, of 676 children in trade and transportation,
but still attending school, 169 were engaged in peddling and
huckstering; in delivering goods and going errands 1554 children were
employed, being generally hired to deliver bread, milk, meats,
groceries, newspapers, books, telegrams, circulars--in fact, all
manner of goods.[39] In the province of Upper Austria children are
paid from two to seven crowns (40.6 cents to $1.42) a month for
delivering newspapers daily, while in the duchy of Salzburg the pay
varies from twenty to fifty hellers (4 to 10 cents) a day for
delivering bread or newspapers.
In the province of Lower Austria, "referring now to the other main
occupations in which school children are employed outside of industry
proper, the report [of the investigation] shows that ... those
working in trade and transportation usually help wait on customers in
their parents' stores; a number, however, sell flowers, shoe laces,
etc., or huckster bread, butter and eggs, or carry passengers' baggage
to and from railway stations. Most of those put down as delivering
goods are engaged in delivering bread, milk, newspapers and
washing."[40] Children who sell flowers, bread or cigars in Vienna
earn one to two crowns (20.3 to 40.6 cents) a day during the week, and
on Sundays as much as three crowns (60.9) cents. "The children
employed [in Lower Austria] to deliver goods and run errands are also
usually employed by non-relatives and receive wages in money. Those
who deliver milk, and who work one half to one hour a day, generally
receive twenty hellers to one crown (4 to 20.3 cents) weekly; in
exceptional cases two crowns (40.6 cents), and in some instances only
food and old clothes. For delivering bread and pastry, wages are
reported as thirty hellers (6 cents) a week and some meals, or fifty
hellers to two crowns (10 to 40.6 cents) a week without meals; in
exceptional cases, 10 per cent of the receipts. For delivering
papers, which requires one to two hours a day, children receive two to
ten crowns (40.6 cents to $2.03) a month. For delivering of washing,
thirty hellers (6 cents) for a two-hours' trip, or sixty hellers to
two crowns (12 to 40.6 cents) a week. Children who carry dinner to
mill laborers, requiring one half to one hour daily, get eighty
hellers to five crowns (16 cents to $1.02) a month. Messengers for
stores, hotels, etc., get a tip of two to ten hellers (.4 to 2 cents)
per errand, or, if employed regularly, twenty hellers to one crown (4
to 20.3 cents) a week."[41]
"The delivery of milk, pastry, newspapers, etc., in which many
children are employed in Vienna and other large cities, does not cause
frequent absences, but is responsible for tardy arrival at school in
the morning and for the fatigue that reduces attention and prevents
mental alertness."[42]