ARCHBALD, a borough of Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., in the

N.E. part of the state, 10 m. N.E. of Scranton. Pop. (1890) 4032; (1900)

5396; (1869 foreign-born); (1910) 7194. It is served by the Delaware &

Hudson, and the New York, Ontario & Western railways, and by an

interurban electric line. It is about 900 ft. above sea-level; in the

vicinity are extensive deposits of anthracite coal, the mining and

breaking of which is the principal industry; silk throwing and weaving

is another industry of the borough. At Archbald is a large glacial "pot

hole," about 20 ft. in diameter and 40 ft. in depth. Archbald, named in

honour of James Archbald, formerly chief engineer of the Delaware &

Hudson railway, was a part of Blakely township (incorporated in 1818)

until 1877, when it became a borough.

ARCHBISHOP (Lat. _archiepiscopus_, from Gr. [Greek: harchiepiskopos]),

in the Christian Church, the title of a bishop of superior rank,

implying usually jurisdiction over other bishops, but no superiority of

order over them. The functions of the archbishop, as at present

exercised, developed out of those of the metropolitan (q.v.); though the

title of archbishop, when it first appeared, implied no metropolitan

jurisdiction. Nor are the terms interchangeable now; for not all

metropolitans are archbishops,[1] nor all archbishops metropolitans. The

title seems to have been introduced first in the East, in the 4th

century, as an honorary distinction implying no superiority of

jurisdiction. Its first recorded use is by Athanasius, bishop of

Alexandria, who applied it to his predecessor Alexander as a mark of

respect. In the same way Gregory of Nazianzus bestowed it upon

Athanasius himself. In the next century its use would seem to have been

more common as the title of bishops of important sees; for several

archbishops are stated to have been present at the council of Chalcedon

in 451. In the Western Church the title was hardly known before the 7th

century, and did not become common until the Carolingian emperors

revived the right of the metropolitans to summon provincial synods. The

metropolitans now commonly assumed the title of archbishop to mark their

pre-eminence over the other bishops; at the same time the obligation

imposed upon them, mainly at the instance of St Boniface, to receive the

_pallium_ (q.v.) from Rome, definitely marked the defeat of their claim

to exercise metropolitan jurisdiction independently of the pope.

At the present day, the title of archbishop is retained in the Roman

Catholic Church, the various oriental churches, the Anglican Church, and

certain branches of the Lutheran (Evangelical) Church.

Roman Catholic Church.

In the Roman Catholic Church the powers of the archbishop are

considerably less extensive than they were in the middle ages. According

to the medieval canon law, based on the decretals, and codified in the

13th century in the _Corpus juris canonici_, by which the earlier powers

of metropolitans had been greatly curtailed, the powers of the

archbishop consisted in the right (1) to confirm and consecrate

suffragan bishops; (2) to summon and preside over provincial synods; (3)

to superintend the suffragans and visit their dioceses, as well as to

censure and punish bishops in the interests of discipline, the right of

deprivation, however, being reserved to the pope; (4) to act as a court

of appeal from the diocesan courts; (5) to exercise the _jus

devolutionis_, i.e. present to benefices in the gift of bishops, if

these neglect their duty in this respect. These rights were greatly

curtailed by the council of Trent. The confirmation and consecration of

bishops (q.v.) is now reserved to the Holy See. The summoning of

provincial synods, which was made obligatory every three years by the

council, was long neglected, but is now more common wherever the

political conditions, e.g. in the United States, Great Britain and

France, are favourable. The disciplinary powers of the archbishop, on

the other hand, can scarcely be said to survive. The right to hold a

visitation of a suffragan's diocese or to issue censures against him

was, by Sess. xxiv. c. 3 _de ref._, of the council of Trent, made

dependent upon the consent of the provincial synod after cause shown

(_causa cognita et probata_); and the only two powers left to the

archbishop in this respect are to watch over the diocesan seminaries and

to compel the residence of the bishop in his diocese. The right of the

archbishop to exercise a certain disciplinary power over the regular

orders is possessed by him, not as archbishop, but as the delegate _ad

hoc_ of the pope. Finally, the function of the archbishop as judge in a

court of appeal, though it still subsists, is of little practical

importance now that the clergy, in civil matters, are universally

subject to the secular courts.

Besides archbishops who are metropolitans there are in the Roman

Catholic Church others who have no metropolitan jurisdiction. Such are

the titular archbishops _in partibus_, and certain archbishops of

Italian sees who have no bishops under them. Archbishops rank

immediately after patriarchs and have the same precedence as primates.

The right to wear the _pallium_ is confined to those archbishops who are

not merely titular. It must be applied for, either in person or by

proxy, at Rome by the archbishop within three months of his consecration

or enthronement, and, before receiving it, he must take the oaths of

fidelity and obedience to the Holy See. Until the _pallium_ is granted,

the archbishop is known only as archbishop-elect, and is not empowered

to exercise his _potestas ordinis_ in the archdiocese nor to summon the

provincial synod and exercise the jurisdiction dependent upon this. He

may, however, exercise his purely _episcopal_ functions. The special

ensign of his office is the cross, _crux erecta_ or _gestatoria_,

carried before him on solemn occasions (see CROSS).

Eastern Church.

In the Orthodox and other churches of the East the title of archbishop

is of far more common occurrence than in the West, and is less

consistently associated with metropolitan functions. Thus in Greece

there are eleven archbishops to thirteen bishops, the archbishop of

Athens alone being metropolitan; in Cyprus, where there are four bishops

and only one archbishop, all five are of metropolitan rank.

Lutheran church.

In the Protestant churches of continental Europe the title of archbishop

has fallen into almost complete disuse. It is, however, still borne by

the Lutheran bishop of Upsala, who is metropolitan of Sweden, and by the

Lutheran bishop of Abo in Finland. In Prussia the title has occasionally

been bestowed by the king on general superintendents of the Lutheran

church, as in 1829, when Frederick William III. gave it to his friend

and spiritual adviser, the celebrated preacher, Ludwig Ernst Borowski

(1740-1831), general superintendent of Prussia (1812) and bishop (1816).

Church of England.

In the Church of England and its sister and daughter churches the

position of the archbishop is defined by the medieval canon law as

confirmed or modified by statute since the Reformation. It is,

therefore, as regards both the _potestas ordinis_ and jurisdiction,

substantially the same as in the Roman Catholic Church, save as modified

on the one hand by the substitution of the supremacy of the crown for

that of the Holy See, and on the other by the restrictions imposed by

the council of Trent.

The ecclesiastical government of the Church of England is divided

between two archbishops--the archbishop of Canterbury, who is "primate

of all England" and metropolitan of the province of Canterbury, and the

archbishop of York, who is "primate of England" and metropolitan of the

province of York. The jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury as

primate of all England extends in certain matters into the province of

York. He exercised the jurisdiction of _legatus natus_ of the pope

throughout all England before the Reformation, and since that event he

has been empowered, by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, to exercise certain powers

of dispensation in cases formerly sued for in the court of Rome. Under

this statute the archbishop continues to grant special licences to

marry, which are valid in both provinces; he appoints notaries public,

who may practise in both provinces; and he grants dispensations to

clerks to hold more than one benefice, subject to certain restrictions

which have been imposed by later statutes. The archbishop also continues

to grant degrees in the faculties of theology, music and law, which are

known as Lambeth degrees. His power to grant degrees in medicine,

qualifying the recipients to practise, was practically restrained by the

Medical Act 1858.

The archbishop of Canterbury exercises the twofold jurisdiction of a

metropolitan and a diocesan bishop. As metropolitan he is the guardian

of the spiritualities of every vacant see within the province, he

presents to all benefices which fall vacant during the vacancy of the

see, and through his special commissary exercises the ordinary

jurisdiction of a bishop within the vacant diocese. He exercises also an

appellate jurisdiction over each bishop, which, in cases of licensed

curates, he exercises personally under the Pluralities Act 1838; but his

ordinary appellate jurisdiction is exercised by the judge of the Arches

court (see ARCHES, COURT OF). The archbishop had formerly exclusive

jurisdiction in all causes of wills and intestacies, where parties died

having personal property in more than one diocese of the province of

Canterbury, and he had concurrent jurisdiction in other cases. This

jurisdiction, which he exercised through the judge of the Prerogative

court, was transferred to the crown by the Court of Probate Act 1857.

The Arches court was also the court of appeal from the consistory courts

of the bishops of the province in all testamentary and matrimonial

causes. The matrimonial jurisdiction was transferred to the crown by the

Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. The court of Audience, in which the

archbishop presided personally, attended by his vicar-general, and

sometimes by episcopal assessors, has fallen into desuetude. The

vicar-general, however, exercises jurisdiction in matters of ordinary

marriage licences and of institutions to benefices. The master of the

faculties regulates the appointment of notaries public, and all

dispensations which fall under 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21.

A right very rarely exercised by the archbishop of Canterbury, but one

of great importance, is that of the visitation and deprivation of

inferior bishops. Since there is no example of the archbishop of York

exercising or being reputed to have such disciplinary jurisdiction over

his suffragans,[2] and this right could, according to the canon law

cited above, in the middle ages only be exercised normally in concert

with the provincial synod, it would seem to be a survival of the special

jurisdiction enjoyed by the pre-Reformation archbishop as _legatus

natus_ of the pope. It was somewhat freely exercised by Cranmer and his

successors immediately after the Reformation; but the main precedent now

relied upon is that of Dr Watson, bishop of St Davids, who was deprived

in 1695 by Archbishop Tennison for simony and other offences, the

legality of the sentence being finally confirmed by the House of Lords

on the 25th of January 1705. It was proved in the course of the long

argument in this case that the archbishop of Canterbury had undoubtedly

exercised such independent power of visitation both before and after the

Reformation; and it was on this precedent that in 1888 the judicial

committee of the privy council mainly relied in deciding that the

archbishop had the right to cite before him the bishop of Lincoln (Dr

Edward King), who was accused of certain irregular ritual practices. The

trial began on the 12th of February 1889 before the archbishop and

certain assessors, the protest of Dr King, based on the claim that he

could only be tried in a provincial synod, being overruled by Archbishop

Benson on the grounds above stated. The main importance of the "Lincoln

Judgment," delivered on the 21st of November 1890, is that it set a new

precedent for the effective jurisdiction of the archbishop, based on the

ancient canon law, and so did something towards the establishment of a

purely "spiritual" court, the absence of which had been one of the main

grievances of a large body of the clergy.

It is the privilege of the archbishop of Canterbury to crown the kings

and queens of England. He is entitled to consecrate all the bishops

within his province and was formerly entitled, upon consecrating a

bishop, to select a benefice within his diocese at his option for one of

his chaplains, but this practice was indirectly abolished by 3 and 4

Vict. c. III, S 42. He is entitled to nominate eight chaplains, who had

formerly certain statutory privileges, which are now abolished. He is

_ex officio_ an ecclesiastical commissioner for England, and has by

statute the right of nominating one of the salaried ecclesiastical

commissioners.

The archbishop exercises the ordinary jurisdiction of a bishop over his

diocese through his consistory court at Canterbury, the judge of which

court is styled the commissary-general of the city and diocese of

Canterbury. The archbishop holds a visitation of his diocese personally

every three years, and he is the only diocesan who has kept up the

triennial visitation of the dean and chapter of his cathedral.[3] The

archbishop of Canterbury takes precedence immediately after princes of

the blood royal and over every peer of parliament, including the lord

chancellor.

The archbishop of York has immediate spiritual jurisdiction as

metropolitan in the case of all vacant sees within the province of York,

analogous to that which is exercised by the archbishop of Canterbury

within the province of Canterbury. He has also an appellate jurisdiction

of an analogous character, which he exercises through his provincial

court, whilst his diocesan jurisdiction is exercised through his

consistorial court, the judges of both courts being nominated by the

archbishop. His ancient testamentary and matrimonial jurisdiction was

transferred to the crown by the same statutes which divested the see of

Canterbury of its jurisdiction in similar matters. It is the privilege

of the archbishop of York to crown the queen consort and to be her

perpetual chaplain. The archbishop of York takes precedence over all

subjects of the crown not of royal blood, but after the lord high

chancellor of England. He is ex officio an ecclesiastical commissioner

for England (see further ENGLAND, CHURCH OF).

The Church of Ireland had at the time of the Act of Union four

archbishops, who took their titles from Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam.

By acts of 1833 and 1834, the metropolitans of Cashel and of Tuam were

reduced to the status of diocesan bishops. The two archbishoprics of

Armagh and Dublin are maintained in the disestablished Church of

Ireland.

The title archbishop has been used in certain of the colonial churches,

e.g. Australia, South Africa, Canada, and the West Indies, since 1893,

when it was assumed by the metropolitans of Canada and Rupert's Land

(see ANGLICAN COMMUNION). Archbishops have the title of His (or Your)

Grace and Most Reverend Father in God.

See Hinschius, _System des katholischen Kirchenrechts_ (Berlin, 1869),

also article "Erzbischof," in Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (1898);

Phillimore, _The Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England_, and

authorities there cited. (W. A. P.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In the Roman Church it is safe to say that all metropolitans are

archbishops. In, e.g., the Scottish and American episcopal churches,

however, the metropolitan is the senior bishop _pro tem._

[2] Unless the case of the claim of Mark, bishop of Carlisle, to be

tried by his ordinary instead of by a temporal court, be a precedent

(Phillimore, _Eccles. Law_, p. 74, ed. 1895).

[3] The court of Peculiars is no longer held, inasmuch as the

peculiars have been placed by acts of parliament under the ordinary

jurisdiction of the bishops of the respective dioceses in which they

are situated.

ARCHCHANCELLOR (Lat. _Archicancellarius_; Ger. _Erzkanzler_), or chief

chancellor, a title given to the highest dignitary of the Holy Roman

Empire, and also used occasionally during the middle ages to denote an

official who supervised the work of chancellors or notaries.

In the 9th century Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, in his work, _De ordine

palatii et regni_, speaks of a _summus cancellarius_, evidently an

official at the court of the Carolingian emperors and kings. A charter

of the emperor Lothair I. dated 844 refers to Agilmar, archbishop of

Vienne, as archchancellor, and there are several other references to

archchancellors in various chronicles. This office existed in the German

kingdom of Otto the Great, and about this time it appears to have become

an appanage of the archbishopric of Mainz. When the Empire was restored

by Otto in 962, a separate chancery seems to have been organized for

Italian affairs, and early in the 11th century the office of

archchancellor for the kingdom of Italy was in the hands of the

archbishop of Cologne. The theory was that all the imperial business in

Germany was supervised by the elector of Mainz, and for Italy by the

elector of Cologne. However, the duties of archchancellor for Italy were

generally discharged by deputy, and after the virtual separation of

Italy and Germany, the title alone was retained by the elector. When the

kingdom of Burgundy or Arles was acquired by the emperor Conrad II. in

1032 it is possible that a separate chancery was established for this

kingdom. However this may be, during the 12th century the elector of

Trier took the title of archchancellor for the kingdom of Arles,

although it is doubtful if he ever performed any duties in connexion

with this office. This threefold division of the office of imperial

archchancellor was acknowledged in 1356 by the Golden Bull of the

emperor Charles IV., but the duties of the office were performed by the

elector of Mainz. The office in this form was part of the constitution

of the Empire until 1803 when the archbishopric of Mainz was

secularized. The last elector, Karl Theodor von Dalberg, however,

retained the title of archchancellor until the dissolution of the Empire

in 1806. H. Reincke in _Der alte Reichstag und der neue Bundesrat_

(Tubingen, 1906) points out a marked resemblance between the medieval

archchancellor and the German imperial chancellor of the present day.

See du Cange, _Glossarium_, s. "Archicancellarius"; and CHANCELLOR.

ARCHDEACON (Lat. _archidiaconus_, Gr. [Greek: archidiakonos]), a high

official of the Christian Church. The office of archdeacon is of great

antiquity. So early as the 4th century it is mentioned as an established

office, and it is probable that it was in existence in the 3rd.

Originally the archdeacon was, as the name implies, the chief of the

deacons attached to the bishop's cathedral, his duty being, besides

preaching, to supervise the deacons and their work, i.e. more especially

the care of the sick and the arrangement of the externals of divine

worship. Even thus early their close relation to the bishop and their

employment in matters of episcopal administration gave them, though only

in deacons' orders, great importance, which continually developed. In

the East, in the 5th century, the archdeacons were already charged with

the proof of the qualifications of candidates for ordination; they

attended the bishops at ecclesiastical synods, and sometimes acted as

their representatives; they shared in the administration of sees during

a vacancy. In the West, in the 6th and 7th centuries, besides the

original functions of their office, archdeacons had certain well-defined

rights of visitation and supervision, being responsible for the good

order of the lower clergy, the upkeep of ecclesiastical buildings and

the safe-guarding of the church furniture--functions which involved a

considerable disciplinary power. During the 8th and 9th centuries the

office tended to become more and more exclusively purely administrative,

the archdeacon by his visitations relieving the bishop of the minutiae

of government and keeping him informed in detail of the condition of his

diocese. The archdeacon had thus become, on the one hand, the _oculus

episcopi_, but on the other hand, armed as he was with powers of

imposing penance and, in case of stubborn disobedience, of

excommunicating offenders, his power tended more and more to grow at the

bishop's expense. This process received a great impulse from the

erection in the 11th and 12th centuries of defined territorial

jurisdictions for the archdeacons, who had hitherto been itinerant

representatives of the central power of the diocese. The dioceses were

now mapped out into several archdeaconries (_archidiaconatus_), which

corresponded with the political divisions of the countries; and these

defined spheres, in accordance with the prevailing feudal tendencies of

the age, gradually came to be regarded as independent centres of

jurisdiction.[1] The bishops, now increasingly absorbed in secular

affairs, were content with a somewhat theoretical power of control,

while the archdeacons rigorously asserted an independent position which

implied great power and possibilities of wealth. The custom, moreover,

had grown up of bestowing the coveted office of archdeacon on the

provosts, deans and canons of the cathedral churches, and the

archdeacons were thus involved in the struggle of the chapters against

the episcopal authority. By the 12th century the archdeacon had become

practically independent of the bishop, whose consent was only required

in certain specified cases.

The power of the archdeacon reached its zenith at the outset of the 13th

century. Innocent III. describes him as _judex ordinarius_, and he

possesses in his own right the powers of visitation, of holding courts

and imposing penalties, of deciding in matrimonial causes and cases of

disputed jurisdiction, of testing candidates for orders, of inducting

into benefices. He has the right to certain procurations, and to appoint

and depose archpriests and rural deans. And these powers he may exercise

through delegated _officiales_. His jurisdiction has become, in fact,

not subordinate to, but co-ordinate with that of the bishop. Yet, so far

as orders were concerned, he remained a deacon; and if archdeacons were

often priests, this was because priests who were members of chapters

were appointed to the office.

From the 13th century onward a reaction set in. The power of the

archdeacons rested upon custom and prescription, not upon the canon law;

and though the bishops could not break, they could circumvent it. This

they did by appointing new officials to exercise in their name the

rights still reserved to them, or to which they laid claim. These were

the _officiales:_ the _officiales foranei_, whose jurisdiction was

parallel with that of the archdeacons, and the _officiales principales_

and vicars-general, who presided over the courts of appeal. The clergy

having thus another authority, and one moreover more canonical, to

appeal to, the power of the archdeacons gradually declined; and, so far

as the Roman Catholic Church is concerned, it received its death-blow

from the council of Trent (1564), which withdrew all matrimonial and

criminal causes from the competence of the archdeacons, forbade them to

pronounce excommunications, and allowed them only to hold visitations in

connexion with those of the bishop and with his consent. These decrees

were not, indeed, at once universally enforced; but the convulsions of

the Revolutionary epoch and the religious reorganization that followed

completed the work. In the Roman Church to-day the office of archdeacon

is merely titular, his sole function being to present the candidates for

ordination to the bishop. The title, indeed, hardly exists save in

Italy, where the archdeacon is no more than a dignified member of a

chapter, who takes rank after the bishop. The ancient functions of the

archdeacon are exercised by the vicar-general. In the Lutheran church

the title _Archidiakonus_ is given in some places to the senior

assistant pastor of a church.

In the Church of England, on the other hand, the office of archdeacon,

which was first introduced at the Norman conquest, survives, with many

of its ancient duties and prerogatives. Since 1836 there have been at

least two archdeaconries in each diocese, and in some dioceses there are

four archdeacons. The archdeacons are appointed by their respective

bishops, and they are, by an act of 1840, required to have been six full

years in priest's orders. The functions of the archdeacon are in the

present day ancillary in a general way to those of the bishop of the

diocese. It is his especial duty to inspect the churches within his

archdeaconry, to see that the fabrics are kept in repair, and to hold

annual visitations of the clergy and churchwardens of each parish, for

the purpose of ascertaining that the clergy are in residence, of

admitting the newly elected churchwardens into office, and of receiving

the presentments of the outgoing churchwardens. It is his privilege to

present all candidates for ordination to the bishop of the diocese. It

is his duty also to induct the clergy of his archdeaconry into the

temporalities of their benefices after they have been instituted into

the spiritualities by the bishop or his vicar-general. Every archdeacon

is entitled to appoint an official to preside over his archidiaconal

court, from which there is an appeal to the consistory court of the

bishop. The archdeacons are _ex officio_ members of the convocations of

their respective provinces.

It is the privilege of the archdeacon of Canterbury to induct the

archbishop and all the bishops of the province of Canterbury into their

respective bishoprics, and this he does in the case of a bishop under a

mandate from the archbishop of Canterbury, directing him to induct the

bishop into the real, actual, and corporal possession of the bishopric,

and to install and to enthrone him; and in the case of the archbishop,

under an analogous mandate from the dean and chapter of Canterbury, as

being guardians of the spiritualities during the vacancy of the

archiepiscopal see. In the colonies there are two or more archdeacons in

each diocese, and their functions correspond to those of English

archdeacons. In the Episcopal church of America the office of archdeacon

exists in only one or two dioceses.

See Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, ii., SS 86. 87; Schroder, _Die

Entwicklung des Archdiakonats bis zum 11. Jahrhundert_ (Munich, 1890);

Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1882-1901);

Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 1896); Phillimore,

_Ecclesiastical Law_, part ii. chap. v. (London, 1895). (W. A. P.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Archdeaconries were, indeed, sometimes treated as ordinary fiefs

and were held as such by laymen. Thus Ordericus Vitalis says that

"(Fulk) granted to the monks the archdeaconry which he and his

predecessors held in fee of the archbishop of Rouen" (_Hist. Eccl._

iii. 12).

ARCHDUKE (Lat. _archidux_, Ger. _Erzherzog_,) a title peculiar now to

the Austrian royal family. According to Selden it denotes "an excellency

or pre-eminence only, not a superiority or power over other dukes, as in

archbishop it doth over other bishops." Yet in this latter sense it

would seem to have been assumed by Bruno of Saxony, archbishop of

Cologne, and duke of Lorraine (953-965), when he divided his duchy into

the dukedoms of Upper and Lower Lorraine. The designation was, however,

exceedingly rare during the middle ages. The title of archduke of

Lorraine ceased with the circumstances which had produced it. The later

dynasties of Brabant and Lorraine, when these fiefs became hereditary,

bore only the title of duke. The house of Habsburg, therefore, did not

acquire this title with the inheritance of the dukes of Lorraine. Nor

does it occur in any of the charters granted to the dukes of Austria by

the emperors; though in that creating the first duke of Austria the

_archiduces palatii, i.e._ the principal dukes of the court, are

mentioned. The "Archidux Austriae, seu Austriae inferioris" is spoken of

by Abbot Rudolph (d. 1138) in his chronicles of the abbey of St Trond

(_Gesta Abbatum Trudonensium_) but this is no more than a rhetorical

flourish, and the title of "archduke palatine" (Pfalz-Erzherzog) was, in

fact, assumed first by Duke Rudolph IV. (d. 1365), and was one of the

rights and privileges included in his famous forgery of the year 1358,

the _privilegium maius_, which purported to have been bestowed by the

emperor Frederick I. on the dukes of Austria in extension of the genuine

_privilegium minus_ of 1156, granted to the margrave Henry II. Rudolph

IV. used the title on his seals and charters till he was compelled to

desist by the emperor Charles IV. The title was also assumed for a time,

probably on the strength of the _privilegium maius_, by Duke Ernest of

Styria (d. 1424); but it did not legally belong to the house of

Habsburg until 1453, when Duke Ernest's son, the emperor Frederick III.

(Frederick V., duke of Styria and Carinthia, 1424-1493, of Austria,

1463-1493), confirmed the _privilegium maius_ and conferred the title of

archduke of Austria on his son Maximilian and his heirs. The title

archduke (or archduchess) is now borne by all members of the Austrian

imperial house.

See John Selden, _Titles of Honor_ (1672); Antonius Matthaeus, _De

nobilititate, de principibus, deducibus, &c., libriquatuor_ (Amsterdam

and Leiden, 1696, lib. i. cap. 6); Pfeffel, _Abrege chronologique de

l'hist, el du droit public d'Allemagne_ (Paris, 1766); Brinckmeier,

_Glossarium diplomaticum, &c._ (1850-1863, 2 vols.); J.F. Joachim,

"Abhandlung von dem Titel 'Erzherzog,' welchen das Haus Oesterreich

fuhrt." in _Prufende Gesellschaft zu Halle, 7_; F. Wachter, art.

"Erzherzog," in _Allgem. Encykl. der Wissenschiften u. Kunste_ (1842,

pub. by Ersch and Gruber); A. Huber, _Ueber die Entstehungszeit der

oesterreichischen Freiheitsbriefe_ (Vienna, 1860); W. Erben, _Das

Privilegium Friedrichs I. fur das Herzogtum Osterreich_ (Vienna,

1902).

ARCHEAN SYSTEM (from [Greek: archae], beginning), in geology. Below the

lowest distinctly fossiliferous strata, that is, below those Cambrian

rocks which bear the _Olenellus_ fauna, there lies a great mass of

stratified, metamorphic and igneous rock, to which the non-committal

epithet "pre-Cambrian" is often applied; and indeed in not a few

instances this general term is sufficiently precise for the present

state of our knowledge. Nevertheless there are large tracts, both in the

Old World and in the New, in which a subdivision of this assemblage of

ancient rocks is not only possible but desirable. It is quite clear in

certain regions that there is a lowermost group with a prevailing

granitoid, gneissic and schistose facies, mainly of igneous origin,

above which there are one or several groups bearing a distinctly

sedimentary aspect. It is to this lowermost gneissic group that the term

"Archean" may be conveniently limited.

[Illustration: Distribution of Archean Rocks.]

Thus, while the name "pre-Cambrian" may be used to indicate all these

very old rocks whenever there is still any difficulty in subdividing

them further, it is an advantage to have a special appellation for the

oldest group where this can be distinguished.

It must be pointed out that the term "Archean" has been used as a

synonym for pre-Cambrian; and that the expressions _Azoic_ (from

[alpha]-, privative; [Greek: zoae], life), _Eozoic_ (from [Greek: aeos],

dawn), and _Fundamental Complex_, have been employed in somewhat the

same sense. _Archeozoic_ has been proposed by American writers to apply

to the lowest pre-Cambrian rocks with the same significance as "Archean"

in the restricted sense employed here; but it is perhaps safer to avoid

any reference to the supposed stage of life development where all direct

evidence is non-existent. The so-called "Azoic" rocks have already been

made to yield evidence of life, and there is no reason to presuppose the

impossibility of finding other records of still earlier organisms.

The prevailing rocks of the Archean system are igneous, with

metamorphosed varieties of the same; sedimentary rocks, distinctly

recognizable as such, are scarce, though highly metamorphosed rocks

supposed to be sediments, in some regions, take an important place.

There are several features which are peculiarly characteristic of the

Archean rocks:--(1) the extraordinary complexity of the assemblage of

igneous materials; (2) the extreme metamorphism and deformation which

nearly all the rocks have suffered; and (3) the inextricable

intermixture of igneous rocks with those for which a sedimentary origin

is postulated. Wherever the Archean rocks have been closely examined two

great groups of rocks are distinguishable, an older, schistose group and

a younger, granitoid and gneissic group. For many years the latter was

supposed to be the older, hence the epithets "primitive" or

"fundamental" were applied to it. Now, however, it has been shown, both

in Europe and in North America, that in certain regions a schistose

series is penetrated by a gneissose series and when this occurs the

schists must be the older. But bearing in mind the difficulties of

interpretation, it is not at all unreasonable to assume that there may

yet be regions where the gneissose rocks are the oldest; for where no

schistose series is present there may be no criterion for estimating the

age of the granites and gneisses. The exceedingly great difficulties

which lie in the way of every attempt to unravel the history of an

Archean rock-complex cannot be too forcibly emphasized; for to be able

to demonstrate the order of events and succession of rocks we should at

least know whether we are dealing with sediments, flows of volcanic

material, or intrusions, yet in many instances this cannot be done. In

some areas the gradual passage of highly foliated and metamorphosed

schists may be traced into comparatively unaltered arkoses, greywackes,

conglomerates; or into volcanic lava-flows, pyro-clastic rocks or dikes;

or again through a gneissose rock into a granite or a gabbro; but the

districts wherein these relationships have been thoroughly worked out

are very few.

This much may be said, that where the Archean system has been most

carefully studied, there appears to be (1) a schistose series, of itself

by no means simple but containing the foliated equivalents of

sedimentary and igneous rocks; into this series a gneissose group (2)

has been intruded in the form of batholites, great sheets and sills with

accompanying intrusional prolongations into the schists; subsequently,

into the gneisses and schists, after they had been further deformed,

sheared and foliated, another set (3) of dikes or thin sheet-like

intrusions penetrated. All this, namely, the formation of sediments, the

outpouring of volcanic rocks, their repeated deformation by powerful

dynamic agencies and then their penetration by dikes and sheets had been

completed and erosion had been at work upon the hardened and exposed

rocks, before the earliest pre-Cambrian sediment was deposited.

There has been much premature speculation as to the nature and origin of

these very ancient rocks. The prevalence of regular foliation with

layers of different mineral composition, producing a close resemblance

to bedding, has led some to imagine that the gneisses and schists were

themselves the product of the primeval oceans, a supposition that is no

longer worthy of further discussion. Others have supposed that the

gneisses were largely produced by the resorption and fusion of older

sediments in the molten interior of the earth; there is no evidence that

this has taken place upon an extended scale, though there is reason to

believe that something of this kind has happened in places, and there is

in the hypothesis nothing radically untenable. In one way the

sedimentary schists have undoubtedly been incorporated within the

gneissose mass, namely, by the extremely thorough and intimate

penetration of the former by the latter along planes of foliation; and

when a complex mass such as this has been further sheared and

metamorphosed, a uniform gneiss appears to result from the intermixture.

A not uncommon cause of the apparently bedded arrangement of layers of

different mineralogical composition may be traced to the original

differentiation of the granitoid magma into different mineral-sheets.

When these mineralogically different layers were forced into other

rocks, sometimes before the complete consolidation of the former and

sometimes subsequent to it, in the generally metamorphosed condition of

the whole, it is easy to see a superficial resemblance to bedding.

The Archean rocks have frequently been spoken of as the original crust

of the earth; but even granting a cooling molten globe with a

first-formed stony surface, it is tolerably clear that such a crust has

nowhere yet been found, nor is it ever likely to be discovered. The very

earliest recognizable sediments are the result of the destruction of

still earlier exposures of rock; the oldest known volcanic rocks were

poured upon a surface we can no longer distinguish, and as for the great

granitoid masses, they could only have been formed under the pressure of

superincumbent masses of material. The earliest known sediments must

have been deep in the zones of shearing and rock flowage before the

first pre-Cambrian denudation. The time required for these changes is

difficult to conceive.

As regards the life of the Archean, or, as some call it, the

"Archeozoic" period, we know nothing. The presence of carbonaceous shale

and graphitic schists as well as of the altered sedimentary iron ores

has been taken as indicative of vegetable life. Similarly, the

occurrence of limestones suggests the existence of organic activity, but

direct evidence is wanting. Much interest naturally attaches to this

remote period, and when Sir William E. Logan in 1854 found the

foraminifera-like _Eozoon Canadense_, high hopes of further discoveries

were entertained, but the inorganic nature of this structure has since

been clearly proved.

_Distribution._--It is generally assumed that the Archean rocks underlie

all the younger formations over the whole globe, and presumably this is

the only system that does so. Naturally, the area of its outcrop is

limited, for, directly or indirectly, all the younger rock groups must

rest upon it.

It has been estimated that Archean rocks appear at the surface over

one-fifth of the land area (omitting coverings of superficial drifts).

This estimate is no more than the roughest approximation, and is liable

at any time to revision as our knowledge of little-known regions is

increased. It must ever be borne in mind that the presence of a

gneissose or schistose complex does not in itself imply the Archean age

of such a set of rocks. Local manifestations of a similar petrological

facies may and do appear which are of vastly inferior geological age;

and unless there is unequivocal evidence that such rocks lie beneath the

oldest fossil-bearing strata, there can be no absolute certainty as to

their antiquity. It is more than likely that certain occurrences of

gneiss and schist, at present regarded as Archean, may prove on fuller

examination to be metamorphosed representatives of younger periods.

_Britain._--The most important exposure of Archean rocks in Britain is

in the north-west of Scotland, where they form the mainland in

Sutherland and Ross-shire, and appear also in the outer Hebrides.

Their great development in the isle of Lewis has given rise to the

term "Lewisian" (Hebridean), by which the gneisses of this region are

now generally known. The Lewisian series comprises two great groups of

rocks, (1) the so-called "fundamental complex," an assemblage of acid,

basic and intermediate irruptive rocks, associated together in a

complex of extraordinary intricacy, and (2) a series of dikes, which

like the rocks they traverse, show every gradation from ultra-basic to

ultra-acid types. But the above bald statement conveys no idea of the

complexity of the series, for before the "fundamental complex" had

been pierced by the later dike system it had been subjected to severe

dynamo-metamorphism and many of the massive rocks had been folded,

thrust and sheared, and a very general state of foliation had been

produced. Nor was this all, for after the intrusion of the dikes,

great movements brought about vertical dislocations, and thrust

planes, which traversed the rocks at all angles, accompanied by still

further internal shearing and superinduced foliation.

In the valley of Loch Maree and thence south-westward into Glenelg, a

series of mica-schists, quartz-schists, saccharoid limestones and

graphitic schists has been regarded as a group of sedimentary origin

through which the Lewisian rocks have been irrupted.

In England several small masses of gneiss, notably at Primrose Hill on

the Wrekin, Shropshire, in the Malvern hills, and on the island of

Anglesey in North Wales, are supposed to correspond with the Lewisian

of Scotland.

_North America._--In this continent there is a great development of

Archean rocks in Canada. On the eastern side it covers nearly the

whole of the Labrador peninsula, and extends into Baffin Bay and

possibly over much of Greenland; a broad tract unites the great lake

region with Labrador, and from the same region, by way of the

Mackenzie valley, a similar tract extends in a north-westerly

direction to the Arctic Ocean. This northern (Canadian) area of

Archean includes portions of the states of Minnesota, Michigan,

Wisconsin and the Adirondack region of New York. On the western side

of the continent a series of disconnected exposures of Archean rocks

runs downwards in a narrow belt from Alaska to New Mexico; and on the

eastern side a similar belt reaches from Newfoundland to Alabama.

Much attention is now being given to the more scattered exposures of

Archean rocks, but the best-known area is the classical ground in the

vicinity of Lake Superior and Lake Huron and in the Ottawa gneiss

region of Canada. Some of the more important districts are the

following:--

Rainy Lake district, Canada: The Archean rocks here consist of altered

diorites and diabases (the lower Keewatin series) and black hornblende

schists (probably altered igneous rocks), with mica gneisses which are

perhaps of sedimentary origin.

The Mona and Kiticni schists; metamorphosed lava and tuffs, with

serpentine and dolomite, probably derived from peridotites; there are

also gneissic granites and syenites.

In the Menominee region of Michigan and Wisconsin, the Quinnesec

schist series mainly consist of schistose quartz porphyry with

associated gneisses.

In the Mesaba district of Minnesota the Archean consists of a complex

of more or less foliated igneous rocks mostly basic in character.

The Archean of the Vermilion district of Minnesota comprises the

Soudan formation, an altered sedimentary series with banded cherts,

jasper and magnetite schists; the iron ores are extensively mined. At

the base is a conglomerate containing pebbles from the formation

below, the Ely greenstone, which is made up of altered basalts and

andesites, generally in a schistose condition, but occasionally

exhibiting spherulitic structures. Into these two formations a series

of granites have been intruded.

_Europe._--In Scandinavia, as in Scotland, the pre-Cambrian is

represented by an earlier and a later series of rocks of which the

former (Grundfjeldet, Urberget) may be taken to be the equivalent of

the Lewisian gneisses. This assemblage of coarse red and grey banded

gneisses, with associated granulites and many varieties of acid, basic

and intermediate rocks in a gneissose condition, is intimately related

to a highly metamorphosed sedimentary series comprising limestones,

quartzites and schists, which, as in Scotland, is apparently older

than the gneisses. Similar rocks occur in Sweden and Finland.

In Bavaria and Bohemia the Archean is divisible into a lower red

gneiss, a comparatively simple series, called by C.W. von Gumbel the

"gneiss of Bojan"; and an upper, grey gneiss with other schistose

rocks, serpentine and graphitic limestone, termed by the same author

the "Hercynian gneiss."

In Brittany a gneissose and schistose igneous series lies at the base

of the pre-Cambrian. The pre-Cambrian cores of the eastern and central

Pyrenees, consisting of gneiss, schists and altered limestones, are

presumably of Archean age.

_Asia, Australia, &c._--In northern China, mica-gneisses and

granite-gneisses with associated schists may be regarded as Archean.

In India the system is represented by the Bundelkhand gneiss and the

central older gneisses of the Himalayas. In Japan, in the Abukuma

plateau, there is much granite, gneiss and schist which may be of this

age. In Australia, similar rocks are recognized as Archean in South

Australia and Westralia, and they are estimated to cover an area of no

less than 20,000 sq. m.; in Tasmania they are well developed on the

western side. Although a great area is occupied by crystalline rocks

in New Zealand, the Archean age of any portion of the series is not

yet satisfactorily established; the lower granites and gneisses may

belong to this period. Africa contains enormous tracts of crystalline

gneisses, granites and schists, and some of these are almost certainly

of Archean age; but in the present state of our knowledge it is

impossible to speak more exactly.

REFERENCES.--A good general account of the Archean system will be

found in Sir A. Geikie's _Text Book of Geology_, vol. ii., 4th ed.

(1903), and in T.C. Chamberlin and R.D. Salisbury's _Geology_, vol.

ii. (1906); these volumes contain references to all important

literature. (J. A. H.)

ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA (1st century B.C.), general of Mithradates the

Great in the war against Rome. In 87 B.C. he was sent to Greece with a

large army and fleet, and occupied the Peiraeus after three days'

fighting with Bruttius Sura, prefect of Macedonia, who in the previous

year had defeated Mithradates' fleet under Metrophanes and captured the

island of Sciathus. Here he was besieged by Sulla, compelled to withdraw

into Boeotia, and completely defeated at Chaeroneia (86). A fresh army

was sent by Mithradates, but Archelaus was again defeated at Orchomenus,

after a two days' battle (85). On the conclusion of peace, Archelaus,

finding that he had incurred the suspicion of Mithradates, deserted to

the Romans, by whom he was well received. Nothing further is known of

him.

Appian, _Mithrid_. 30, 49, 56, 64; Plutarch, _Sulla_, 11, 16-19, 20,

23; _Lucullus_, 8.

ARCHELAUS, king of Egypt, was his son. In 56 B.C. he married Berenice,

daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, queen of Egypt, but his reign only lasted

six months. He was defeated by Aulus Gabinius and slain (55).

See Strabo xii. p. 558, xvii. p. 796; Dio Cassius xxxix. 57-58;

Cicero, _Pro Rabirio_, 8; Hirtius (?), _Bell. Alex_. 66; also

PTOLEMIES.

ARCHELAUS, king of Cappadocia, was grandson of the last named. In 41

B.C. (according to others, 34), he was made king of Cappadocia by Mark

Antony, whom, however, he deserted after the battle of Actium. Octavian

enlarged his kingdom by the addition of part of Cilicia and Lesser

Armenia. He was not popular with his subjects, who even brought an

accusation against him in Rome, on which occasion he was defended by

Tiberius. Subsequently he was accused by Tiberius, when emperor, of

endeavouring to stir up a revolution, and died in confinement at Rome

(A.D. 17). Cappadocia was then made a Roman province. Archelaus was said

to have been the author of a geographical work, and to have written

treatises _On Stones_ and _Rivers_.

Strabo xii. p. 540; Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 37, _Caligula_, 1; Dio

Cassius xlix. 32-51; Tacitus, _Ann_. ii. 42.

ARCHELAUS, king of Judaea, was the son of Herod the Great. He received

the kingdom of Judaea by the last will of his father, though a previous

will had bequeathed it to his brother Antipas. He was proclaimed king by

the army, but declined to assume the title until he had submitted his

claims to Augustus at Rome. Before setting out, he quelled with the

utmost cruelty a sedition of the Pharisees, slaying nearly 3000 of them.

At Rome he was opposed by Antipas and by many of the Jews, who feared

his cruelty; but Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the

kingdom (Judaea, Samaria, Ituraea) with the title of ethnarch. He

married Glaphyra, the widow of his brother Alexander, though his wife

and her second husband, Juba, king of Mauretania, were alive. This

violation of the Mosaic law and his continued cruelty roused the Jews,

who complained to Augustus. Archelaus was deposed (A.D. 7) and banished

to Vienne. The date of his death is unknown.

Archelaus is mentioned in Matt. ii. 22, and the parable of Luke xix. 11

f. probably refers to his journey to Rome.

See Schurer, _Gesch. des judischen Volkes_, i. 449-453.

(J. H. A. H.)

ARCHELAUS, king of Macedonia (413-399 B.C.), was the son of Perdiccas

and a slave mother. He obtained the throne by murdering his uncle, his

cousin and his half-brother, the legitimate heir, but proved a capable

and beneficent ruler. He fortified cities, constructed roads and

organized the army. He endeavoured to spread among his people the

refinements of Greek civilization, and invited to his court, which he

removed from Aegae to Pella, many celebrated men, amongst them Zeuxis,

Timotheus, Euripides and Agathon. In 399 he was killed by one of his

favourites while hunting; according to another account he was the victim

of a conspiracy.

Diodorus Siculus xiii. 49, xiv. 37; Thucydides ii. 100. See MACEDONIA.

ARCHELAUS OF MILETUS, Greek philosopher of the 5th century B.C., was

born probably at Athens, though Diogenes Laertius (ii. 16) says at

Miletus. He was a pupil of Anaxagoras, and is said by Ion of Chios

(_ap_. Diog. Laert. ii. 23) to have been the teacher of Socrates. Some

argue that this is probably only an attempt to connect Socrates with the

Ionian school; others (e.g. Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_) uphold the story.

There is similar difference of opinion as regards the statement that

Archelaus formulated certain ethical doctrines. In general, he followed

Anaxagoras, but in his cosmology he went back to the earlier Ionians. He

postulated primitive Matter, identical with air and mingled with Mind,

thus avoiding the dualism of Anaxagoras. Out of this conscious "air," by

a process of thickening and thinning, arose cold and warmth, or water

and fire, the one passive, the other active. The earth and the heavenly

bodies are formed from mud, the product of fire and water, from which

springs also man, at first in his lower forms. Man differs from animals

by the possession of the moral and artistic faculty. No fragments of

Archelaus remain; his doctrines have to be extracted from Diogenes

Laertius, Simplicius, Plutarch and Hippolytus.

See IONIAN SCHOOL; for his ethical theories see T. Gomperz, _Greek

Thinkers_ (Eng. trans., 1901), vol. i. p. 402.

ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM VON (1743-1812), German historian, was born

at Langfuhr, a suburb of Danzig, on the 3rd of September 1743. From the

Berlin Cadet school he passed into the Prussian army at the age of

sixteen, and took part in the last campaigns of the Seven Years' War.

Retiring from military service, on account of his wounds, with the rank

of captain in 1763, he travelled for sixteen years and visited nearly

all the countries of Europe, and resided in England for ten years

(1769-1779). Returning to Germany in 1780, he obtained a lay canonry at

the cathedral of Magdeburg, and immediately entered upon a literary

career by publishing the periodical _Litteratur- und Volkerkunde_

(Leipzig, 1782-1791). This was followed in 1785 by _England und Italien_

(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1787), in which he gives a remarkably unprejudiced

appreciation of English political and social institutions. Between 1789

and 1798 he published his _Annalen der britischen Geschichte_ (20 vols).

But the work by which he is best known to fame is his brilliantly

written history of the Seven Years' War, _Geschichte des siebenjahrigen

Krieges_ (first published in the _Berliner historisches Taschenbuch_ of

1787, and later in 2 vols., Berlin, 1793; 13th ed., Leipzig, 1892). This

work, though as regards the main facts and details it only follows other

writers, is still a useful source of information upon the epoch with

which it deals. In 1792 Archenholz removed to Hamburg, and there, from

1792 to 1812, edited the journal _Minerva_, which had a great reputation

for its literary, historical and political information. Archenholz died

at his country seat, Oyendorf, near Hamburg, on the 28th of February

1812.

ARCHER, WILLIAM (1856- ), English critic, was born at Perth on the

23rd of September 1856, and was educated at Edinburgh University. He

became a leader-writer on the _Edinburgh Evening News_ in 1875, and

after a year in Australia returned to Edinburgh. In 1879 he became

dramatic critic of the _London Figaro_, and in 1884 of the _World_. In

London he soon took a prominent literary place. Mr Archer had much to do

with introducing Ibsen to the English public by his translation of _The

Pillars of Society_, produced at the Gaiety Theatre, London, in 1880. He

also translated, alone or in collaboration, other productions of the

Scandinavian stage: Ibsen's _Doll's House_ (1889), _Master Builder_

(1893); Edvard Brandes's _A Visit_ (1892); Ibsen's _Peer Gynt_ (1892);

_Little Eyolf_ (1895); and _John Gabriel Borkman_ (1897); and he edited

_Henrik Ibsen's Prose Dramas_ (5 vols., 1890-1891). Among his critical

works are:--_English Dramatists of To-day_ (1882); _Masks or Faces?_

(1888); five vols. of critical notices reprinted, _The Theatrical World_

(1893-1897); _America To-day, Observations and Reflections_; _Poets of

the Younger Generation_ (1901); _Real Conversations_ (1904).

ARCHERMUS, a Chian sculptor of the middle of the 6th century B.C. His

father Micciades, and his sons, Bupalus and Athenis, were all sculptors

of marble, using doubtless the fine marble of their native land. The

school excelled in draped female figures. Archermus is said by a

scholiast (on Aristophanes' _Birds_, v. 573) to have been the first to

represent Victory and Love with wings. This statement gives especial

interest to a discovery made at Delos of a basis signed by Micciades and

Archermus which was connected with a winged female figure in rapid

motion (see GREEK ART), a figure naturally at first regarded as the

Victory of Archermus. Unfortunately further investigation has

discredited the notion that the statue belongs to the basis, which seems

rather to have supported a sphinx.

ARCHERY,

History in war.

the art and practice of shooting with the bow (_arcus_) and arrow, or

with crossbow and bolts. Though these weapons are by no means widely

used amongst savage tribes of the present day, their origin is lost in

the mists of antiquity. Amongst the great peoples of ancient history

the Egyptians were the first and the most famous of archers, relying on

the bow as their principal weapon in war. Their bows were somewhat

shorter than a man, and their arrows varied between 2 ft. and 2 ft. 8

in. in length. Here, as elsewhere, flint heads for arrows were by no

means rare, but bronze was the usual material employed. The Biblical bow

was of reed, wood or horn, and the Israelites used it freely both in war

(Gen. xlviii. 22) and in the chase (xxi. 20). The Assyrians also were a

nation of archers. Amongst the Greeks of the historic period archery was

not much in evidence, in spite of the tradition of Teucer, Ulysses and

many other archers of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. The Cretans, however,

supplied Greek armies with the bowmen required. In the "Ten Thousand"

figured two hundred Cretan bowmen of Sosias' corps. Rustow and Kochly

(_Geschichte des griechischen Kriegwesens_, p. 131) estimate the range

of the Cretan bow at eighty to one hundred paces, as compared with the

sling-bullet's forty or fifty, and the javelin's thirty to forty. The

Romans as a nation were, equally with the Greeks, indifferent to

archery; in their legions the archer element was furnished by Cretans

and Asiatics. On the other hand nearly all Asiatic and derived nations

were famous bowmen, from the nations who fought under Xerxes' banner

onwards. The Persian, Scythian and Parthian bow was far more efficient

than the Cretan, though the latter was not wanting in the heterogeneous

armies of the East. The _sagittarii_, three thousand strong, who fought

in the Pharsalian campaign, were drawn from Crete, Pontus, Syria, &c.

But the Roman view of archery was radically altered when the old

legionary system perished at Adrianople (A.D. 378). After this time the

armies of the empire consisted in great part of horse-archers. Their

missiles, we are told, pierced cuirass and shield with ease, and they

shot equally well dismounted and at the gallop. These troops, combined

with heavy cavalry and themselves not unprovided with armour, played a

decisive part in the Roman victories of the age of Belisarius and

Narses. The destruction of the Franks at Casilinum (A.D. 554) was

practically the work of the horse-archers.

In the main, the nations whose migrations altered the face of Europe

were not archers. Only with the Welsh, the Scandinavians, and the

peoples in touch with the Eastern empire was the bow a favourite weapon.

The edicts of Charlemagne could not succeed in making archery popular in

his dominions, and Abbot Ebles, the defender of Paris in 886, is almost

the only instance of a skilled archer in the European records of the

time. The sagas, on the other hand, have much to say as to the feats of

northern heroes with the bow. With English, French and Germans the bow

was the weapon of the poorest military classes. The Norman archers, who

doubtless preserved the traditions of their Danish ancestors, were in

the forefront of William's line at Hastings (1066), but contemporary

evidence points conclusively to the short bow, drawn to the chest, as

the weapon used on this occasion. The combat of Bourgtheroulde in 1124

shows that the Normans still combined heavy cavalry and archers as at

Hastings. Horse-archers too (contrary to the usual belief) were here

employed by the English.

Yet the "Assize of Arms" of 1181 does not mention the bow, and Richard

I. was at great pains to procure crossbowmen for the Crusades. The

crossbow had from about the 10th century gradually become the principal

missile weapon in Europe, in spite of the fact that it was condemned by

the Lateran Council of 1139. As early as 1270 in France, and rather

later in Spain, the master of the crossbowmen had become a great

dignitary, and in Spain the weapon was used by a _corps d'elite_ of men

of gentle birth, who, with their gay apparel, were a picturesque feature

of continental armies of the period. But the Genoese, Pisans and

Venetians were the peoples which employed the crossbow most of all. Many

thousand Genoese crossbowmen were present at Crecy.

It was in the Crusades that the crossbow made its reputation, opposing

heavier weight and greater accuracy to the missiles of the

horse-archers, who invariably constituted the greatest and most

important part of the Asiatic armies. So little change in warfare had

centuries brought about that a crusading force in 1104 perished at

Carrhae, on the same ground and before the same mounted-archer tactics,

as the army of Crassus in 55 B.C. But individually the crusading

crossbowman was infinitely superior to the Turkish or Egyptian

horse-archer.

English use.

England, which was to become the country of archers _par excellence_,

long retained the old short bow of Hastings, and the far more efficient

crossbow was only used as a rule by mercenaries, such as the celebrated

Falkes de Breaute and his men in the reign of John. South Wales, it

seems certain, eventually produced the famous long-bow. In Ireland, in

Henry II.'s time, Strongbow made great use of Welsh bowmen, whom he

mounted for purposes of guerrilla warfare, and eventually the prowess of

Welsh archers taught Edward I. the value of the hitherto discredited

arm. At Falkirk (q.v.), once for all, the long-bow proved its worth, and

thenceforward for centuries it was the principal weapon of English

soldiers. By 1339, archers had come to be half of the whole mass of

footmen, and later the proportion was greatly increased. In 1360 Edward

III. mounted his archers, as Strongbow had done. The long-bow was about

5 ft., and its shaft a cloth-yard long. Shot by a Welsh archer, a shaft

had penetrated an oak door (at Abergavenny in 1182) 4 in. thick and the

head stood out a hand's breadth on the inner side. Drawn to the right

ear, the bow was naturally capable of long shooting, and in Henry

VIII.'s time practice at a less range than one furlong was forbidden. In

rapidity it was the equal of the short bow and the superior of the

crossbow, which weapon, indeed, it surpassed in all respects. Falkirk,

and still more Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt, made the English archers

the most celebrated infantry in Europe, and the kings of England, in

whatever else they differed from each other, were, from Edward II. to

Henry VIII., at one in the matter of archery. In 1363 Edward III.

commanded the general practice of archery on Sundays and holidays, all

other sports being forbidden. The provisions of this act were from time

to time re-issued, particularly in the well-known act of Henry VIII. The

price of bows and arrows was also regulated in the reign of Edward III.,

and Richard III. ordained that for every ton of certain goods imported

ten yew-bows should be imported also, while at the same time long-bows

of unusual size were admitted free of duty. In order to prevent the too

rapid consumption of yew for bow-staves, bowyers were ordered to make

four bows of wych-hazel, ash or elm to one of yew, and only the best and

most useful men were allowed to possess yew-bows. Distant and exposed

counties were provided for by making bowyers, fletchers, &c., liable

(unless freemen of the city of London) to be ordered to any point where

their services might be required. In Scotland and Ireland also,

considerable attention was paid to archery. In 1478 archery was

encouraged in Ireland by statute, and James I. and James IV. of

Scotland, in particular, did their best to stimulate the interest of

their subjects in the bow, whose powers they had felt in so many battles

from Falkirk to Homildon Hill.

Decline as weapon.

The introduction of hand-firearms was naturally fatal to the bow as a

warlike weapon, but the conservatism of the English, and the

non-professional character of wars waged by them, added to the technical

deficiencies of early firearms, made the process of change in England

very gradual. The mercenary or professional element was naturally the

first to adopt the new weapons. At Pont de l'Arche in 1418 the English

had "_petits canons_" (which seem to have been hand guns), and during

the latter part of the Hundred Years' War their use became more and more

frequent. The crossbow soon disappeared from the more professional

armies of the continent. Charles the Bold had, before the battle of

Morat (1476), ten thousand _coulevrines a main_. But in the hands of

local forces the crossbow lingered on, at least in rural France, until

about 1630. Its last appearance in war was in the hands of the Chinese

at Taku (1860). But the long-bow, an incomparably finer weapon, endured

as one of the principal arms of the English soldier until about 1590.

Edward IV. entered London after the battle of Barnet with 500 "smokie

gunners" (foreign mercenaries), but at that engagement Warwick's centre

consisted solely of bows and bills (1471). The new weapons gradually

made their way, but even in 1588, the year of the Armada, the local

forces of Devonshire comprised 800 bows to 1600 "shot," and 800 bills to

800 pikes. But the Armada year saw the last appearance of the English

archer, and the same county in 1598 provides neither archers nor

billmen, while in the professional army in Ireland these weapons had

long given way to musket and caliver, pike and halberd. Archers appeared

in civilized warfare as late as 1807, when fifteen hundred "baskiers,"

horse-archers, clad in chain armour, fought against Napoleon in Poland.

As a weapon of the chase the bow was in its various forms employed even

more than in war. The rise of archery as a sport in England was, of

course, a consequence of its military value, which caused it to be so

heartily encouraged by all English sovereigns.

Japan.

The Japanese were from their earliest times great archers, and the bow

was the weapon _par excellence_ of their soldiers. The standard length

of the bow (usually bamboo) was 7 ft. 6 in., of the arrow 3 ft. to 3 ft.

9 in. Numerous feats of archery are recorded to have taken place in the

"thirty-three span" halls of Kioto and Tokyo, where the archer had to

shoot the whole length of a very low corridor, 128 yds. long. Wada

Daihachi in the 17th century shot 8133 arrows down the corridor in

twenty-four consecutive hours, averaging five shots a minute, and in

1852 a modern archer made 5583 successful shots in twenty hours, or over

four a minute.

History of Sport.

_The Pastime of Archery._--The use of the bow and arrow as a pastime

naturally accompanied their use as weapons of war, but when the gun

began to supersede the bow the pastime lost its popularity. Charles II.,

however, and his queen, Catherine of Braganza, interested themselves in

English archery, the queen in 1676 presenting a silver badge or shield

to the "Marshall of the Fraternity of Archers," which badge, once the

property of the Finsbury Archers, was transferred to the keeping of the

Royal Toxophilite Society, when in 1841 the two clubs combined. The

Toxophilite Society was founded in 1781; for though in the north archery

had long been practised, its resuscitation in the south really dates

from the formation of this club by Sir Ashton Lever. This society

received the title of "Royal" in 1847, though it had long been

patronized by royalty. It is an error to suppose that the Finsbury

Archers were connected with the Archers' division of the Hon. Artillery

Company, but many members of the Toxophilite Society joined that

division, and used its ground for shooting, securing, however, a London

ground of their own in the district where Gower Street, W.C., now is.

When this ground became unavailable, the shooting probably took place at

Highbury, and later in 1820, on Lord's cricket ground, the present

ground in the Inner Circle of Regent's Park, near the Botanical Gardens,

not being acquired till 1833. The society may be regarded as the most

important body connected with archery, most of the leading archers

belonging to it, though the Grand National Archery Society controls the

public meetings. Among its more important events is the shooting of 144

arrows at 100 yds. for the Crunder Cup and Bugle. In the early days of

the club targets of different sizes were used at the different ranges,

and the scores were recorded in money (e.g. "Mr Elwin, 86 hits,

L5:5:6"). The Woodmen of Arden can claim an almost equal antiquity,

having been founded--some say "revived"--in 1785. The number of members

is limited to 80; at one time there were 81, Sir Robert Peel having been

elected as a supernumerary by way of compliment. The headquarters of the

Woodmen are at Meriden in Warwickshire; the club has a nominal authority

over vert and venison, whence its officers bear appropriate

names-warden, master-forester and verderers; and the annual meeting is

called the Wardmote. The master-forester, or captain for the year, is

the maker of the first "gold" at the annual target; he who makes the

second is the senior verderer. The club devotes itself to the

old-fashioned clout-shooting at long ranges, reckoned by "scores," nine

score meaning 180 yds., and so on. (_Vide_ "Clout-shooting" _infra_.)

The chief matches in which the Woodmen engage are those against the

Royal Company of Scottish Archers. The Royal British Bowmen date back to

the end of the 18th century. Like many others, during the Napoleonic war

they suspended operations, revived when peace was made. The club was

finally dissolved in 1880. The Royal Kentish Bowmen were founded in

1785, but did not survive the war. John O'Gaunt's Bowmen, who still meet

at Lancaster, were revived, not created, at the same time, and still

flourish. The Herefordshire Bowmen only shoot at 60 yds., while the West

Berks Society is limited to twelve members, who meet at each other's

houses, except for their Autumn Handicap, shot on the Toxophilite

Grounds--216 arrows at 100 yds. The Royal Company of Archers is the

chief Scottish society. Originally a semi-military body constituted in

1676, it practised archery as a pastime from the time of its foundation,

several meetings being held in the first few years of its existence. It

devoted itself to "rovers," or long-range shooting at the "clout," among

its most interesting trophies being the "Musselburgh Arrow," first shot

for in 1603, possibly even earlier, in that town; the competition was

then open to all comers, for archery was long popular in Scotland,

especially at Kilwinning, the headquarters of popinjay (q.v.) shooting.

Other prizes are the "Peebles Silver Arrow," dating back to 1626, the

"Edinburgh Silver Arrow" (1709), the "Selkirk Arrow," a very ancient

prize, the "Dalhousie Sword," the "Hopetoun Royal Commemoration Prize,"

and others, shot for at ranges of 180 or 200 yds. The most curious is

the "Goose Medal." Originally a goose was buried in a butt with only its

head visible, and this was the archers' mark; now a small glass globe is

substituted. The "Popingo (Popinjay) Medal," for which a stuffed parrot

was once used as the mark, is now contested at the ordinary butts. The

Kilwinning Society of Archers, founded in 1688, did not disband till

1870; the Irvine Toxophilites flourished from 1814 till about 1867. But

of all societies the Grand National Archery Society, regulating the

great meetings, though comparatively young, is the most important.

Various open meetings were already in existence, but in 1844 a few

leading archers projected a Grand National Meeting, which was held in

York in that year and in 1845 and 1846, and subsequently in other

places. But the society did not exist as such till 1861, after the

meeting held at Liverpool, since when, notwithstanding some financial

troubles, it has been the legislative and managing body of English

archery. The chief meetings are the "Championship," the "Leamington and

Midland Counties," the "Crystal Palace," the "Grand Western" and the

"Grand Northern." For some years a "Scottish Grand National" was held,

but fell into abeyance. The "Scorton Arrow" is no longer shot for in the

Yorkshire village of that name, but the meeting, held regularly in the

county, dates back to 1673 by record, and is probably far older. The

silver arrow and the captaincy are awarded to the man who makes the

first gold; the silver bugle and lieutenancy to the first red; the gold

medal to most hits, and a horn spoon to the last white.

In the United States archery has had a limited popularity. The only one

of the early clubs that lasted long was the "United Bowmen of

Philadelphia," founded in 1828, but defunct in 1859. There was a revival

twenty years later, when a National Association was formed; and various

meetings were held annually and championships instituted, but there was

never any popular enthusiasm for the sport, though it showed signs of

increasing favour towards the end of the 19th century. The longer ranges

are not greatly favoured by American archers, though at some meetings

the regulation "York Round" (_vide infra_ under "Targets") and the

"National" are shot. Other rounds are the "Potomac," 24 arrows at 80, 24

at 70, and 24 at 60 yds.; the "Double American," 60 arrows each at 60,

50 and 40 yds.; and the "Double Columbia," for ladies, 48 each at 50, 40

and 30 yds. In team matches ladies shoot 96 arrows at 50 yds., gentlemen

96 at 60.

_The Bow._--As used in the pastime of archery the length of the bows

does not vary much, though it bears some relation to the length of

the arrow and the length of the arrow to the strength of the archer,

to which the weight of the bow has to be adapted. The proper weight of

a bow is the number of lb. which, attached to the string, will draw a

full-length arrow to its head. For men's bows the drawing-power varies

from 40 to 60 lb., anything above this being extreme; ladies' bows

draw from 24 to 32 lb. Estimating 50 lb. as a fair average, such a bow

would be 6 ft. 1 in. long for a 30-in., 6 ft. for a 28-in., and 5 ft.

11 in. for a 27-in. arrow, but the height as well as the strength of

the archer have to be considered. Similarly a lady's bow on the

average measures about 5 ft. 6 in. and her arrows 25 in. Modern bows

are either made entirely of yew (occasionally of other woods), when

they are called "self-bows," or of a combination of woods, when they

are called "backed-bows." Self-bows are rarely or never made in a

single stave, owing to the difficulty of obtaining true and flawless

wood of the necessary length; hence two staves joined by a double

fish-joint, which forms the centre of the bow, are used, tested and

adjusted so that they may be as equally elastic as possible. The best

yew is imported from Italy and Spain, and is allowed to season for

three years before it is made into a bow, which again is not used till

it is two years older. In backed-bows the belly, the rounded part

nearest to the string, is generally but not necessarily made of yew,

the back, or flat part, of yew (the best), hickory, lance or other

woods, glued together in strips. The centre of the bow, for about 18

in., should be stiff and resisting, then tapering off gradually to the

horns in which the string is fitted, the greatest care being taken

that the two limbs are uniform. The bow of self-yew is generally

considered more agreeable to handle and has a better "cast," throwing

the arrow more smoothly and with less jar, and since no glued parts

are exposed, it is less liable to injury from wet. On the other hand,

"crysals" (tiny cracks, which are apt to extend) are more frequent in

this class of bow. Self-yew bows cost L8 or L10, where a good

backed-bow can be bought for about half that. The self-bow is more

sensitive than other bows, and its work is mostly done during the last

few inches of the pull, where the backed-bow pulls evenly throughout.

The backed-bow should be perfectly straight in the back, but after use

often loses its shape either by "following the string," i.e. getting

bent inwards on the string-side, or by becoming "reflex" (bending the

opposite way). Self-bows are even more apt to lose their shape than

backed-bows, as there is no hard wood to counteract the natural grain.

A bow that is strongly reflexed at the ends is known as a "Cupid's

bow." To form the handle the wood of the bow is left thick in the

centre, and braid, leather or indiarubber is wound round it to give a

better grip.

_The String and Stringing._--The string is made of three strands of

hemp, dressed with a preparation of glue, and should be perfectly

round, smooth and not frayed, as a broken string may result in a

broken bow. The string, at its centre, is 6 in. from the belly of the

man's bow; 5 in. in the lady's bow. The clenched fist with the thumb

upright was the old, rough and ready estimate, known as "fist-mele."

For a few inches above and below the nocking point the string is

lapped with carpet-thread to save it from fraying by contact with the

arm; the nocking point being made by another lapping of filoselle

silk, so that the string may exactly fit the nock of the arrow. When a

bow is properly strung the string should be longitudinally along the

middle of the belly.

_Arrows and Nocking._--The parts of the arrow are the shaft, the

"nock" or notch, the "pile" or point, and the feathers. The shaft is

made of seasoned red deal, and may be "self" or "footed." Most arrows

are "footed," i.e. a piece of hard wood to which the pile is attached

is spliced to the deal shaft, which should be perfectly straight and

stiff. The shaft is made in several shapes. Most archers prefer the

"parallel" pattern--the shaft being the same size from nock to pile;

the next is the "barrelled," the shape being thick in the centre and

tapering towards the ends. The "bob-tail" diminishes from the pile to

the nock; the "chested" tapers from the middle to the pile. The pile

should not be taper but cylindrical, "broadshouldered" where the point

begins. The nock is cut square. There are three feathers, the body

feathers of a turkey or peacock being the best. They should all curve

the same way, are about 1-1/2 in. long and 1/2 in. deep, with the ends

near the nock either square, or balloon-shaped. The weight of an arrow

is its weight in new English silver; a five-shilling arrow is heavy

for a man's bow, while four-shillings is light. A 28-in. arrow for a

50-lb. bow may weigh four-and-ninepence; a 27-in. arrow

four-and-sixpence. This may serve as a rough standard.

_Other Implements._--The archer uses finger-tips, or a "tab" of

leather, to protect the fingers against the string, and a leather

"bracer" to protect the left arm from its blow. Quivers are not now

used except by ladies. A special box for carrying bows and arrows

about; a proper cupboard, known as an "ascham," in which they may be

kept at home in a dry, even temperature, not too hot; and a baize or

leather case for use on the ground, are important minor articles of

equipment.

_Targets, Scoring and Handicapping._--The targets, 4 ft. in diameter,

are made of straw 3 to 4 in. thick, and are supported sloping slightly

backwards by an iron stand. The faces are of floor-cloth painted with

concentric rings, 4-4/5 in. each in breadth. The outer ring, white,

counts one point; the next, black, three; the next, blue, five; the

next, red, seven; and the next, gold--a complete circle of 4-4/5 in.

radius--nine. The exact centre of the gold is called the "pin-hole."

The targets are set up in pairs, facing each other, the distances for

men being 100, 80 and 60 yds.; for ladies, 60 and 50; for convenience,

5 yds. are added to allow for a shooting-line that distance in front

of each target. The centre of the gold should be 4 ft. from the

ground. Each archer shoots three arrows--an "end"--at one target; they

then cross over and mark the scores. If an arrow cuts two rings, the

archer is credited with the value of the higher one. In matches a

"York Round" or a "St George's Round" is usually shot by men, the

former consisting of 144 arrows, 72 at 100 yds., 48 at 80 yds., and 24

at 60 yds., the latter of 36 arrows at each of these distances. One

York Round only is shot on a day; a double York Round is shot, one on

each day, at the more important meetings. Ladies usually shoot the

"National Round" of 48 arrows at 60 yds. and 24 at 50 yds. At most

meetings the prizes are awarded on the gross scores; at others,

including the Championship meeting, on points, two points for the

highest score on the round and two for most hits on the round, one

point each for highest score and most hits at each of the three

ranges, ten points in all. Ladies' scores are calculated similarly. To

decide the Championship, the Grand National Archery Society passed a

rule in 1894 that "The Champion prizes shall be awarded to the archer

gaining the greatest number of points, provided that those for gross

hits or gross score are included; any points won by other archers

shall be redistributed among those gaining the points for gross hits

or gross score." Handicapping may be done by "rings," the winner of a

first prize not being allowed to count "whites" at subsequent

meetings, and "blacks" and "blues" being lost for further successes.

Better methods are (1) to deduct a percentage from the gross score of

successful shooters, (2) to handicap by points, as in other pastimes,

or (3) to rate a shooter according to the average of his last year's

performances, re-rating him monthly, or at convenient intervals, the

system being to add his average of the current year to his average of

last year, and divide the sum by two to form his new rating.

_Clout and Long Distance Shooting._--This form of archery is chiefly

supported by the Woodmen of Arden and the Royal Company. At 100 yds.,

the target (smaller by 4 in. than the usual one, but with an inner

white circle instead of the blue) is set up against a butt only 18 in.

from the ground, but for nine-score, ten-score, and twelve-score

shooting it is a white target, 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, with a black

centre. The target, the centre and the arrow that hits the centre are

each known as a "clout." Hits and misses are signalled by a marker

stationed, rather perilously, by the side of the butt. The target is

sloped backwards to an angle of 60 deg., with rings marked round it on

the ground at distances of 1-1/2 ft., 3 ft., 6 ft. and 9 ft., a hit in

the outer ring counting one, and in the next two, and so on, the clout

or centre counting six. For the longer ranges lighter arrows are used.

The Scottish clout was a piece of canvas, stretched on a frame; the

range 180 or 200 yds.; all arrows counted one that were within 24 ft.

of the target, the clout counting two. Modern archers have paid scant

attention to mere distance-shooting, which is an art of its own, but

their experiments prove that with a fairly heavy bow, say 60 lb. or 63

lb., and a long light arrow, known as a "flight arrow," a good archer

should be able to reach 300 or 310 yds. With a heavier bow, properly

under control, 50 or 60 yds. might be added to this by a strong man.

These experiments seem to be verified by a quotation from Shakespeare

(Henry IV. Act iii. Sc. 2): "A' would have clapped i' the clout and

twelve score, and carried you a forehand shaft a fourteen and fourteen

and a half," i.e. 280 or 290 yds. Instances are recorded of Englishmen

shooting 340 and 360 yds., but in 1795 Mahmoud Effendi of the Turkish

embassy shot 482 yds. with a Turkish bow, and Sultan Selim 972. The

Turk, however, used a Turkish bow and a 14-in. arrow, with a grooved

rest on his left arm along which the arrow passed, to compensate for

the difference between the draw of the bow and the shortness of the

arrow. The diplomatist's shot is supported by good evidence, but the

sultan's is regarded as improbable at least.

_Championship and Scores._--The British championship meetings,

instituted in 1844, are conducted under the laws of the Grand National

Archery Society: the prizes, apart from the Challenge prizes, are

given in money, there being also a rule that any one who makes three

golds at one end receives a shilling from all others of the same sex

who are shooting. The most notable champion was Horace A. Ford (d.

1880), who held the title for eleven consecutive years, 1849 to 1859

inclusive, and again in 1867. He made a four-figure score at four

other championship meetings, his highest, 1251 (in 1857) for 245 hits

being unapproached. To him the modern scientific practice of archery

must largely be attributed, together with its improvement and its

popularity. The names of G. Edwards, Major C. Hawkins Fisher, H.H.

Palairet, C.E. Nesham, and G.E.S. Fryer, are also notable as

champions. Among ladies Mrs Horniblow was champion for eleven years

between 1852 and 1881, Miss Legh for nineteen years between 1880 and

1908; Mrs Piers Legh, Miss Betham and Mrs Bowly claim the title on

four occasions. Mrs Bowly's score of 823 (1894) was the highest made

for the championship till Miss Legh made 825 with 143 hits--only one

arrow missed altogether--in 1898; beating her own record with a score

of 841 (143 hits) in 1904. It should not be forgotten that as the

championship is awarded by points, the highest score does not

necessarily win.

See Roger Ascham, _Toxophilus_ (1545), edited by Edward Arber (London,

1868); _The Arte of Warre_, by William Garrard (London 1591); _The

Arte of Archerie_, by Gervase Markham (London, 1634); _Ancient and

Modern Methods of Arrow Release_, by E.S. Morse (1885); _The English

Bowman_, by T. Roberts (London, 1801); _A Treatise on Archery_, by

Thomas Waring (London, 9th ed., 1832); _The Theory and Practice of

Archery_, by Horace A. Ford (new ed., London, 1887); _Archery_, by

C.J. Longman and H. Walrond (Badminton Library, London, 1894).

(W. J. F.)

ARCHES, COURT OF, the English ecclesiastical court of appeal of the

archbishop of Canterbury, as metropolitan of the province of Canterbury,

from all the consistory and commissary courts in the province. It

derives its name from its ancient place of judicature, which was in the

church of _Beata Maria de Arcubus_ --St Mary-le-Bow or St Mary of the

Arches, "by reason of the steeple thereof raised at the top with stone

pillars in fashion like a bow bent archwise." This parish was the chief

of thirteen locally situated within the diocese of London but exempt

from the bishop's jurisdiction, and it was no doubt owing to this

circumstance that it was selected originally as the place of judicature

for the archbishop's court. The proper designation of the judge is

official principal of the Arches court, but by custom he came to be

styled the dean of the Arches, a title belonging formerly to the chief

official of the subordinate court. Originally, the official principal

exercised metropolitan jurisdiction, while the dean of the Arches

exercised the "peculiar" jurisdiction. The jurisdictions called

"peculiars" at one time numbered nearly 300 in England. They were

originally introduced by the pope for the purpose of curtailing the

bishop's legitimate authority within his diocese; "an object which,"

says Phillimore, "they certainly attained, to the great confusion of

ecclesiastical jurisdiction for many years." The dean of the Arches

originally had jurisdiction over the thirteen London parishes above

mentioned, but as the official principal was often absent as ambassador

on the continent, he became his substitute, and gradually the two

offices were blended together. The original office of the dean of the

Arches may now be regarded as extinct, though the title is still

popularly used, for no dean of the Arches has been appointed _eo nomine_

for several centuries, and by an act of 1838 bishops have jurisdiction

over all peculiars within their diocese. The judge of the Arches court

was until 1874 appointed by the archbishop of Canterbury by patent

which, when confirmed by the dean and chapter of Canterbury, conferred

the office for the life of the holder. He took the oaths of office

required by the 127th canon. But by the Public Worship Regulation Act

1874 the two archbishops were empowered, subject to the approval of the

sovereign by sign-manual, from time to time to appoint a practising

barrister of ten years' standing, or a person who had been a judge of

one of the superior courts (being a member of the Church of England) to

be, during good behaviour, a judge for the purpose of exercising

jurisdiction under that act, and it was enacted (sec. 7) that on a

vacancy occurring in the office of official principal of the Arches

court the judge should become _ex officio_ such official principal. In

this way the late Lord Penzance became dean on the retirement of Sir

Robert Phillimore in 1875. Lord Penzance received in 1878 a supplemental

patent as dean from Archbishop Tait, but did not otherwise fulfil the

conditions observed on the appointment of his predecessors. On Lord

Penzance's retirement in 1899, his successor, Sir Arthur Charles,

received a patent from the archbishop of Canterbury as official

principal of the Arches court, and he took the oaths of office according

to the practice before the Public Worship Regulation Act. He was

subsequently and separately appointed judge under that act. Sir A.

Charles resigned in 1903 and was succeeded by Sir L.T. Dibdin, who

qualified in the same way as his immediate predecessor. The official

principal of the Arches court is the only ecclesiastical judge who is

empowered to pass a sentence of deprivation against a clerk in holy

orders. The appeals from the decisions of the Arches court were formerly

made to the king in chancery, but they are now by statute addressed to

the king in council, and they are heard before the judicial committee of

the privy council. By an act of Henry VIII. (Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction