Act 1894 is important as the first practical attempt of any importance

to enforce compulsory arbitration in trade disputes. The original act

was amended by several subsequent measures, and the law has been more

than once consolidated. The law provides for the incorporation of

associations of employers or workmen under the title of industrial

unions, and for the creation in each district of a joint conciliation

board, elected by these industrial unions, with an impartial chairman

elected by the board, to which a dispute may be referred by any party, a

strike or lock-out being thenceforth illegal. If the recommendation of

the conciliation board is not accepted by either party, the matter goes

to a court of arbitration consisting of two persons representing

employers and workmen respectively, and a judge of the supreme court. Up

to 1901 disputes were ordinarily required to go first to a board of

conciliation except by agreement of the parties, but now either party

may carry a dispute direct to the arbitration court. The amendment was

adopted because it was found in practice that the great majority of

cases went ultimately to the arbitration court, and conciliation board

proceedings were often mere waste of time. The award of the court is

enforceable by legal process, financial penalties up to L500 being

recoverable from defaulting associations or individuals. If the property

of an association is insufficient to pay the penalty, its members are

individually liable up to L10 each. It is the duty of factory inspectors

to see that awards are obeyed. The law provides for the extension of

awards to related trades, to employers entering the industry hereafter,

and in some cases to a whole industry.

The above is only an outline of the principal provisions of this law,

under which questions of wages, hours and the relations of employers and

workmen generally in New Zealand (q.v.) industries became practically

the subject of state regulation. The act must more properly be judged as

a measure for the state regulation of industry, but as a method of

putting an end to labour disputes its success has only been partial.

_Australia._--The laws which are practically operative in Australia with

respect to arbitration and conciliation are all based with modifications

on the New Zealand system. The first compulsory arbitration act passed

in Australia was the New South Wales Act of 1901. The principal points

of difference between this and the New Zealand act are that the

conciliation procedure is entirely omitted, the New South Wales measure

being purely an arbitration act. The arbitration court has greater power

over unorganized trades than in New Zealand, and the scope of its awards

is greatly enlarged by its power to declare any condition of labour to

be common rule of an industry, and thus binding on all existing and

future employers and work-people in that industry. In Western Australia

laws were passed in 1900 and 1902 which practically adopted the New

Zealand legislation with certain modifications in detail.

In 1904 the commonwealth of Australia passed a compulsory arbitration

law based mainly on those in force in New Zealand and New South Wales,

and applicable to disputes affecting more than one Australian state. The

arbitration court is empowered to require any dispute within its

cognizance to be referred to it by the state authority proposing to deal

with it. There are other Australian laws which, though unrepealed (e.g.

the South Australian Act of 1894), are a dead-letter. Generally

speaking, the Australasian laws on arbitration and conciliation are more

stringent and far-reaching than any others in the world.

_Canada._--In 1900 a conciliation act was passed by the Dominion

parliament resembling the United Kingdom act in most of its features,

and in 1903 the Canadian Railway Labour Disputes Act made special

provision for the reference of railway disputes to a conciliation board

and (failing settlement) to a court of arbitration.

This act was consolidated with the Conciliation Act 1900 during 1906 in

an act respecting conciliation and labour, and in March 1907 the

Industrial Disputes Investigation Act became law by which machinery is

set up for the constitution of a board, on the application of either

side to a dispute in mines and industries connected with public

utilities, whenever a strike involving more than ten employees is

threatened. The provisions of the act may be extended to other

industries and railway companies, and their employees may take action

under either the Conciliation and Labour Act or the Industrial Disputes

Investigation Act. Under the Investigation Act it is unlawful for any

employer to cause a lock-out, or for an employee to go on strike on

account of any dispute prior to or during a reference of such dispute to

a board constituted under the act, or prior to or during a reference

under the provisions concerning railway disputes under the Conciliation

and Labour Act. There is nothing, however, in the act to prevent a

strike or lock-out taking place after the dispute has been investigated.

_France._--The French Conciliation and Arbitration Law of December 1892

provides that either party to a labour dispute may apply to the _juge de

paix_ of the canton, who informs the other party of the application. If

they concur within three days, a joint committee of conciliation is

formed of not more than five representatives of each party, which meets

in the presence of the _juge de paix_, who, however, has no vote. If no

agreement results the parties are invited to appoint arbitrators. If

such arbitrators are appointed and cannot agree on an umpire, the

president of the civil tribunal appoints an umpire. In the case of an

actual strike, in the absence of an application from either party it is

the duty of the _juge de paix_ to invite the parties to proceed to

conciliation or arbitration. The results of the action of the _juge de

paix_ and of the conciliation committee are placarded by the mayors of

the communes affected. The law leaves the parties entirely free to

accept or reject the services of the _juge de paix_.

During the ten years 1897-1906 the act was put in force in 1809

cases--viz. 916 on application of workmen; 49 of employers; 40 of both

sides; and 804 without application. Altogether 616 disputes were

settled--549 by conciliation and 67 by arbitration.

_Germany._--In several continental European countries, courts or boards

are established by law to settle cases arising out of existing labour

contracts; e.g. the French "_Conseils de Prud'hommes_," the Italian

"_Probi-Viri_," and the German "_Gewerbegerichten_,"--and some of the

questions which come before these bodies are such as might be dealt with

in England by voluntary boards or joint committees. The majority,

however, are disputes between individuals as to wages due, &c., which

would be determined in the United Kingdom by a court of summary

jurisdiction. It is noteworthy, however, that the German industrial

courts (_Gewerbegerichten_) are empowered under certain conditions to

offer their services to mediate between the parties to an ordinary

labour dispute. The main law is that of 1890 which was amended in 1901.

In the case of a strike or lock-out the court must intervene on

application of both parties, and may do so of its own initiative or on

the invitation of one side. The conciliation board for this purpose

consists under the amending law of 1901 of the president of the court

and four or more representatives named by the parties in equal numbers

but not concerned in the dispute. Failing appointment by the parties the

president appoints them. Failing a settlement at a conference between

the parties in the presence of the president and assessors of the court,

the court arrives at a decision on the merits of the dispute which is

communicated to the parties, who are allowed a certain time within which

to notify their acceptance or rejection. The court has no power to

compel the observance of its decision, but in certain cases it may fine

a witness for non-attendance. In the first five years after the passage

of the amending law of 1901 (viz. 1902-1906) there were 1139

applications for the intervention of the industrial courts: 492

agreements were brought about and 107 decisions were pronounced by the

courts, of which 64 were accepted by both parties.

_Switzerland._--The canton of Geneva enacted a law in 1900 providing for

the settlement by negotiation, conciliation or arbitration of the

general terms of employment in a trade, subject, however, to special

arrangements between employers and workmen in particular cases. The

negotiations take place between delegates chosen by the associations of

employers and employed, or failing them, by meetings summoned by the

council of state on sufficient applications. Failing settlement, the

council of state, on application from either party, is to appoint one or

more conciliators from its members, and if this fail the central

committee of the _Prud'hommes_, together with the delegates of employers

and workmen, is to form a board of arbitration, whose decision is

binding. Any collective suspension of work is illegal during the period

covered by the award or agreement. Up to the end of 1904 only seven

cases occurred of application of the law to industrial differences. In

Basel (town) a law providing for voluntary conciliation by means of

boards of employers and workmen with an independent chairman appointed

_ad hoc_ by the council of state of the canton, has been in force since

1897, but it remained practically unused until 1902. In the period from

January 1902 to May 1905, 18 disputes were dealt with and 10 settled

under this law. A similar law was adopted in St Gall in 1902. In the

three years 1902-1904, 10 disputes were dealt with and 3 settled.

_Sweden._--By a law which came into force on the 1st of January 1907,

Sweden was divided into seven districts and in each district a

conciliator was appointed by the crown. The conciliator must reside

within his district and his principal duty is to promote the settlement

of disputes between employers and work-people or between members of

either class among themselves. He is also on request to advise and

otherwise assist employers and work-people in framing agreements

affecting the conditions of labour if and so far as agreements are

designed to promote good relations between the two classes and to

obviate stoppages of work.

_United States._--In the United States several states have legislated on

the subject of conciliation and arbitration, among the first of such

acts being the "Wallace" Act of 1883, in Pennsylvania, which, however,

was almost inoperative. Altogether, 24 states have made constitutional

or statutory provision for mediation in trade disputes, of which 17

contemplate the formation of permanent state boards. The only state laws

which require notice are those of Massachusetts and New York providing

for the formation of state boards of arbitration. The Massachusetts

board, founded in 1886, consists of one employer, one employed and one

independent person chosen by both. The New York board (1886) consists of

two representatives of different political parties, and one member of a

_bona fide_ trade organization within the state. In both states it is

the duty of the board, with or without application from the parties, to

proceed to the spot where a labour dispute has occurred, and to

endeavour to promote a settlement. The parties may decline its services,

but the board is empowered to issue a report, and on application from

either side to hold an inquiry and publish its decision, which (in

Massachusetts) is binding for six months, unless sixty days' notice to

the contrary is given by one side to the other. Several states,

including Massachusetts and New York, provide not only for state boards,

but also for local boards.

In Massachusetts, during 1906, the state board dealt with 158 disputes.

Of these the board was appealed to as arbitrator in 95 cases. Awards

were rendered in 80 cases, 12 cases were withdrawn and 3 cases were

still pending at the end of the year. In New York the number of cases

dealt with is much smaller.

Federal legislation can only touch the question of arbitration and

conciliation so far as regards disputes affecting commerce between

different states. Thus an act of June 1898 provides that in a dispute

involving serious interruption of business on railways engaged in

inter-state commerce, the chairman of the Inter-State Commerce

Commission and the commissioner of labour shall, on application of

either party, endeavour to effect a settlement, or to induce the parties

to submit the dispute to arbitration. While an arbitration under the act

is pending a strike or lock-out is unlawful.

AUTHORITIES.--For the recent development of arbitration and

conciliation in the United Kingdom, see the _Annual Reports of the

Labour Department of the Board of Trade on Strikes and Lock-outs_ from

1888 onwards. Since 1890 these reports have contained special

appendices on the work of arbitration boards. See also the _Labour

Gazette_ (the monthly journal of the Labour Department) from 1893

onward, and the _Report on Rules of Voluntary Conciliation and

Arbitration Boards and Joint Committees_. The _Reports of the Royal

Commission on Labour_ (1891-1894) contain much valuable information on

the subject. For the working of the Conciliation Act see the _Reports_

of the Board of Trade on their proceedings under the Conciliation Act

1896. For the earlier history in the United Kingdom: Crompton,

_Industrial Conciliation_ (1876); Price, _Industrial Peace_ (1887).

For foreign and colonial developments: the third _Abstract of Foreign

Labour Statistics_ (1906), issued by the Board of Trade; _Report on

Government Industrial Arbitration_, by L.W. Hatch (Bulletin of Bureau

of Labour of United States Department of Commerce and Labour,

September 1905); the report of the French _Office du Travail_, _De la

conciliation et de l'arbitrage dans les conflits collectifs entre

patrons et ouvriers en France et a l'etranger_ (1893); the Annual

Reports of the same Department on _Strikes, Lockouts and Arbitration_;

the _Reports of the Massachusetts and New York State Arbitration

Boards_, and of the _New Zealand Department of Labour_; and the

_Labour Gazette_. See also the following general works: N.P. Gilman,

_Methods of Industrial Peace_ (Boston, 1904); A.C. Pigou, _Principles

and Methods of Industrial Peace_ (1905). (X.)

ARBOGAST (d. 394), a barbarian officer in the Roman army, at the end of

the 4th century. His nationality is uncertain, but Zosimus, Eunapius and

Sulpicius Alexander (a Gallo-Roman historian quoted by Gregory of Tours)

all refer to him as a Frank. Having served with distinction against the

Goths in Thrace, he was sent by Theodosius in 388 against Maximus, who

had usurped the empire of the west and had murdered Gratian. His

complete success, which resulted in the destruction of Maximus and his

sons and the pacification of Gaul, led Theodosius to appoint him chief

minister for his young brother-in-law Valentinian II. His rule was most

energetic; but while he favoured the barbarians in the imperial service,

and appointed them to high office, Valentinian, openly jealous of his

minister, sought to surround himself with Romans. As an offset to this,

Arbogast allied himself with the pagan element in Rome, while

Valentinian was strictly orthodox. In 392 Valentinian was secretly put

to death at Vienne (in Gaul), and Arbogast, naming as his successor

Eugenius, a rhetorician, descended into Italy to meet the expedition

which Theodosius was heading against him. He proclaimed himself the

champion of the old Roman gods, and as a response to the appeal of

Ambrose, is said to have threatened to stable his horses in the

cathedral of Milan, and to force the monks to fight in his army. His

defeat in the hard-fought battle of the Frigidus saved Italy from these

dangers. Theodosius, after a two days' fight, gained the victory by the

treachery of one of Arbogast's generals, sent to cut off his retreat.

Eugenius was captured and executed, but Arbogast escaped to the

mountains, where however he slew himself three days afterwards (8th of

September 394). Although we have only most distorted narratives upon

which to rely--pagan eulogy and Christian denunciation--Arbogast appears

to have been one of the greatest soldiers of the later empire, and a

statesman of no mean rank. His energy, and his apparent disdain for the

effete civilization which he protected, but which did not affect his

character, make his personality one of the most interesting of the 4th

century.

See T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (1880), vol. i. chap. ii.

ARBOIS, a town of eastern France, in the department of Jura, on the

Cuisance, 29 m. N.N.E. of Lons-le-Saunier by rail. Pop. (1906) 3454. The

town is the seat of the tribunal of first instance of the arrondissement

of Poligny, and has a communal college. The church of St Just, founded

in the 10th century, has good wood-carving. An Ursuline convent, built

in 1764, serves as hotel de ville and law court, and a church of the

14th century is used as a market. There is an old chateau of the dukes

of Burgundy. Arbois is well known for its red and white wines, and has

saw-mills, tanneries and market gardens, and manufactures paper, oil and

casks.

ARBOIS DE JUBAINVILLE, MARIE HENRI D' (1827-1910), French historian and

philologist, was born at Nancy on the 5th of December 1827. In 1851 he

left the Ecole des Chartes with the degree of palaeographic archivist.

He was placed in control of the departmental archives of Aube, and

remained in that position until 1880, when he retired on a pension. He

published several volumes of inventorial abstracts, a _Repertoire

archeologique du departement_ in 1861; a valuable _Histoire des ducs et

comtes de Champagne depuis le VI^e siecle jusqu'a la fin du XI^e_, which

was published between 1859 and 1869 (8 vols.), and in 1880 an

instructive monograph upon _Les Intendants de Champagne_. But already he

had become attracted towards the study of the most ancient inhabitants

of Gaul; in 1870 he brought out an _Etude sur la declinaison des noms

propres dans la langue franque a l'epoque merovingienne_; and in 1877 a

learned work upon _Les Premiers Habitants de l'Europe_ (2nd edition in 2

vols. 1889 and 1894). Next he concentrated his efforts upon the field of

Celtic languages, literature and law, in which he soon became an

authority. Appointed in 1882 to the newly founded professorial chair of

Celtic at the College de France, he began the _Cours de litterature

celtique_ which in 1908 extended to twelve volumes. For this he himself

edited the following works: _Introduction a l'etude de la litterature

celtique_ (1883); _L'Epopee celtique en Irlande_ (1892); _Etudes sur le

droit celtique_ (1895); and _Les Principaux Auteurs de l'antiquite a

consulter sur l'histoire des Celtes_ (1902). He was among the first in

France to enter upon the study of the most ancient monuments of Irish

literature with a solid philological preparation and without empty

prejudices. We owe to him also _Les Celtes depuis les temps les plus

recules jusqu'a l'an 100 avant noire ere_ (1904), and a study of

comparative law in _La Famille celtique_ (1905). Numerous detailed

studies upon the Gaulish names of persons and places took synthetic form

in the _Recherches sur l'origine de la propriete fonciere_ (1890), which

illumined one of the most interesting aspects of the Roman occupation of

Gaul. _The Recueil de memoires concernant la litterature et l'histoire

celtiques_, made by the most notable among his disciples on the occasion

of his seventy-eighth birthday (1906), was a well-deserved tribute to

his persevering and fruitful industry. He died in February 1910.

(C. B.*)

ARBOR DAY, the name applied in the United States of America to a day

appointed for the public planting of trees (see ARBOUR). Originating, or

at least being first successfully put into operation, in Nebraska in

1872 through the instrumentality of J. Sterling Morton, then president

of the state Board of Agriculture, it received the official sanction of

the state by the proclamation of Governor R.W. Furnas in 1874 and by the

enactment in 1885 of a law establishing it as a legal holiday in

Nebraska. The movement spread rapidly throughout the United States until

with hardly an exception every state and territory celebrates such a day

either as a legal or a school holiday. The time of celebration varies in

different states--sometimes even in different localities in the same

state--but April or early May is the rule in the northern states, and

February, January and December are the months in various southern

states. A like practice has been introduced in New Zealand.

See N.H. Egleston, _Arbor Day: Its History and Observance_

(Washington, 1896), Robert W. Furnas, _Arbor Day_ (Lincoln, Neb.,

1888), and R.H. Schauffler (ed.), _Arbor Day_ (New York, 1909).

ARBORETUM, the name given to that part of a garden or park which is

reserved for the growth and display of trees. The term, in this

restricted sense, was seemingly first so employed in 1838 by J.C.

Loudon, in his book upon arboreta and fruit trees. Professor Bayley

Balfour, F.R.S., the Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden in

Edinburgh, has described an arboretum as a living collection of species

and varieties of trees and shrubs arranged after some definite

method--it may be properties, or uses, or some other principle--but

usually after that of natural likeness. The plants are intended to be

specimens showing the habit of the tree or shrub, and the collection is

essentially an educational one. According to another point of view, an

arboretum should be constructed with regard to picturesque beauty rather

than systematically, although it is admitted that for scientific

purposes a systematic arrangement is a _sine qua non_. In this more

general respect, an arboretum or woodland affords shelter, improves

local climate, renovates bad soils, conceals objects unpleasing to the

eye, heightens the effect of what is agreeable and graceful, and adds

value, artistic and other, to the landscape. What Loudon called the

"gardenesque" school of landscape naturally makes particular use of

trees. By common consent the arboretum in the Royal Botanical Gardens at

Kew is one of the finest in the world. Its beginnings may be traced back

to 1762, when, at the suggestion of Lord Bute, the duke of Argyll's

trees and shrubs were removed from Whitton Place, near Hounslow, to

adorn the princess of Wales's garden at Kew. The duke's collection was

famous for its cedars, pines and firs. Most of the trees of that date

have perished, but the survivors embrace some of the finest of their

kind in the gardens. The botanical gardens at Kew were thrown open to

the public in 1841 under the directorate of Sir William Hooker.

Including the arboretum, their total area did not then exceed 11 acres.

Four years later the pleasure grounds and gardens at Kew occupied by the

king of Hanover were given to the nation and placed under the care of

Sir William for the express purpose of being converted into an

arboretum. Hooker rose to the occasion and, zealously reinforced by his

son and successor, Sir Joseph, established a collection which rapidly

grew in richness and importance. It is perhaps the largest collection of

hardy trees and shrubs known, comprising some 4500 species and botanical

varieties. A large proportion of the total acreage (288) of the Gardens

is monopolized by the arboretum. Of the more specialized public arboreta

in the United Kingdom the next to Kew are those in the Royal Botanic

Garden in Edinburgh and the Glasnevin Garden in Dublin. The collection

of trees in the Botanic Garden at Cambridge is also one of respectable

proportions. There is a small but very select collection of trees at

Oxford, the oldest botanical garden in Great Britain, which was founded

in 1632. In the United States the Arnold Arboretum at Boston ranks with

Kew for size and completeness. It takes its name from its donor, the

friend of Emerson. It was originally a well-timbered park, which, by

later additions, now covers 222 acres. Practically, it forms part of the

park system so characteristic of the city, being situated only 4 m. from

the centre of population. There is a fine arboretum in the botanical

gardens at Ottawa, in Canada (65 acres). On the continent of Europe the

classic example is still the _Jardin des Plantes_ in Paris, where,

however, system lends more of formality than of beauty to the general

effect. The collection of trees and shrubs at Schonbrunn, near Vienna,

is an extensive one. At Dahlem near Berlin the new _Kgl. Neuer

Botanischer Garten_ has been laid out with a view to the accommodation

of a very large collection of hardy trees and shrubs. There are now many

large collections of hardy trees and shrubs in private parks and gardens

throughout the British Islands, the interest taken in them by their

proprietors having largely increased in recent years. Rich men collect

trees, as they do paintings or books. They spare neither pains nor money

in acquiring specimens, even from distant lands, to which they often

send out expert collectors at their own expense. This, too, the Royal

Horticultural Society was once wont to do, with valuable results, as in

the case of David Douglas's remarkable expedition to North America in

1823-1824. It will be remembered that when the laird of Dumbiedikes lay

dying (Scott's _Heart of Midlothian_, chap, viii.) he gave his son one

bit of advice which Bacon himself could not have bettered. "Jock," said

the old reprobate, "when ye hae naething else to do; ye may be aye

sticking in a tree; it will be growing, Jock, when ye're sleeping." Sir

Walter assures us that a Scots earl took this maxim so seriously to

heart that he planted a large tract of country with trees, a practice

which in these days is promoted by the English and Royal Scottish

Arboricultural Societies.

ARBORICULTURE (Lat. _arbor_, a tree), the science and art of

tree-cultivation. The culture of those plants which supply the food of

man or nourish the domestic animals must have exclusively occupied his

attention for many ages; whilst the timber employed in houses, ships and

machines, or for fuel, was found in the native woods. Hence, though the

culture of fruit-trees, and occasionally of ornamental trees and shrubs,

was practised by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, the cultivation of

timber-trees on a large scale only took place in modern times. In the

days of Charlemagne, the greater part of France and Germany was covered

with immense forests; and one of the benefits conferred on France by

that prince was the rooting up of portions of these forests throughout

the country, and substituting orchards or vineyards. Artificial

plantations appear to have been formed in Germany sooner than in any

other country, apparently as early as the 15th century. In Britain

planting was begun, though sparingly, a century later. After the

extensive transfers of property on the seizure of the church lands by

Henry VIII., much timber was sold by the new owners, and the quantity

thus thrown into the market so lowered its price, as Hollingshed informs

us, that the builders of cottages, who had formerly employed willow and

other cheap and common woods, now built them of the best oak. The demand

for timber constantly increased, and the need of an extended surface of

arable land arising at the same time, the natural forests became greatly

circumscribed, till at last timber began to be imported, and the

proprietors of land to think, first of protecting their native woods,

afterwards of enclosing waste ground and allowing it to become covered

with self-sown seedlings, and ultimately of sowing acorns and mast in

such enclosures, or of filling them with young plants collected in the

woods--a practice which exists in Sussex and other parts of England even

now. Planting, however, was not general in England till the beginning of

the 17th century, when the introduction of trees was facilitated by the

interchange of plants by means of botanic gardens, which, in that

century, were first established in different countries. Evelyn's

_Sylva_, the first edition of which appeared in 1664, rendered an

extremely important service to arboriculture; and there is no doubt that

the ornamental plantations in which England surpasses all other

countries are in some measure the result of his enthusiasm. In

consequence of a scarcity of timber for naval purposes, and the

increased expense during the Napoleonic war of obtaining foreign

supplies, planting received a great stimulus in Britain in the early

part of the 19th century. After the peace of 1815 the rage for planting

with a view to profit subsided; but there was a growing taste for the

introduction of trees and shrubs from foreign countries, and for their

cultivation for ornament and use. The profusion of trees and shrubs

planted around suburban villas and country mansions, as well as in town

squares and public parks, shows how much arboriculture is an object of

pleasure to the people. While isolated trees and old hedgerows are

disappearing before steam cultivation, the advantages of shelter from

well-arranged plantations are more fully appreciated; and more attention

is paid to the principles of forest conservancy both at home and abroad.

In all thickly peopled countries the forests have long ceased to supply

the necessities of the inhabitants by natural reproduction; and it has

become needful to form plantations either by government or by private

enterprise, for the growth of timber, and in some cases for climatic

amelioration. This subject is, however, dealt with more fully under

FORESTS AND FORESTRY (q.v.); and the separate articles on the various

sorts of tree may be consulted for details as to each.

ARBOR VITAE (Tree of Life), a name given by Clusius to species of

_Thuja_. The name _Thuja_, which was adopted by Linnaeus from the

_Thuya_ of Tournefort, seems to be derived from the Greek word [Greek:

thuos], signifying sacrifice, probably because the resin procured from

the plant was used as incense. The plants belong to the natural order

Coniferae, tribe Cupressineae (Cypresses). _Thuja occidentalis_ is the

Western or American arbor vitae, the _Cupressus Arbor Vitae_ of old

authors. It is a native of North America, and ranges from Canada to the

mountains of Virginia and Carolina. It is a moderate-sized tree, and was

introduced into Britain before 1597, when it was mentioned in Gerard's

_Herbal_. In its native country it attains a height of about 50 ft. The

leaves are small and imbricate, and are borne on flattened branches,

which are apt to be mistaken for the leaves. When bruised the leaves

give out an aromatic odour. The flowers appear early in spring, and the

fruit is ripened about the end of September. In Britain the plant is a

hardy evergreen, and can only be looked upon as a large shrub or low

tree. It is often cut so as to form hedges in gardens. The wood is very

durable and useful for outdoor work, such as fencing, posts, etc.

Another species of arbor vitae is _Thuja orientalis_, known also as

_Biota orientalis_. The latter generic name is derived from the Greek

adjective [Greek: biotos], formed from [Greek: bios], life, probably in

connexion with the name "tree of life." This is the Eastern or Chinese

arbor vitae. It is a native of China. It was cultivated in the Chelsea

Physick Garden in 1752, and was believed to have been sent to Europe by

French missionaries. It has roundish cones, with numerous scales and

wingless seeds. The leaves, which have a pungent aromatic odour, are

said to yield a yellow dye. There are numerous varieties of this plant

in cultivation, one of the most remarkable of which is the variety

_pendula_, with long, flexible, hanging, cord-like branches; it was

discovered in Japan about 1776 by Carl Peter Thunberg, a pupil of

Linnaeus, who made valuable collections at the Cape of Good Hope, in the

Dutch East Indies and in Japan. The variety _pygmaea_ forms a small bush

a few inches high.

_Thuja gigantea_, the red or canoe cedar, a native of north-western

America from southern Alaska to north California, is the finest species,

the trunk rising from a massive base to the height of 150 to 200 ft. It

was not introduced to Britain till 1853. It is one of the handsomest of

conifers, forming an elongated cone of foliage, which in some gardens

has already reached 70 or 80 ft. in height. It thrives in most kinds of

soils. The timber is easily worked and used for construction, especially

where exposed to the weather.

ARBOS, FERNANDEZ (1863- ), Spanish violinist and composer, was born in

Madrid, and trained at the conservatoire there, and later at Brussels

and at Berlin under Joachim. He became a professor at Hamburg and then

at Madrid, becoming famous meanwhile as one of the finest violinists of

the day; and after visiting England in 1890 and establishing his

reputation there, he became professor at the Royal College of Music in

London. As a composer he is best known by his violin pieces, and by a

comic opera, _El Centro de la Tierra_ (1895).

ARBOUR, or ARBOR (originally "herber" or "erber," O. Fr. _herbier_, from

Lat. _herbarium_, a collection of herbs, _herba_, grass; the word came

to be spelt "arber" through its pronunciation, as in the case of Derby,

and by the 16th century was written "arbour," helped by a confusion of

derivation from Lat. _arbor_, a tree, and by change of meaning), a

grass-plot or lawn, a herb-garden, or orchard, and a shady bower of

interlaced trees, or climbing plants trained on lattice-work. The

application of the word has shifted from the grass-covered ground, the

proper meaning, to the covering of trees overhead. "Arbor" (from the

Latin for "tree") is a term applied to the spindle of a wheel,

particularly in clock-making.

ARBROATH, or ABERBROTHOCK, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and

seaport of Forfarshire, Scotland. It is situated at the mouth of

Brothock water, 17 m. N.E. of Dundee by the North British railway, which

has a branch to Forfar, via Guthrie, on the Caledonian railway. Pop.

(1891) 22,821; (1901) 22,398. The town is under the jurisdiction of a

provost, bailies and council, and, with Brechin, Forfar, Inverbervie and

Montrose, returns one member to parliament. The leading industries

include the manufacture of sailcloth, canvas and coarse linens, tanning,

boot and shoe making, and bleaching, besides engineering works, iron

foundries, chemical works, shipbuilding and fisheries. The harbour,

originally constructed and maintained by the abbots, by an agreement

between the burgesses and John Gedy, the abbot in 1394, was replaced by

one more commodious in 1725, which in turn was enlarged and improved in

1844. The older portion was converted into a wet dock in 1877, and the

entrance and bar of the new harbour were deepened. A signal tower, 50

ft. high, communicates with the Bell Rock (q.v.) lighthouse on the

Inchcape Rock, 12 m. south-east of Arbroath, celebrated in Southey's

ballad. The principal public buildings are the town-hall, a somewhat

ornate market house, the gildhall, the public hall, the infirmary, the

antiquarian museum (including some valuable fossil remains) and the

public and mechanics' libraries. The parish church dates from 1570, but

has been much altered, and the spire was added in 1831. The ruins of a

magnificent abbey, once one of the richest foundations in Scotland,

stand in High Street. It was founded by William the Lion in 1178 for

Tironesian Benedictines from Kelso, and consecrated in 1197, being

dedicated to St Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English

court. It was William's only personal foundation, and he was buried

within its precincts in 1214. Its style was mainly Early English, the

western gable Norman. The cruciform church measured 276 ft. long by 160

ft. wide, and was a structure of singular beauty and splendour. The

remains include the vestry, the southern transept (the famous rose

window of which is still entire), part of the chancel, the southern wall

of the nave, part of the entrance towers and the western doorway. It was

here that the parliament met which on the 6th of April 1320 addressed to

the pope the notable letter, asserting the independence of their country

and reciting in eloquent terms the services which their "lord and

sovereign" Robert Bruce had rendered to Scotland. The last of the abbots

was Cardinal Beaton, who succeeded his uncle James when the latter

became archbishop of St Andrews. At the Reformation the abbey was

dismantled and afterwards allowed to go to ruin. Part of the secular

buildings still stand, and the abbot's house, or Abbey House as it is

now called, is inhabited. Arbroath was created a royal burgh in 1186,

and its charter of 1599 is preserved. King John exempted it from "toll

and custom" in every part of England excepting London. Arbroath is

"Fairport" of Scott's _Antiquary_, and Auchmithie, 3 m. north-east

("Musselcrag" of the same romance), is a quaint old-fashioned place,

where the men earn a precarious living by fishing. On each side of the

village the coast scenery is remarkably picturesque, the rugged

cliffs--reaching in the promontory of Red Head, the scene of a thrilling

incident in the _Antiquary_, a height of 267 ft.--containing many

curiously shaped caves and archways which attract large numbers of

visitors. At the 14th-century church of St Vigeans, 1 m. north of

Arbroath, stands one of the most interesting of the sculptured stones of

Scotland, with what is thought to be the only legible inscription in the

Pictish tongue. The parish--originally called Aberbrothock and now

incorporated with Arbroath for administrative purposes--takes its name

from a saint or hermit whose chapel was situated at Grange of Conon,

3-1/2 m. north-west. Two miles west by south are the quarries of

Carmyllie, the terminus of a branch line from Arbroath, which was the

first light railway in Scotland and was opened in 1900.

ARBUTHNOT, ALEXANDER (1538-1583), Scottish ecclesiastic and poet,

educated at St Andrews and Bourges, was in 1569 elected principal of

King's College, Aberdeen, which office he retained until his death. He

played an active part in the stirring church politics of the period, and

was twice moderator of the kirk, and a member of the commission of

inquiry into the condition of the university of St Andrews (1583). The

"correctness" of his attitude on all public questions won for him the

commendation of Catholic writers; he is not included in Nicol Burne's

list of "periurit apostatis"; but his policy and influence were misliked

by James VI., who, when the Assembly had elected Arbuthnot to the charge

of the church of St Andrews, ordered him to return to his duties at

King's College. He had been for some time minister of Arbuthnott in

Kincardineshire. His extant works are (_a_) three poems, "The Praises of

Wemen" (224 lines), "On Luve" (10 lines), and "The Miseries of a Pure

Scholar" (189 lines), and (_b_) a Latin account of the Arbuthnot family,

_Originis et Incrementi Arbuthnoticae Familiae Descriptio Historica_

(still in MS.), of which an English continuation, by the father of Dr

John Arbuthnot, is preserved in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. The

praise of the fair sex in the first poem is exceptional in the

literature of his age; and its geniality may help us to understand the

author's popularity with his contemporaries. Arbuthnot must not be

confused with his contemporary and namesake, the Edinburgh printer, who

produced the first edition of Buchanan's _History of Scotland_ in 1582.

Some have discovered in the publication of this work a false clue to

James's resentment against the principal of King's College.

The particulars of Arbuthnot's life are found in Calderwood,

Spottiswood, and other Church historians, and in Scott's _Fasti

Ecclesiae Scoticanae_. The poems are printed in Pinkerton's _Ancient

Scottish Poems_ (1786), i. pp. 138-155.

ARBUTHNOT, JOHN (1667-1735), British physician and author, was born at

Arbuthnott, Kincardineshire, and baptized on the 29th of April 1667. His

father, Alexander Arbuthnot, was an episcopalian minister who was

deprived of his living in 1689 by his patron, Viscount Arbuthnott, for

refusing to conform to the Presbyterian system. After his death, in

1691, John went to London, where he lived in the house of a learned

linen-draper, William Pate, and supported himself by teaching

mathematics. In 1692 he published _Of the Laws of Chance_ ..., based on

the Latin version, _De Ratociniis in ludo aleae_, of a Dutch treatise by

Christiaan Huygens. In 1692 he entered University College, Oxford, as a

fellow-commoner, acting as private tutor to Edward Jefferys; and in 1696

he graduated M.D. at St Andrews university. In _An Examination of Dr

Woodward's Account of the Deluge_ (1697) he confuted an extraordinary

theory advanced by Dr William Woodward. An _Essay on the Usefulness of

Mathematical Learning_ followed in 1701, and in 1704 he became a fellow

of the Royal Society. He had the good fortune to be called in at Epsom

to prescribe for Prince George of Denmark, and in 1705 he was made

physician extraordinary to Queen Anne. Four years later he became royal

physician in ordinary, and in 1710 he was elected fellow of the Royal

College of Physicians. Arbuthnot's ready wit and varied learning made

him very valuable to the Tory party. He was a close friend of Jonathan

Swift and of Alexander Pope, and Lord Chesterfield says that even the

generous acknowledgment they made of his assistance fell short of their

real indebtedness. He had no jealousy of his fame as an author, and his

abundant imagination was always at the service of his friends. In 1712

appeared "Law is a Bottomless Pit, Exemplify'd in the case of the Lord

Strutt, John Bull, Nicholas Frog and Lewis Baboon, who spent all they

had in a law-suit. Printed from a Manuscript found in the Cabinet of the

famous Sir Humphrey Polesworth." This was the first of a series of five

pamphlets advocating the conclusion of peace. Arbuthnot describes the

confusion after the death of the Lord Strutt (Charles II. of Spain), and

the quarrels between the greedy tradespeople (the allies). These put

their cause into the hands of the attorney, Humphrey Hocus (the duke of

Marlborough), who does all he can to prolong the struggle. The five

tracts are printed in two parts as the "History of John Bull" in the

_Miscellanies in Prose and Verse_ (1727, preface signed by Pope and

Swift). Arbuthnot fixed the popular conception of John Bull, though it

is not certain that he originated the character, and the lively satire

is still amusing reading. It was often asserted at the time that Swift

wrote these pamphlets, but both he and Pope refer to Arbuthnot as the

sole author. In the autumn of the same year he published a second

satire, "Proposals for printing a very Curious Discourse in Two Volumes

in Quarto, entitled, [Greek: Psendologia Politikae]; or, A Treatise of

the Art of Political Lying," best known by its sub-title. This ironical

piece of work was not so popular as "John Bull." "'Tis very pretty,"

says Swift, "but not so obvious to be understood." Arbuthnot advises

that a lie should not be contradicted by the truth, but by another

judicious lie. "So there was not long ago a gentleman, who affirmed that

the treaty with France for bringing popery and slavery into England was

signed the 15th of September, to which another answered very

judiciously, not by opposing truth to his lie, that there was no such

treaty; but that, to his certain knowledge, there were many things in

that treaty not yet adjusted."

Arbuthnot was one of the leading spirits in the Scriblerus Club, the

members of which were to collaborate in a universal satire on the abuses

of learning. _The Memoirs of the extraordinary Life, Works, and

Discoveries of Martinus Scriblerus_, of which only the first book was

finished, first printed in Pope's _Works_ (1741), was chiefly the work

of Arbuthnot, who is at his best in the whimsical account of the birth

and education of Martin. Swift, writing on the 3rd of July 1714 to

Arbuthnot, says:--"To talk of Martin in any hands but yours, is a folly.

You every day give better hints than all of us together could do in a

twelvemonth: and to say the truth, Pope who first thought of the hint

has no genius at all to it, to my mind; Gay is too young: Parnell has

some ideas of it, but is idle; I could put together, and lard, and

strike out well enough, but all that relates to the sciences must be

from you."

The death of Queen Anne put an end to Arbuthnot's position at court, but

he still had an extensive practice, and in 1727 he delivered the

Harveian oration before the Royal College of Physicians. Lord

Chesterfield and William Pulteney were his patients and friends; also

Mrs Howard (Lady Suffolk) and William Congreve. His friendship with

Swift was constant and intimate; he was friend and adviser to Gay; and

Pope wrote (2nd of August 1734) that in a friendship of twenty years he

had found no one reason of complaint from him. Arbuthnot's youngest son,

who had just completed his education, died in December 1731. He never

quite recovered his former spirits and health after this shock. On the

17th of July 1734 he wrote to Pope: "A recovery in my case, and at my

age, is impossible; the kindest wish of my friends is Euthanasia." In

January 1735 was published the "Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot," which forms

the prologue to Pope's satires. He died on the 27th of February 1735 at

his house in Cork Street, London.

Among Arbuthnot's other works are:--_An Argument for Divine Providence,

taken from the constant regularity observed in the Births of both sexes_

(Phil. Trans. of the Royal Soc., 1710); "Virgilius Restauratus," printed

in the second edition of Pope's _Dunciad_ (1729); _An Essay concerning

the Effects of Air on Human Bodies_ (1733); _An Essay concerning the

Nature of Ailments_ ... (1731); and a valuable _Table of Ancient Coins,

Weights and Measures_ (1727), which is an enlargement of an earlier

treatise (1705). He had a share in the unsuccessful farce of _Three

Hours after Marriage_, printed with Gay's name on the title-page (1717).

Some pieces printed in _A Supplement to Dr Swift's and Mr Pope's

Works_ ... (1739) are there asserted to be Arbuthnot's. _The

Miscellaneous Works of the late Dr Arbuthnot_ were published at Glasgow

in an unauthorized edition in 1751. This includes many spurious pieces.

See _The Life and Works of John Arbuthnot_ (1892), by George A.

Aitken.

ARCACHON, a coast town of south-western France, in the department of

Gironde, 37 m. W.S.W. of Bordeaux on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906)

9006. Arcachon is situated on the southern border of the lagoon of

Arcachon at the foot of dunes covered with splendid pine-woods. It

comprises two distinct parts, the summer town, extending for 2-1/2 m.

along the shore, and bordered by a firm sandy beach, frequented by

bathers, and the winter town, farther inland, consisting of numerous

villas scattered amongst the pines.

Owing to the mildness of its climate the winter town is a resort for

consumptive patients. The principal industries are oyster-breeding,

which is conducted on a very large scale, and fishing. The port has

trade with Spain and England.

ARCADE, in architecture, a range of arches, supported either by columns

or piers; isolated in the case of those separating the nave of a church

from the aisles, or forming the front of a covered ambulatory, as in the

cloisters in Italy and Sicily, round the Ducal Palace or the Square of

St Mark's, Venice, round the courts of the palaces in Italy, or in Paris

round the Palais-Royal and the Place des Vosges. The earliest examples

known are those of the Tabularium, the theatre of Marcellus, and the

Colosseum, in Rome. In the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the principal

street had an arcade on either side, the arches of which rested direct

on the capital without any intervening entablature or impost block. The

term is also applied to the galleries, employed decoratively, on the

facades of the Italian churches, and carried round the apses where they

are known as eaves-galleries. Sometimes these arcades project from the

wall sufficiently to allow of a passage behind, and sometimes they are

built into and form part of the wall; in the latter case, they are known

as blind or wall arcades; and they were constantly employed to decorate

the lower part of the walls of the aisles and the choir-aisles in

English churches. Externally, blind arcades are more often found in

Italy and Sicily, but there are examples in England at Canterbury, Ely,

Peterborough, Norwich, St John's (Chester), Colchester and elsewhere.

Internally, the oldest example is that of the old refectory in

Westminster Abbey (fig. 1). Sometimes the design is varied with

interlacing arches as in St John's Devizes (fig. 2), and Beverley

Minster (fig. 3). In Sicily and the south of Italy these interlacing

arcades are the special characteristic of the Saracenic work there

found, and their origin may be found in the interlaced arches of the

Mosque of Cordova in Spain. In the cathedral of Palermo and at Monreale

they are carried round the apses at the east end. At Caserta-Vecchia, in

South Italy, they decorate the lantern over the crossing, and at Amain

the turrets on the north-west campanile.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Arcade, Westminster Abbey.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Arcade, St John's, Devizes.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Triforium at Beverley.

From Rickman's _Styles of Architecture_, by permission of Parker & Co.]

The term is also applied to the covered passages which form

thoroughfares from one street to another, as in the Burlington Arcade,

London; in Paris such an arcade is usually called _passage_, and in

Italy _galleria_. (R. P. S.)

ARCADELT, or ARCHADELT, JACOB (c. 1514-c. 1556), a Netherlands composer,

of the early part of the Golden Age. In 1539 he left a position at

Florence to teach the choristers of St Peter's, Rome, and became one of

the papal singers in 1540. He was a prolific church composer, but the

works published in his Italian time consist entirely of madrigals, five

books of which, published at Venice, probably gave a great stimulus to

the beginnings of the Venetian school of composition. In 1555 he left

Italy and entered the service of Cardinal Charles of Lorraine, duke of

Guise, and after this published three volumes of masses, besides

contributing motets to various collections. The _Ave Maria_, ascribed to

him and transcribed as a pianoforte piece by Liszt, does not seem to be

traced to an earlier source than its edition by Sir Henry Bishop, which

has possibly the same kind of origin in Arcadelt as the hymn tune

"Palestrina" has in the delicate and subtle _Gloria_ of Palestrina's

_Magnificat Quinti Toni_, the fifth in his first _Book of Magnificats_.

ARCADIA, a district of Greece, forming the central plateau of

Peloponnesus. Shut off from the coast lands on all sides by mountain

barriers, which rise in the northernpeaks of Erymanthus (mod. _Olonos_)

to 7400, of Cyllene (Ziria) to 7900, in the southern corner buttresses

of Parthenium and Lycaeum to more than 5000 ft., this inland plateau is

again divided by numerous subsidiary ranges. In eastern or "locked"

Arcadia these heights run in parallel courses intersected by

cross-ridges, enclosing a series of upland plains whose waters have no

egress save by underground channels or _zerethra_. The western country

is more open, with isolated mountain-groups and winding valleys, where

the Alpheus with its tributaries the Ladon and Erymanthus drains off in

a complex river-system the overflow from all Arcadia. The ancient

inhabitants were a nation of shepherds and huntsmen, worshipping Pan,

Hermes and Artemis, primitive nature-deities. The difficulties of

communication and especially the lack of a seaboard seriously hindered

intercourse with the rest of Greece. Consequently the same population,

whose origins Greek tradition removed back into the world's earliest

days, held the land throughout historic times, without even an admixture

of Dorian immigrants. Their customs and dialect persisted, the latter

maintaining a peculiar resemblance to that of the equally conservative

Cypriotes. Thus Arcadia lagged behind the general development of Greece,

and its political importance was small owing to chronic feuds between

the townships (notably between Mantineia and Tegea) and the readiness of

its youth for mercenary service abroad.

The importance of Arcadia in Greek history was due to its position

between Sparta and the Isthmus. Unable to force their way through

Argolis, the Lacedaemonians early set themselves to secure the passage

through the central plateau. The resistance of single cities, and the

temporary union of the Arcadians during the second Messenian war, did

not defer the complete subjugation of the land beyond the 6th century.

In later times revolts were easily stirred up among individual cities,

but a united national movement was rarely concerted. Most of these

rebellions were easily quelled by Sparta, though in 469 and again in 420

the disaffected cities, backed by Argos, formed a dangerous coalition

and came near to establishing their independence. A more whole-hearted

attempt at union in 371 after the battle of Leuctra resulted in the

formation of a political league out of an old religious synod, and the

foundation of a federal capital in a commanding strategic position (see

MEGALOPOLIS). But a severe defeat at the hands of Sparta in 368 (the

"tearless battle") and the recrudescence of internal discord soon

paralysed this movement. The new fortress of Megalopolis, instead of

supplying a centre of national life, merely accentuated the mutual

jealousy of the cities. During the Hellenistic age Megalopolis stood

staunchly by Macedonia; the rest of Arcadia rebelled against Antipater

(330, 323) and Antigonus Gonatas (266). Similarly the various cities

were divided in their allegiance between the Achaean and the Aetolian

leagues, with the result that Arcadia became the battleground of these

confederacies, or fell a prey to Sparta and Macedonia. These conflicts

seem to have worn out the land, which already in Roman times had fallen

into decay. An influx of Slavonic settlers in the 8th century A.D.

checked the depopulation for a while, but Arcadia suffered severely from

the constant quarrels of its Frankish barons (1205-1460). The succeeding

centuries of Turkish rule, combined with an Albanian immigration, raised

the prosperity of the land, but in the Wars of Independence the

strategic importance of Arcadia once more made it a centre of conflict.

In modern times the population remains sparse, and pending the complete

restoration of the water conduits the soil is unproductive. The modern

department of Arcadia extends to the Gulf of Nauplia with a sea-coast of

about 40 m.

AUTHORITIES.--Strabo pp. 388 sq.; Pausanias viii.; W.M. Leake,

_Travels in the Morea_ (London, 1830), chs. iii., iv., xi.-xviii.,

xxiii.-xxvi.; E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_ (Gotha, 1851), i. 153-178;

H.F. Tozer, _Geography of Greece_ (London, 1873), pp. 287-292; E.A.

Freeman, _Federal Government_ (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. S 3; B.V.

Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 372-373; B. Niese in

_Hermes_ (1899), pp. 520 f. (M. O. B. C.)

ARCADIUS (378-408), Roman emperor, the elder son of Theodosius the

Great, was created Augustus in 383, and succeeded his father in 395

along with his brother Honorius. The empire was divided between them,

Honorius governing the two western prefectures (Gaul and Italy),

Arcadius the two eastern (the Orient and Illyricum). Both were feeble,

and, in Gibbon's phrase, slumbered on their thrones, leaving the

government to others. Arcadius submitted at first to the guidance of the

praetorian prefect Rufinus, and, after his murder (end of 395) by the

troops, to the counsels of the eunuch Eutropius (executed end of 399).

His consort Eudoxia (daughter of a Frank general, Bauto), a woman of

strong will, exercised great influence over him; she died in 404. In the

last year of his reign, Anthemius (praetorian prefect) was the chief

adviser and support of the throne. The first years of the reign were

marked by the ravaging of the Greek peninsula by the West Goths under

Alaric (q.v.) in 395-396. The movement of the Goth Gainas (who held the

post of master of soldiers) in 399-400 is less famous but was more

dangerous. At that time there were two rival political parties at

Constantinople, the "Roman" party led by Aurelian (son of Taurus),

praetorian prefect, and supported by the empress and a Germanizing and

Arianizing party led by Aurelian's brother (possibly Caesarius,

praetorian prefect in 400). Gainas entered into a close league with the

latter; fomented a Gothic rebellion in Phrygia; and forced the emperor

to put Eutropius to death. For some months he and the party which he

supported were supreme in Constantinople. He was, however, finally

forced to leave, and having plundered for some time in Thrace was

captured and killed by the loyal Goth Fravitta. The Roman party

recovered its power; Aurelian was again praetorian prefect in 402; and

the Germanization which was to befall the western world was averted from

the east. Another important question was decided in this reign, the

relation of the patriarch of Constantinople to the emperor. The struggle

between the court and the patriarch John Chrysostom (q.v.), who assumed

an independent attitude and gravely offended the empress by his sermons

against the worldliness and frivolity of the court, with open allusions

to herself, resulted in his fall and exile (404). This virtually

determined the subordination of the patriarch of Constantinople to the

emperor. The rivalry of the see of Alexandria with Constantinople was

also displayed in the contest, Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria,

assisting the court in bringing about the fall of Chrysostom. Throughout

the reign of Arcadius there was estrangement and jealousy between the

two brothers or their governments. The principal ground of this

hostility was probably dissatisfaction on both sides with the

territorial partition. The line had been drawn east of Dalmatia. The

ministers of Arcadius desired to annex Dalmatia to his portion, while

the general Stilicho, who was supreme in the west, wished to wrest from

the eastern realm the prefecture of Illyricum or a considerable part of

it. His designs were unsuccessful, and during the reign of Theodosius

II., son of Arcadius (who died in 408), Dalmatia was transferred to the

dominion of the eastern ruler.

AUTHORITIES.--Ancient: Fragments of Eunapius and Olympiodorus (in

Muller's _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, vol. iv.); fragments of

Philostorgius, Socrates, Sozomen, Zosimus, Synesius of Cyrene ("The

Egyptian"), Claudian. Modern: Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_, vol. iii.,

ed. Bury; J.B. Bury, _Later Roman Empire_, vol. i. (1889); T. Hodgkin,

_Italy and her Invaders_, vol. i. (ed. 2, 1892); Guldenpenning,

_Geschichte des ostromischen Reiches unter den Kaisern Arcadius und

Theodosius II._ (1885).

ARCADIUS, of Antioch, Greek grammarian, flourished in the 2nd century

A.D. According to Suidas, he wrote treatises on orthography and syntax,

and an onomaticon (vocabulary), described as a wonderful production. An

epitome of the great work of Herodian on general prosody in twenty

books, wrongly attributed to Arcadius, is probably the work of

Theodosius of Alexandria or a grammarian named Aristodemus. This epitome

([Greek: Peri Tonon]) only includes nineteen books of the original work;

the twentieth is the work of a forger of the 16th century. Although

meagre and carelessly put together, it is valuable, since it preserves

the order of the original and thus affords a trustworthy foundation for

its reconstruction.

Text by Barker, 1823; Schmidt, 1860; see also Galland, _De Arcadii qui

fertur libra de accentibus_ (1882).

ARCELLA (C.G. Ehrenberg), a genus of lobose Rhizopoda, characterized by

a chitinous plano-convex shell, the circular aperture central on the

flat ventral face, and more than one nucleus and contractile vacuole. It

can develop vacuoles, or rather fine bubbles of carbonic acid gas in its

cytoplasm, to float up to the surface of the water.

ARCESILAUS (316-241 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and founder of the New,

or Middle, Academy (see ACADEMY, GREEK). Born at Pitane in Aeolis, he

was trained by Autolycus, the mathematician, and later at Athens by

Theophrastus and Crantor, by whom he was led to join the Academy. He

subsequently became intimate with Polemon and Crates, whom he succeeded

as head of the school. Diogenes Laertius says that he died of excessive

drinking, but the testimony of others (e.g. Cleanthes) and his own

precepts discredit the story, and he is known to have been much

respected by the Athenians. His doctrines, which must be gathered from

the writings of others (Cicero, _Acad._ i. 12, iv. 24; _De Orat._ iii.

18; Diogenes Laertius iv. 28; Sextus Empiricus, _Adv. Math._ vii. 150,

_Pyrrh. Hyp._ i. 233), represent an attack on the Stoic [Greek:

phantasia katalaeptikae] (_Criterion_) and are based on the sceptical

element (see SCEPTICISM) which was latent in the later writings of

Plato. He held that strength of intellectual conviction cannot be

regarded as valid, inasmuch as it is characteristic equally of

contradictory convictions. The uncertainty of sensible _data_ applies

equally to the conclusions of reason, and therefore man must be content

with _probability_ which is sufficient as a practical guide. "We know

nothing, not even our ignorance"; therefore the wise man will be content

with an agnostic attitude. He made use of the Socratic method of

instruction and left no writings. His arguments were marked by incisive

humour and fertility of ideas.

See R. Brodeisen, _De Arcesila philosopho_ (1821); Aug. Geffers, _De

Arcesila_ (1842); Ritter and Preller, _Hist, philos. graec._ (1898);

Ed. Zeller, _Phil. d. Griech._ (iii. 1448); and general works under

SCEPTICISM.

ARCH, JOSEPH (1826- ), English politician, founder of the National

Agricultural Labourers' Union, was born at Barford, a village in

Warwickshire, on the 10th of November 1826. His parents belonged to the

labouring class. He inherited a strong sentiment of independence from

his mother; and his objections to the social homage expected by those

whom the catechism boldly styled his "betters" made him an "agitator."

Having educated himself by unremitting exertions, and acquired fluency

of speech as a Methodist local preacher, he founded in 1872 the National

Agricultural Labourers' Union, of which he was president. A rise then

came in the wages of agricultural labourers, but this had the unforeseen

effect of destroying the union; for the labourers, deeming their object

gained, ceased to "agitate." Mr Arch nevertheless retained sufficient

popularity to be returned to parliament for north-west Norfolk in 1885;

and although defeated next year owing to his advocacy of Irish Home

Rule, he regained his seat in 1892, and held it in 1895, retiring in

1900. He was deservedly respected in the House of Commons; seldom has an

agitator been so little of a demagogue.

A biography written by himself or under his direction, and edited by

Lady Warwick (1898), tells the story of his career.

ARCH,[1] in building, a constructional arrangement of blocks of any hard

material, so disposed on the lines of some curve that they give mutual

support one to the other.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

The blocks, which are technically known as voussoirs, should be of a

wedge shape, the centre or top block (see fig. 1, A) being the keystone

A; the lower blocks B B which rest on the supporting pier are the

springers, the upper surface of which is called the skewback, C C; the

side blocks, as D, are termed the haunches. The lower surface or soffit

of the arch is the intrados, E, and the upper surface the extrados, F.

The rise of the arch is the distance from the springing to the soffit,

G, the width between the springers is called the span, H, and the radius

I. The triangular spaces between the arches are termed spandrils, K.

The arch is employed for two purposes:--(1) to span an opening in a wall

and support the superstructure; (2) when continuous to form a vault

known as a barrel or waggon vault.

The arch has been used from time immemorial by every nation, but owing

to the tendency of the upper portion to sink, especially when bearing

any superincumbent weight, it requires strong lateral support, and it is

for this reason that in the earliest examples in unburnt brick at Nippur

in Chaldaea, _c._ 4000 B.C., and at Rakakna (Requaqna) and Dendera in

Egypt, 3500-3000 B.C., it was employed only below the level of the

ground which served as an abutment on either side.

In the building of an arch, the voussoirs have to be temporarily

supported, until the keystone is inserted. This at the present day is

effected by means of centreing an assemblage of timbers framed together,

with its upper surface of the same form as the arch required; the

voussoirs are laid on the centreing till the ring of the arch is

completed. In the case of arches of small span, such as the early

examples referred to, limited to about 6 ft., such centreing might be

dispensed with in various ways, but it is difficult to see how the

arches of the great entrance gateways, shown in the Assyrian

bas-reliefs, could have been built without temporary support of some

kind. In those days, when any amount of labour could be obtained, even

the erection of a temporary wall might have been less costly than the

employment of timber, of which there was great scarcity.

The Assyrian tradition would seem to have descended first to the

Parthian builders, who in the palace of El Hadr built semicircular

arches with regular voussoirs decoratively treated. The Sassanians who

followed them employed the elliptical or egg-shaped arch, of which the

lower part was built in horizontal courses up to about one-third of the

height, which lessened the span of the arched portion.

In Europe the earliest arches were those built by the Etruscans, either

over canals (see article ARCHITECTURE: _Etruscan_), or in the entrance

gateways of their towns. The skew-arch in the gateway at Perugia shows

great knowledge in its execution. From the Etruscans the adoption of the

arch passed to the Romans, who certainly employed centreing of some

kind, but always economized its use, as is clearly shown by Choisy.

Although their walls from the Augustan age were built in concrete,

arches of brick were always turned over their entrance doorways,

sometimes in two or three rings. The Romans utilized the arch in other

ways, sometimes burying it in their concrete construction, as in their

vaults, and sometimes introducing it as a veneer only, as in the

Pantheon. In their monumental structures in stone, the arch was

sometimes built with regular voussoirs, i.e. with a semicircular

extrados, and sometimes with the joint carried far beyond. The latter

was not done in the early examples of the Tabularium and the Theatre of

Marcellus, but in the Colosseum and all the arches of triumph the joints

run through the spandrils, notwithstanding the recognition of the arch

proper by its moulded archivolt.

Although the value of the pointed arch as a stronger constructional

feature than the semicircular (owing to the tendency to sink in the

keystone of the latter) had been recognized by the Assyrian builders,

who employed it in their drains, it was not used systematically as an

architectural feature till the 9th century, in the mosque of Tulun at

Cairo; it seems to have been regarded by the Mahommedans as an emblem of

their faith, and its use spread through Syria to Persia, was brought to

Sicily from Egypt, and was taken back by the Sicilian masons to

Palestine and employed throughout the Crusaders' churches during the

12th century. As the pointed arch had already, for constructional

reasons, been employed in Perigord from the commencement of the 11th

century, it does not follow that the Crusaders brought it from

Palestine, but there is no doubt that its universal employment in France

early in the 12th century may have been partly due to its adoption in

the Crusaders' churches. At first in Gothic work both the semicircular

and pointed arches were used simultaneously in the same building, the

larger arches being pointed, the smaller ones and windows being

semicircular. The great value of the pointed arch in vaulting is

described in the article VAULT.

We have suggested that the pointed arch became an emblem of Mahommedan

faith, and it was introduced in India but not as a constructive feature,

for the Hindus objected to the arch, which they say _never sleeps_,

meaning that it is always exerting a thrust which tends to its

destruction. In India therefore it was built in horizontal courses with

vertical slabs leaning against one another to form the apex. The Moors

of north Africa, however, never employed it, preferring the horseshoe

arch which they brought into Spain and developed in the mosque of

Cordova. In the additions made to this mosque the prayer chamber was

enriched by the caliph Mansur, who, to eke out the height, raised arch

upon arch. In the Alhambra it appears in the decorative plaster work,

and travels northwards into the south of France, where at Le Puy and

elsewhere it is found decorating doorways and windows; in England it was

employed towards the end of the 12th century.

About the middle of the 14th century at Gloucester the four-centred

pointed arch was introduced, which became afterwards the leading

characteristic feature of the Tudor style. In France they adopted the

three-centred arch in the 15th century.

The ogee arch was the natural result of the development of tracery in

the commencement of the 14th century, and in Gloucester (about 1310) the

foliations were run one into the other without the enclosing circles.

About the middle of the 14th century, in the arcade of the first storey

of the ducal palace in Venice, flowing tracery is found, from which the

ogee arch there was probably derived, as throughout Venice it becomes

the favourite feature in domestic architecture of that and the

succeeding century.

The arches are of various forms as follows:--

[Illustration:

2. Semicircular arch, the centre of which is in the same line with its

springers.

3. Segmental arch, where the centre is below the springing.

4. Horseshoe arch, with the centre above the springing; employed in

Moorish architecture.

5. Stilted arches, where the centre is below the springing, but the

sides are carried down vertically.

6. Equilateral pointed arches, described from two centres, the radius

being the whole width of the arch.

7. Drop arches, with centres within the arch.

8. Lancet arches, with centres outside the arch.

9. Three centre arches, employed in French Flamboyant.

10. Four centre arches, employed in the Perpendicular and Tudor

periods.

11. Ogee arches, with curves of counter flexure, found in English

Decorated and French Flamboyant.

12. Pointed horseshoe arches, found in the mosque of Tulun, Cairo, 9th

century.

13. Pointed foiled arches, in the arcades of Beverley Minster (_c_.

1230) and Netley Abbey.

14. Cusped arch; Christchurch Priory, Hants.

15. Multifoil cusped arch, invented by the Moors at Cordova in the

10th century.

16. Flat arch, where the soffit is horizontal and sometimes slightly

cambered (dotted line).

17. Upright elliptical arch, sometimes called the egg-shaped arch,

employed in Egyptian and Sassanian architecture.

18. The Tuscan arch, where the extrados takes the form of a pointed

arch.

19. The joggled arch used in medieval chimneypieces and in Mahommedan

architecture.

20. The discharging or relieving arch, built above the architrave or

lintel to take off the weight of the superstructure.

21. The relieving arch as used in Egypt, in the pyramid of Cheops; and

in Saxon architecture, where it was built with Roman bricks or tiles,

or consisted of two sloping slabs of stone.]

(R. P. S.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The ultimate derivation of "arch" is the Latin _arcus_, a bow, or

arch, in origin meaning something bent, from which through the French

is also derived "arc," a curve. In French there are two words

_arche_, one meaning a chest or coffer, from Latin _arca_ (_arcere_,

to keep close), hence the English "ark"; the other meaning a vaulted

arch, such as that of a bridge, and derived from a Low Latin

corruption of _arcus_, into arca (du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v.). The

word "arch," prefixed to names of offices, seen in "archbishop,"

"archdeacon," "archduke," &c., means "principal" or "chief," and

comes from the Greek prefix [Greek: arx-] or [Greek: arxi-] from

[Greek: arxein], to begin, lead, or rule; it is also prefixed to

other words, and usually with words implying hatred or detestation,

such as "arch-fiend", "arch-scoundrel"; it is from an adaptation of

this use, as seen in such expressions as "arch-rogue," extended to

"arch-look," "arch-face," that the word comes to mean a mischievous,

roguish expression of face or demeanour.

ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: archaia], ancient things, and [Greek:

logos], theory or science), a general term for the study of antiquities.

The precise application of the term has varied from time to time with

the progress of knowledge, according to the character of the subjects

investigated and the purpose for which they were studied. At one time it

was thought improper to use it in relation to any but the artistic

remains of Greece and Rome, i.e. the so-called _classical archaeology_

(now dealt with in this encyclopaedia under the headings of GREEK ART

and ROMAN ART); but of late years it has commonly been accepted as

including the whole range of ancient human activity, from the first

traceable appearance of man on the earth to the middle ages. It may thus

be conceived how vast a field archaeology embraces, and how intimately

it is connected with the sciences of geology (q.v.) and anthropology

(q.v.), while it naturally includes within its borders the consideration

of all the civilizations of ancient times.

In dealing with so vast a subject, it becomes necessary to distinguish.

The archaeology of zoological species constitutes the sphere of

palaeontology (q.v.), while that of botanical species is dealt with as

palaeobotany (q.v.); and every different science thus has its

archaeological side. For practical purposes it is now convenient to

separate the sphere of archaeology in its relation to the study of the

purely _artistic_ character of ancient remains, from that of the

investigation of these remains as an instrument for arriving at

conclusions as to the political and social _history_ of the nations of

antiquity; and in this work the former is regarded primarily as "art"

and dealt with in the articles devoted to the history of art or the

separate arts, while "archaeology" is particularly regarded as the study

of the evidences for the history of mankind, whether or not the remains

are themselves artistically and aesthetically valuable. In this sense a

knowledge of the archaeology is part of the materials from which every

historical article in this encyclopaedia is constructed, and in recent

years no subject has been more fertile in yielding information than

"archaeology," as representing the work of trained excavators and

students of antiquity in all parts of the world, but notably in the

countries round the Mediterranean. It is for its services in

illuminating the days before those of documentary history and for

checking and reinforcing the evidence of the raw material (the

"unwritten history" of architecture, tombs, art-products, &c.), that

recent archaeological work has been so notable. The work of the literary

critic and historian has been amplified by the spade-work of the expert

excavator and explorer to an extent undreamt of by former generations;

and ancient remains, instead of being treated merely as interesting

objects of art, have been forced to give up their secret to the

historian, as evidence for the period, character and affiliations of the

peoples who produced and used them. The increase of precise knowledge of

the past, due to greater opportunities of topographical research, more

care and observation in dealing with ancient remains and improved

methods of studying them in museums (q.v.) and collections, has led to

more accurate reading of results by a comparison of views, under the

auspices of learned societies and institutions, thus raising archaeology

from among the more empirical branches of learning into the region of

the more exact sciences. This change has improved not only the status of

archaeology but also its material, for the higher standard of work now

demanded necessarily acts as a deterrent on the poorly equipped worker,

and the tendency is for the general result to be of a higher quality.

The archaeological details concerning all subjects which have their

"unwritten history" are dealt with in the separate articles in this

work, including the ancient civilizations of Assyria, Egypt and other

countries and peoples, while the articles on separate sites where

excavations have been particularly noteworthy may be referred to for

their special interest; see also ANTHROPOLOGY; ETHNOLOGY, &c. It remains

here to deal generally with the early conditions of the prehistoric

ancient world in their broader aspects, which constitute the

starting-place for the archaeologist in various parts of the world at

different times, and the foundations of our present understanding of the

primitive epochs in the history of man.

Quaternary period.

The beginning of archaeology, as the study of pre-documentary history,

may be broadly held to follow on the last of the geological periods,

viz., the Quaternary, though it is claimed, and with some reason, that

traces of man have been found in deposits of the preceding or Tertiary

period. Although there is no valid reason against the existence of

Tertiary man, it must be confessed that the evidence in favour of the

belief is of a very inconclusive and unconvincing kind. The discussion

has been mainly confined to the two questions (1) whether the deposit

containing the relics was without doubt of Tertiary times, and (2)

whether the objects found showed undoubted signs of human workmanship.

Vast quantities of material have been brought forward, and endless

discussions have taken place, but hitherto without carrying entire

conviction to the minds of the more serious and cautious students of

prehistoric archaeology. A chronic difficulty, and one which can never

be entirely removed, is our ignorance of the precise methods of nature's

working. It is an obvious fact, that natural forces, such as glacial

action, earthquakes, landslips and the like, must crush and chip flints

and break up animal remains, grinding and scratching them in masses of

gravel or sand. If it were possible to determine with precision what'

were the peculiarities of the flint or bone, thus altered by natural

agencies, it would be easy to separate them from others purposely made

by man to serve some useful end. Our present knowledge, however, does

not allow us to go so far in dealing with the ruder early attempts of

man to fabricate weapons or implements. Even the one feature that is

commonly held to determine human agency, the "bulb of percussion,"

cannot be considered satisfactory, without collateral evidence of some

kind. Flint breaks with what is called a conchoidal fracture, as do many

other substances, such as glass. Thus on the face of a flint flake, at

the end where the blow was delivered to detach it from the nodule, is

seen a lump or bulb, which is usually regarded as evidence of human

workmanship. To produce such a bulb it is necessary to deliver a

somewhat heavy blow of a peculiar kind at a particular point of a

flattened surface; and the operation requires a certain amount of

practice. The fulfilment of all the necessary conditions might well be a

rare occurrence in nature, and the bulb of percussion has come to be

regarded as the hall-mark of human manufacture; but recent

investigations have shown that the intervention of man is not necessary

and that natural forces frequently produce a similar result. When,

therefore, it is a question whether or no a group of rude flints are of

human workmanship, evidence of design or purpose in their forms must be

established. If this be found, and in addition if a number of flints,

all having this character of design, be found together, then and then

only is it safe to admit them into the domain of archaeology. There can

be no doubt that much time and energy have been wasted, and a number of

intelligent workers have been fruitlessly occupied in following up

archaeological will-o'-the-wisps, through neglecting this elementary

precaution.

Eolithic.

Whether or no man produced flint implements before Quaternary times, it

would seem to be a necessity that he should have passed through an

earlier stage, before arriving at the precision of workmanship and the

fixed types found in the old Stone Age deposits known as palaeolithic.

It is now claimed that this earlier and ruder stage has actually been

discovered in what are known as the Plateau-gravels of Kent, in Belgium,

and even in Egypt, and the name of eolithic ([Greek: eos], dawn, [Greek:

lithos], stone) has been bestowed upon them. The controversy as to the

human character has been very keen, some alleging that the fractured

edges and even the definite and fairly constant types are entirely

produced by natural forces. Sir Joseph Prestwich in England, and Alfred

Rutot in Belgium, the latter arguing from his own discoveries in that

country, have strongly supported the artificial character of the relics.

On the other hand it is pointed out that the existence of these

implements on the high levels of Kent furnished confirmation of Sir

Joseph Prestwich's theory of the submergence of the district, and that

his support was thus somewhat biassed, while the geological conditions

in Belgium are not quite comparable with those of the Kent plateau; and

the Belgian evidence, whatever it may be worth in itself, is of no avail

as corroboration of the Kentish case. It is to be regretted that the

conditions are not more convincing, for, as stated above, they agree

fairly well with the evolution theory of man's handiwork, and if they

could be accepted, would carry back the evidences to a more remote time

when the physical features of Kent were of a very different character.

The critics of eoliths have brought forward some facts that at first

sight would seem to be of a very damaging nature. It was observed that

in the process of cement manufacture the flints that had passed through

a rotary machine in which they were violently struck by its teeth or

knocked against each other, possessed just those features that were

claimed as indisputable proof of man's handiwork, and that even the

forms were the same. These statements have, of course, been met by

counter-statements equally forcible, and the matter may still be

considered to be in suspense. The great struggle, therefore, is now more

closely restricted to the nature of the chipping than as to the

quasi-geological question, and if the solution is ever to be found, it

will be by means of a closer examination and a better understanding of

the difference between intentional and accidental flaking.

Palaeolithic.

On reaching the Palaeolithic period we come to firmer ground and to

evidence that is more certain and generally accepted. This evidence is

fundamentally geological, inasmuch as the age of the archaeological

remains is dependent upon that of the beds in which they are found. That

they were deposited at the same time is now no longer questioned. The

flints are found to have the same colour and surface characteristics as

the unworked nodules among which they lie, and are generally rolled and

abraded in the same way. This in itself suffices to show that the worked

and unworked flints were deposited in their present stratigraphical

position at the same time. The remote age of the beds themselves is

demonstrated by the presence of bones of animals either now extinct or

found only in far distant latitudes, such as the mammoth, reindeer,

rhinoceros, &c., and in some cases these bones are found in such

relative positions as to prove they were deposited with the flesh still

adhering to them, and also that the animal was contemporary with the

makers of the flint implements. Evidence of a somewhat different kind is

provided for the palaeolithic period by certain caverns that have been

discovered in England and on the continent. In these limestone caves

palaeolithic man has lived, slept, eaten his food and made his tools and

weapons. Much of his handiwork has been left, with the bones of animals

on which he lived, scattered upon the floor of the cave, and has been

sealed up by the infiltration of lime-charged water, so that the deposit

remains, untouched to our own day, below an impermeable bed of

stalagmite. In such circumstances there can be no doubt of the

contemporaneous character of the remains, natural or artificial, if

found on the same level. Moreover, so far as type is a criterion of age,

the flint tools found in the cave deposits tend to confirm the date

assigned to those of the river-gravels.