EARLY METHODS OF PAPER-MAKING
“As far as the East is from the West,” so great is the difference
between the methods and processes of the slow-going Orient and those
that prevail in the Occident.
It is fully a century and a half since Berkeley gave expression to his
faith in the high destiny of the West:
“Westward the course of empire takes its way;
The four first acts already past,
A fifth shall close the drama with the day;
Time’s noblest offspring is the last.”
♦Progress of the West♦
As the years followed each other swiftly in the past, it became
strikingly evident that the world must look to the Occident for
industrial activity and progress, and for the practical application
of new inventions and discoveries. And yet, through the inevitable
exception that proves the rule, we occasionally find East and West
working along strikingly similar lines. The making of paper by hand, as
carried on in our own country in early days, and to a limited extent
at the present time, furnishes such an exception. In many respects,
the process is not unlike that followed by the Chinese in making paper
from the bark of the mulberry-tree, which has already been described in
the preceding chapter. In either case, whatever the material employed,
the first step, which was of prime importance, was to remove from the
fibers all glutinous, resinous, or other superfluous matter. The fibers
are the slender, elongated cells, the enduring portion of the plant
that gives to the paper its strength, toughness, and elasticity.
♦Decomposition of rags♦
Before the science of chemistry had been called upon to furnish its
potent aid in the process of paper-making, the rags used were moistened
and piled together in some warm, damp place, often in a cellar, where
they were left to decay for a period--twenty days or more. During this
time, the perishable portion, sometimes spoken of as vegetable gluten,
fermented or decayed to such an extent that it could be washed from the
fibrine, or long, white elastic filaments. Before being submitted to
the process of decomposition, the rags were of course dusted, and, as
far as possible, cleansed from all mineral, foreign, or indissoluble
substances, after which they were cut into small pieces. When the
fermentation engendered by heat and moisture had done its important
work, the rags were boiled and washed, and finally beaten to a smooth
pulp by the use of mallets.
In the early days of paper-making, before the discovery of the use
of chemical agents to remove the coloring matter, the color of the
paper was determined by that of the rags or other material, modified
somewhat by the boiling and washing. When it was discovered that
certain chemicals would dissolve or separate the coloring matter from
the tissue, one great factor in the cost of making white paper was
eliminated. Lye, lime, solutions of chlorine and of chloride of lime
were employed for the purpose.
♦Hand-made process♦
The fibers having been separated, by this slow and tedious method, from
all foreign matter, they were placed in a vat, with a proper admixture
of water to form a soft, slightly cohering mass of “pulp.” The next
step in the process was the forming of the paper sheets. For this
purpose the paper-maker employed a fine wire screen, or cloth, called
the “mold,” which was oblong in shape, and supported by a light frame
underneath. Above this was placed a very shallow frame known as the
“deckel,” which in size and shape corresponded exactly with the mold.
Dipping the mold into the mass of pulp, the operator filled it even
with the top of the deckel, the thickness of the paper being determined
by the depth of the deckel-frame. Then as the water from the pulp
drained through the wire cloth, the operator moved the mold back and
forth, giving a constant, even, and gentle motion to the mass within.
♦The watermark♦
The manner in which the wires of the mold were arranged gave to certain
papers their distinguishing characteristics. In some molds the wire was
woven like cloth, and the product was therefore known as “wove” paper;
in others, the small wires ran only one way, straight and very close
together, and were crossed by stronger wires an inch or so apart, the
paper in this case being called “laid” paper. At some point in the wire
of the mold a small figure was worked out, also in wire, and as the
pulp was shaken it became a little thinner over the design, leaving the
impress known as the “watermark.”
When the pulp had been properly drained, and matted together, the mold
was passed on to another operator, who was known as the “coucher,”
from the fact that his work was the turning of the moist sheet of pulp
upon a sheet of felt stretched over a board termed a “couch.” Over this
first layer of pulp was placed another sheet of felt, then another mold
full of the pulp, and so on until there was obtained a pile, or “post,”
as it was called, several quires in thickness. The layers were then
subjected to heavy pressure, by which as much of the water as possible
was squeezed out, when the sheets of felt were removed, and pressure
was applied a second time to the paper that remained. The sheets of
paper on being taken out were hung over ropes or poles to dry, in some
room or loft.
♦Sizing♦
At this point in the process the paper would be open and porous, and
would naturally absorb ink, instead of carrying it in lines or letters
upon its surface. To overcome this defect, the paper was dipped in
a solution made of clippings of hides, horns, or hoofs, or in the
gelatine prepared from leather and parchment clippings. The process
was, and is still, termed “sizing,” while the material is known as
“size,” and is used to render the paper non-absorbent, also to fill
up the pores and give an even surface. After being dipped in this
solution, the sheets were pressed again, and for a second time hung up
to dry; if a smoother surface was desired, it was obtained by passing
the paper between metal rollers.
♦Bank of England notes♦
Hand-made paper is now made to a limited extent in America, and to a
still greater extent in England. All Bank of England notes are printed
on hand-made paper, two notes to a sheet, so that three edges of every
note are rough. Working under the old method, it took three men a day
to mold, press, and hang up to dry, or finish, four thousand small
sheets of paper, while the process from beginning to end required about
three months. ♦From tree to paper in a day♦ In these modern days, as
will be seen later, paper can be made in twenty-four hours from a tree
standing in the forest, in the glory of its full strength and vigor;
though in actual practice a longer time is taken in covering all the
different processes. Truly the times are changed, and everything is
changed with them!
[Illustration:
AFTER LEAVING THE BEATERS--PAGE 64 AFTER LEAVING THE JORDAN--PAGE 71
RAG PULP]