one Soto, whose party was attacked by Indians in the marshes of the
delta. Schenck (1926, p. 129) locates the scene as in T5N, R4E, near
Walnut Grove and designates the tribe as the Unsumnes or Cosumnes. Now
Argueello states that the expedition crept up on the Indians overnight
and attacked at dawn. They were surprised to find that their coming had
nevertheless been detected and that the Indians had sent away the women
and children. The Spaniards were met by a force of warriors, which Soto
placed as his best estimate at 1,000 persons. These were drawn from
four rancherias in the vicinity. One may always exercise skepticism
with reference to these estimates of enemy forces, particularly in this
instance, since the Spaniards were roughly handled and suffered several
casualties in addition to being forced to withdraw. On the other hand,
the invaders consisted of 13 well armed Spaniards and 100 Indian
auxiliaries. Nothing like an equal number of natives could have
withstood them. Soto's estimate may be cut in half but at least 500
warriors must be allowed, or 125 for each of the four rancherias. Now
the fighting population, even in a great emergency, does not coincide
with the total male population. If there were 500 warriors, there must
have been fully 300 young boys, invalids, and old men who were not
present. Hence we must concede a male population of no less than 800
for the four villages. If the percentage values established previously
are used, the mean village size was approximately 475.
To the villages just described may be added the one seen by Moraga on
the Stanislaus River in 1806, which had 200 inhabitants.
These twelve villages thus yield an average of 362 inhabitants each.
Although throughout the territory many rancherias were doubtless small,
it is equally probable that some were very large, approaching the
magnitude of Chischa and Bubal in the south. Hence, unless in some
particular instance there is clear reason to believe otherwise, 300
cannot be regarded as an excessive estimate for the average village of
the delta.
In considering in detail the population of the delta (see map 6, area
13), it is convenient to segregate groups according to tribal
distinctions rather than strictly according to geographical points. The
reason lies primarily in the fact that the early writers and the
mission records were relatively explicit with respect to names of
villages and groups but were badly confused with respect to localities.
In the densely populated but physiographically homogeneous delta
region, with its scores of small streams, sloughs, and islands,
explorers found it very difficult to establish clear landmarks by which
the inhabitants might be oriented. A state of confusion has arisen of a
kind to generate many controversies among ethnographers, controversies
which are not pertinent in the present connection and which it is
desirable to avoid as far as possible. In order to adopt a more or less
uniform system with respect to tribal nomenclature and arrangement it
is proposed to follow here the practice of Schenck (1926), who has made
an exhaustive study of the area.
_Bolbones (syn. Cholbones, Chilamne, Chulame)._--This large group
occupied the sloughs of the lower San Joaquin west of Stockton.
Schenck, on his map (1926, p. 133) shows their territory as being
bounded by the main stream of the San Joaquin River on the east and by
the channel now known as the "Old River" on the west. This delineation
of their habitat is supported by the diaries of Abella and Viader.
Schenck classifies the subtribes or divisions of the main group as
follows:
Cholbones a group
Pescadero a village
Jusmites or Cosmistas a village plus
Fugites or Tugites a village plus
Tomchom, under Fugites a village
Nototemnes a village
Although these natives are mentioned frequently in the correspondence
of the period, the first recorded exploration of their area was that of
Fr. Jose Viader in 1810. This missionary left Mission San Jose on
August 15 and went by way of Pittsburg and Antioch to the mouth of the
San Joaquin, whence he traveled southeast to Pescadero, "... la
rancheria de los Cholvones." Leaving the rancheria he went on up the
river. Viader's second expedition was carried out during the month of
October of the same year. This time he went directly from San Jose to
Pescadero, which he says was 15 leagues northeast to east-northeast of
Mission San Jose. The account at this point is not particularly lucid.
The entry for October 20 states that at Pescadero the gentiles were
having a dance (bayle). That for the following day begins with the
statement that at dawn Viader's party attacked "... asaltamos una
rancheria de este lado del rio y solo escapo un Christiano ..." Then
they attacked another rancheria on the other side of the river and
captured 15 Christians and 69 gentiles. From the context it may be
inferred that the first rancheria attacked was the one at which the
dance was being celebrated on the evening of the 20th, that is to say,
Pescadero. If it was, then there was another, quite sizable, village
just across the river. If the first village was not Pescadero, then
there were two other villages in close proximity to it.
The next visitor was Fr. Ramon Abella, who left San Francisco by boat
on October 15, 1811. Passing Sherman Island on the 18th and wandering
erratically through the swamps he reached the "tierra de los cholbones"
on the next day. On October 20 he reached the village of Pescadero but
made no comment on it in his diary. After examining the territory of
the Cosmistas and Boyboses 5 to 15 miles to the east, the party turned
about 8 to 9 miles (3 leagues) northwest, following the general trend
of the river downstream. At this point they found a rancheria of 900
persons "divididas en tres rancherias, alguna distancia una de otras.
No vimos que la una: Se presentan como 150 personas ... y nos ensenaron
al desembarcadero y las mismas casas que havia duplicado gente ..."
Abella's distances are extremely inaccurate but it is apparent that the
three villages mentioned were north or northwest of Pescadero.
The key village in this complex is Pescadero, a rancheria to which
repeated reference is made in the documents of the period and whose
identity neither Viader nor Abella could have mistaken. That it
belonged to the Bolbones is attested by Viader's expression "... la
rancheria de los Cholvones." Viader saw at least one and perhaps two
other villages near by belonging to the same tribe. Abella clearly
states that he saw three rancherias in addition to Pescadero. One of
these may have been the one attacked by Viader, and if so, the entire
group included a minimum of four villages. Otherwise, there were at
least five. Abella's count of 900 persons for the three villages
appears accurate and reasonable. On the other hand, Pescadero was
evidently regarded as the most important rancheria of the area and
probably was more populous than any other. Hence it must have contained
no less than 400 persons. The sum of the four villages would then be
1,300.
Between 1806 and 1811 the mission records show a total of 200 baptisms
ascribed to the Cholbones, most of them at San Jose. In addition, there
were 81 baptisms from 1821 to 1828 designated Chilamne. At the time of
Abella's visit, therefore, the area had been subject to repeated raids
for the purpose of securing converts and must have undergone serious
social and economic disturbance of the type noted throughout the entire
San Joaquin Valley. Merely adding the 200 missionized natives would
bring the population estimate for the Bolbones up to 1,500, and the
aboriginal value was probably even higher.
The Jusmites, or Cosmistas, are credited by Schenck with "a village
plus," meaning certainly one and probably two or more. Viader, on his
second expedition, found "los indios Jusmites" about 2-1/2 leagues
southeast of and up the river from the second village, which he
attacked on October 21. This places them in the locality shown by
Schenck on his map (1926, p. 133), i.e., in northwestern T1S, R6E. No
further information is given by Viader. The next year Abella found "la
rancheria de los Cosmistas" in approximately the same region, but gave
no data regarding size. Neither author implies in any way that there
was more than one village. At San Jose 86 converts were baptized from
"Jossmit," a number which suggests a village of fully 300 inhabitants.
Viader on his first expedition, on August 20, went south-southeast from
Pescadero for 3 leagues and reached a village "cuyo capitan se llama
Tomchom." He then went 2-1/2 leagues southeast from the Jusmites and
reached "los indios Tugites." Both Tomchom and Tugites therefore appear
to have been in the same general area. For this reason Schenck has
placed the Tugites, as a tribe, directly south of the Jusmites and has
called Tomchom a village of the tribe. It is perhaps more likely that
there were two villages involved (rather than a tribe and an included
village), designated respectively Tomchom and Tugites. This view is
substantiated by the baptism data. Of the entire group 268 were
baptized, rather equally distributed between San Jose and Santa Clara.
Over half the conversions occurred in the year 1811. The San Jose book
lists 126 from "Tamcan" and 7 from "Tuguits." The Santa Clara book has
125 from "Los Tugites" and none under any other designation. It may
therefore be concluded that two villages, or subtribes, were involved,
one of which was taken to San Jose and the other to Santa Clara. A
total of 268 converts would imply a population of at least 500 persons
at the time of conversion and probably more aboriginally.
The village of Nototemnes is mentioned only by Duran in his diary of
1817. In the night of May 22-23 he passed "la rancheria de los
Nototemnes," but did not actually see the village or count its
inhabitants. However, the rancheria furnished 97 converts to Mission
San Jose. It must therefore have contained at least 200 people. Schenck
shows the Nototemnes as covering nearly two townships in the northern
delta region and calls them "a village plus." He cites, however, no
authority for this view other than Duran, and Duran, as mentioned
above, refers only to the rancheria of the Nototemnes. There is no
reason, consequently, for assuming more than one village for the tribe
or group.
In summary, the Bolbones tribal complex consisted of fully eight medium
to large villages. Those belonging to the Bolbones proper, four in
number, were estimated to contain 1,500 persons. The Jusmites were
allowed 300 persons, the Tugites 500, and the Nototemnes 200. The total
is 2,500, and the average village size slightly over 300 persons.
(Bolbones ... 2,500)
____________________
_Leuchas._--Schenck shows this tribe as living east of the San Joaquin
River 10 to 15 miles south of Stockton. He implies that the tribe
contained two villages, Coyboses and Pitemis (Aupimis), in addition
perhaps to other settlements. The mission books mention all three names
and show baptisms (figures in parentheses), which may be tabulated as
follows.
Baptisms, San Jose Baptisms, Santa Clara
__________________ _____________________
Leuchas "Leucha" (26), "Los Leuchas" (81),
1805-1812 1805-1809
(88 per cent in (85 per cent in
1805-1806) 1805)
Pitemis None (60), 1814-1831
(98 per cent in
1814-1816)
Coybos (94), 1808-1826 None
(71 per cent in
1811-1812)
To judge by the three separate periods in which the majority of the
baptisms occurred there were three groups of people: the Leuchas, who
were brought into the fold primarily during 1805 and 1806, the Coybos,
principally in 1811-1812, and the Pitemis, converted two or three years
later. The Leuchas were taken to both missions, but the Coybos were
brought only to San Jose and the Pitemis only to Santa Clara. Abella
said that in 1811 the village of Coybos had 180 inhabitants, a figure
which has been used in computing the average village size. But the
aboriginal population was probably greater. This view is substantiated
by the events which preceded Abella's visit. In 1805 Father Cuevas of
San Jose Mission went on an unauthorized expedition to the Leuchas--the
best account is that by Jose Argueello (MS, 1805)--in search of
converts.[5] He was badly treated and some of his men were wounded by
the natives. This and the punitive expeditions which immediately
followed no doubt accounted for the wave of conversions in 1805 and
1806. But at the same time the entire aboriginal group unquestionably
suffered heavily from battle casualties and economic disturbance so
that the population five years later must have been seriously reduced.
It is thus justifiable to assume that originally there were three
villages and that each was of average size. The population may
therefore be set at fully 900 persons.
Some further information is derived from the recollections of Jose
Maria Amador (MS, 1877). This pioneer, who received his facts
second-hand from his father, mentions (pp. 13-15) the campaign of 1805
against the "Loechas," who, he says lived 4 to 5 leagues from
Livermore. This would put them west of the San Joaquin River, south of
the Bolbones, in T1S, R5E, not on the east bank as shown by Schenck.
Amador then goes on to say that after the Cuevas affair the Leuchas
"... se habian ya cambiado el rio de San Joaquin a una rancheria que se
llamaba de los Pitemis." They were all captured and taken to San Jose.
It is thus reasonably clear that the Leuchas originally did live west
of the river, and crossed over to the east side as a result of the
punitive expeditions of the Spaniards. Furthermore, the village of the
Pitemis was already in existence at this time, probably at or near the
spot shown by Schenck. Coybos undoubtedly was another village within
the same area. This region, therefore, at the time of Abella's visit in
1807 contained the established villages of Pitemis and Coybos plus a
residue of unconverted, fugitive Leuchas who had taken refuge in them.
Amador's assertion that the Leuchas were all captured and taken to San
Jose is not borne out by the baptism figures, which show only 23
Leuchas enrolled at Mission San Jose in 1805 to 1806. Many more,
actually 73, were baptized at Santa Clara in 1805. The total is 96, and
scarcely represents the entire personnel of the group. Nevertheless, if
we add the casualties of battle, disease, and exposure to those
baptized in the missions, and allow for the dispersion of the
remainder, the sum will amount to no less than the 300 assumed above
for the Leuchas.
As for the Pitemis, Viader, on his first expedition, left Pescadero on
August 20, 1810, and traveled south-southeast at some distance from the
river. Within 3 leagues he passed "... en frente de una rancheria ...
Aupemis." Schenck says (p. 141): "Pitemis is a village of the Leuchas
and it seems that Aupimis is to be identified with it." This cannot be
true because Viader is highly explicit to the effect that he was west
of the river and Amador is equally emphatic in stating that Pitemis was
across the San Joaquin from Leuchas, i.e., to the east of it. Since
Viader's visit was in 1810, after the Cuevas affair, there must have
been three rancherias of the Leuchas and their allies: Aupimis,
Pitemis, and Coybos.
Parenthetically, and for the record, the present writer would like to
offer the comment that certain modern writers tend to assert the
identity of Spanish or Indian names without adequate evidence.
Schenck's opinion that Aupimis and Pitemis were the same place could
have been based upon no more than a fancied resemblance in the names.
Also, on page 141 of his paper he says: "The Leuchas might possibly be
identified with Kroeber's Lakisamni (Yokuts) on the Stanislaus river."
A brief examination of the mission records, apart from any other
evidence, shows conclusively that two separate and distinct tribes were
recognized by the contemporary missionaries.
(Leuchas et al. ... 900)
________________________
_Ochejamnes._--This tribe is placed by Schenck on the east bank of the
Sacramento River near the mouth of the Cosumnes. Kroeber refers to the
village of Ochehak and considers it a "political community." He shows
it on his map (1925, p. 446) as lying on the Mokelumne, due north of
Stockton. Duran, in his diary, May 21 (MS, 1817), describes how he
followed the main stream of the Sacramento, i.e., the left branch, on
his way back from his stopping point above Courtland. He reached the
rancheria "llamada de Oche jamnes," which, although it contained 40
houses, was deserted. Quite soon thereafter ("a poco rato") he reached
"la punta de la isla llamada de los Quenemsias," which has been
identified definitely as Grand Island. Clearly, therefore, in 1817 the
Ochejamnes had a village on the Sacramento higher up the river than is
shown by Schenck.
According to Duran the village had 40 houses, which would mean 360
persons without reckoning possible subsidiary rancherias. The name is
mentioned for only one mission, San Jose, at which 428 Ochejamne, or
Oocheganes, were baptized between 1829 and 1836. This is prima facie
evidence that Duran, who saw them in 1817, was referring, as he
implies, only to one rancheria and that the tribe was actually larger.
This idea is supported by the account of Jose Berreyesa in 1830 of
severe Indian fighting in the delta (Berryesa, MS, 1830). The
Ochejamnes and the Yunisumnes with certain American trappers were
arrayed against the Californians, who had gathered together 450
auxiliary fighters from the Cosumnes and other tribes. No value is
placed upon the number of Ochejamnes but it must have been
considerable. It was probably as a result of this campaign that 428
members of the tribe were baptized at Mission San Jose. Even with a
relatively complete conquest many of the natives must have escaped;
hence in 1830 their total number must have reached 500. But this was in
1830, after a generation of expeditions and petty warfare. The
aboriginal number must have been considerably greater, let us say 750.
(Ochejamnes ... 750)
____________________
_Guaypem._--This group is thought by Schenck to have been simply a
village but Merriam (1907, p. 350) regards them as a tribe called the
Wipa, located on Sherman Island near the Sacramento River estuary.
Duran in his diary says that Guaypens is 6 leagues south and southeast
of the fork of the river below Courtland. Allowing for his usual
exaggeration of distances, this puts the rancheria near the mouth of
the Mokelumne, in the vicinity of Walnut Grove. He speaks of _the_
rancheria "de los Guaypens" and saw only a few people. Thus neither
size nor locality supports the contention that Guaypem was synonymous
with Wipa. The tribe was not converted until relatively late, 41
converts being taken to San Jose between 1821 and 1824. By that time
the tribe had been subject to severe attrition. Thus the evidence
points to an aboriginal group consisting of one village of average
size, or close to 300 inhabitants.
(Guaypem ... 300)
_________________
_Quenemsias._--These people, who lived near the two preceding tribes,
are designated a "group" by Schenck (p. 136). They covered, according
to him, "the southern part, or perhaps all, of Grand Island." The
ecclesiastical diarists make no mention of them save the reference by
Duran to the "isla llamada de los Quenemisias." One other citation is
worth mentioning, however. In the Bancroft Transcripts is a document
dated January 31, 1796, entitled "Informe en el cual el teniente
Herm^{do} Sal manifesta lo que ha adquirido de varios sugetos para
comunicarlo al Gobernador de la Provincia," which gives a description
of the lower reaches of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers and the
delta and mentions the natives (Sal, MS, 1796). In detail, the account
is extremely inaccurate. However, one of the Indians "... dio noticia
de las naciones Tulpunes, Quinensiat, Taunantoc, y Quisitoc: los
primeros son de la orilla del estero; los 2^{os} estan del otro lado de
los rios ..." Although no numerical data are given, the mention of the
Quenemsias (Quinensiat) as a "nacion" in the delta region establishes
them as a group of more than average importance. The mission books show
185 Quenemsias baptized at Mission San Jose. Roughly double the number
of baptisms may be taken as the aboriginal population, i.e., 400.
(Quenemsias ... 400)
____________________
_Chuppumne, Chucumes._--Schenck places these two settlements, which he
calls villages, on the Sacramento River near the mouth of the Cosumnes.
Most of our documentary information concerning them is derived from the
accounts of Duran and of Luis Argueello. Luis Antonio Argueello
accompanied Duran on his expedition and wrote a report to the governor
in the form of a letter, dated May 26, 1817, the original of which is
preserved in the Bancroft Library (library no. fm-F864A64; also typed
copy). The existence of this letter evidently was not known to either
Kroeber or Schenck. It is less complete and less detailed than the
diary of Duran but it is of value in checking the statements made by
the latter.
On May 16 the party reached the foot of Grand Island and on May 17
proceeded up the left-hand (i.e., western) watercourse. The village of
Chucumes was found 8 leagues (leguas) upstream, according to Duran, 13
miles (millas) according to Argueello. The latter estimate is probably
closer, since Duran is notoriously inaccurate (usually on the side of
overestimate) in his computation of distances. Here Duran counted 35
houses whereas Argueello says 36, a sufficiently close correspondence.
As indicated previously, a population of 315 persons is probable.
Continuing their journey, they went on for 4 miles (Argueello); Duran
says approximately 3 leagues. There they stopped at a rancheria,
"arruinada" according to Argueello, although Duran makes no mention of
this.
On May 18 the party went on upstream, making during the day 4 leagues
(Duran) or 16 miles (Argueello). Duran states that after going 1 league
they got back into the main stream of the Sacramento. This was clearly
at the head of Grand Island, close to Courtland. At 1 league beyond
this point, on May 19, they found the rancheria Chuppumne, which was
deserted. The location therefore was very close to that shown by
Schenck on his map (p. 133) and, if we can put any credence in the
Duran-Argueello account, a good many miles north of Chucumes. Near
Chuppumne Duran saw three other rancherias in the distance (inland?)
but could not get at them. On May 20 the expedition pressed on upstream
for 5 miles (Argueello) or 4 leagues (Duran), at which point they turned
around and began the return trip. On May 21 Argueello says that they
passed "algunas rancherias," all deserted, which may well have been
those mentioned by Duran on May 19.
On the river frontage covered from May 17 to May 21 the expedition saw
a minimum of 6 villages, 2 of which are mentioned by name (Chucumes and
Chuppumne) and for 1 of which the houses were counted. If all these
villages were of comparable size--as they may have been
aboriginally--then the total population represented would have been
1,800. This estimate would of course not include other villages which
the expedition did not see.
The mission records show for San Jose a total of 377 persons baptized
from Chucumne and Chuppumne, of whom 322 were converted during 1823 and
1824. We may predicate, therefore, a residual population of 700 to 800
just prior to those years. That the area had suffered severely before
that is attested by the deserted and "ruined" rancherias seen by Duran
in 1817. It is quite probable that the aboriginal population reached a
value of 1,500.
(Chucumes, Chuppumne ... 1,500)
_______________________________
_Chupunes (Chupcanes), Tarquines (Tarquimenes, Tauquines), Julpunes
(Tulpunes) and Ompines._--This constellation of tribes is best
considered collectively, first, because there are no direct estimates
of their population, and second, because they occupied a relatively
unified area.
Schenck places them along the south shore of Suisun Bay from the east
entrance of Carquinez Strait and through the slough region between the
Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers as far upstream as Isleton on the
Sacramento. However, he points out that there is great uncertainty with
respect to their exact location, an uncertainty which is emphasized by
the wide divergence between his views and those of Merriam. Even the
Spanish accounts present numerous discrepancies. In view of this state
of our knowledge Schenck makes the very reasonable suggestion that the
lower delta tribes may have been so greatly disturbed and shifted
around during the period from 1775 to 1810 that the aboriginal
locations were forgotten. It is worth while to examine in some detail
some of the evidence on this problem. We may begin with examination of
the area at and just east of Carquinez Strait on the south shore of
Suisun Bay. This consideration entails a preliminary discussion of two
small groups, the Aguastos and the Huchium (syn. Habastos, Quivastos,
Juchium, Huchimes, Tuchimes, etc.).