and allow to stand for some time, the longer the better. The lead
neutralizes the acid, and the result is an oil that never corrodes or
thickens.
II.—Stir up for some time best olive oil with water kept at the boiling
point; then after the two fluids have separated, decant the oil and
shake up with a little freshly burned lime. Let the mixture stand for
some weeks in a bottle exposed to the sunlight and air, but protected
from wet and dirt. When filtered, the oil will be nearly colorless,
perfectly limpid, and will never thicken or become rancid.
«To Weaken a Balance Spring.»—A balance spring may need weakening; this
is effected by grinding the spring thinner. Remove the spring from the
collet and place it upon a piece of pegwood cut to fit the center cod.
A piece of soft iron wire, flattened so as to pass freely between the
coils and charged with a little powdered oilstone, will serve as a
grinder, and with it the strength of the spring may soon be reduced.
Operations will be confined to the center coil, for no other part of
the spring will rest sufficiently against the wood to enable it to be
ground, but this will generally suffice. The effect will be rather
rapid; therefore care should be taken or the spring may be made too
weak.
«To Make a Clock Strike Correctly.»—Pry the plates apart on the
striking side, slip the pivots of the upper wheels out, and having
disconnected them from the train, turn them partly around and put them
back. If still incorrect, repeat the experiment. A few efforts at most
will get them to work properly. The sound in cuckoo clocks is caused
by a wire acting on a small bellows which is connected with two small
pipes like organ pipes.
«To Reblack Clock Hands.»—One coat of asphaltum varnish will make old
rusty hands look as good as new, and will dry in a few minutes.
«To Tighten a Ruby Pin.»—Set the ruby pin in asphaltum varnish. It will
become hard in a few minutes and be much firmer and better than the gum
shellac, generally used.
«To Loosen a Rusty Screw in a Watch Movement.»—Put a little oil around
the screw; heat the head lightly by means of a red-hot iron rod,
applying the same for 2 or 3 minutes. The rusty screw may then be
removed as easily as though it had just been put in.
«Gilding Watch Movements.» (See also Gilding.)—In gilding watch
movements, the greatest care must be observed with regard to
cleanliness. The work is first to be placed into a weak solution of
caustic potash for a few minutes, and then rinsed in cold water. The
movements are now to be dipped into pickling acid (nitrous acid) for
an instant, and then plunged immediately into cold water. After being
finally rinsed in hot water, they may be placed in the gilding bath
and allowed to remain therein until they have received the required
coating. A few seconds will generally be sufficient, as this class
of work does not require to be very strongly gilt. When gilt, the
movements are to be rinsed in warm water, and scratch-brushed; they
may then be returned to the bath, for an instant, to give them a good
color. Lastly, rinse in hot water and place the movements in clean box
sawdust. An economical mode of gilding watch movements is to employ a
copper anode—working from the solution, add 10 parts of cream of tartar
and a corresponding quantity of elutriated chalk to obtain a pulp
that can be put on with the brush. The gilding or silvering obtained
in this manner is pretty, but of slight durability. At the present
time this method is only seldom employed, since the electroplating
affords a means of producing gilding and silvering in a handsome and
comparatively cheap manner, the metallic coating having to be but very
thin. Gold and silver for this kind of work are used in the form of
potassium cyanide of gold or potassium cyanide of silver solutions, it
being a custom to copper the zinc articles previously by the aid of a
battery, since the appearance will then be much handsomer than on zinc
alone. Gilding or silvering with leaf metal is done by polishing the
surface of the zinc bright and coating it with a very tough linseed-oil
varnish diluted with 10 times the quantity of benzol. The metallic leaf
is then laid on and polished with an agate. {739}
WATCHMAKERS’ CLEANING PREPARATIONS: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods.
WATCH MOVEMENTS, PALLADIUM PLATING OF: See Plating.
«Water, Natural and Artificial»
In making an artificial mineral water it must be remembered that it is
seldom possible to reproduce the water by merely combining its chemical
components. In other words, the analysis of the water cannot serve
as a basis from which to prepare it, because even though all of the
components were put together, many would be found insoluble, and others
would form new chemical combinations, so that the result would differ
widely from the mineral water imitated.
For example, carbonate of magnesia and carbonate of lime, which
are important ingredients in most mineral waters, will not make
a clear solution unless freshly precipitated. Hence, when these
are to be reproduced in a mineral water it is customary to employ
other substances, which will dissolve at once, and which will, upon
combining, produce these salts. The order in which the salts are added
is also a very important matter, for by dissolving the salts separately
and then carefully combining them, solutions may be effected which
would be impossible were all the salts added together to the water in
the portable fountain.
In this connection the following table will be found useful:
Group I
Ammonium carbonate.
Ammonium chloride.
Sodium borate (borax).
Potassium carbonate.
Potassium chloride.
Potassium nitrate.
Potassium sulphate.
Sodium bromide.
Sodium carbonate.
Sodium chloride.
Sodium fluoride.
Sodium iodide.
Sodium nitrate.
Sodium phosphate.
Sodium pyrophosphate.
Sodium silicate.
Sodium sulphate.
Group 2
Lithium carbonate.
Group 3
Aluminum chloride.
Barium chloride.
Calcium bromide.
Calcium chloride.
Calcium nitrate.
Magnesium nitrate.
Strontium chloride.
Lithium chloride.
Group 4
Magnesium sulphate.
Alum (potassa or soda alum).
Group 5
Lime carbonate.
Magnesium carbonate hydrate.
Lime sulphate precipitate.
Group 6
Lithium carbonate.
Acid hydrochloric.
Acid sulphuric.
Iron chloride.
Iron pyrophosphate.
Iron sulphate.
Manganese chloride.
Manganese sulphate.
Group 7
Sodium arseniate, or sodium sulphide, or acid hydrosulphuric.
Explanation of Groups.—The explanation of the use of these groups
is simple. When about to prepare an artificial mineral water, first
ascertain from the formula which of the ingredients belong to group
1. These should be dissolved in water, and then be filtered and added
to distilled water, and thoroughly agitated. Next the substance or
substances belonging to group 2 should be dissolved in water, then
filtered and added to the water, which should again be agitated. And so
the operation should proceed; whatever ingredients are required from
each group should be taken in turn, a solution made, and this solution,
after being filtered, should be separately added to the fountain, and
the latter be well agitated before the following solution is added.
For groups 1, 3, and 4, the salts should be dissolved in 5 times their
weight of boiling, or 10 times their weight of cold, water. For group
2 (lithium carbonate) the proportions should be 1 part of lithium
carbonate to about 130 parts of cold or boiling water. The substances
mentioned in group 5 are added to the portable fountain in their solid
state, and dissolve best when freshly precipitated. As carbonic acid
gas aids their solution, it is best to charge the fountain after they
are added, and agitate thoroughly, blowing off the charge afterwards if
necessary.
In group 5 the lithium carbonate is dissolved in the acids (see also
group 2), the iron and manganese salts are dissolved in 5 parts of
boiling, or 10 parts of cold, water, the solution quickly filtered, the
acids added to it, and the whole mixture added to the fountain already
charged with gas, the cap being quickly taken off, and the solution
poured in. The iron and manganese salts easily oxidize and produce
turbidity, therefore the atmospheric air should be carefully {740}
blown off under high pressure several times while charging fountains.
The substances mentioned in group 7 are never put into the fountain,
except the arseniate of sodium in the case of Vichy water, which
contains but a trifling amount of this compound.
Most of the solutions may be prepared beforehand and be used when
required, thus saving considerable time.
Formulas for various waters will be given at the end of this article.
A question which arises in preparing mineral waters is: What is the
best charging pressure? As a general rule, they are charged to a lower
pressure than plain soda; good authorities even recommend charging
certain mineral waters as low as 30 pounds pressure to the square inch,
but this seems much too low a pressure for the dispensing counter.
From 50 to 120 pounds pressure would be a good limit, while plain soda
may be served out as high as 180 pounds. There must be enough pressure
completely to empty the fountain, while enabling sufficient gas to
be retained by the water to give it a thorough pungency. Moreover, a
high pressure to the mineral water enables a druggist at a pinch, when
he runs out of plain soda, to use his Vichy water, instead, with the
syruped drinks. The taste of the Vichy is not very perceptible when
covered by the syrup, and most customers will not notice it.
«Apollinaris Water.»—
Sodium carbonate 2,835 grains
Sodium sulphate 335 grains
Sodium silicate 10 grains
Magnesium chloride 198 grains
Calcium chloride 40 grains
Potassa alum 57 grains
Magnesium carbonate hydrate 158 grains
Iron sulphate 21 grains
«Hunyadi Water.»—
Magnesium sulphate 400 parts
Sodium sulphate 400 parts
Potassium sulphate 2 parts
Sodium chloride 31 parts
Sodium bicarbonate 12 parts
Water 1 quart
«Lithia Water.»—
Lithium carbonate 120 grains
Sodium bicarbonate 1,100 grains
Carbonated water 10 gallons
For “still” lithia water, substitute lithium citrate for the carbonate
in the above formula.
«Seltzer Water.»—Hydrochloric acid (chemically pure), 2,520 grains;
pure water, 40 ounces. Mix and add marble dust, 240 grains; carbonate
of magnesium, 420 grains. Dissolve, and after 1 hour add bicarbonate of
sodium, 2,540 grains. Dissolve, then add sufficient pure water to make
10 gallons. Filter and charge to 100 pounds pressure.
«Vichy Water.»—The following formula, based on the analysis of
Bauer-Struve, yields an imitation of
_Vichy_ (_Grande Grille_).
Sodium iodide 0.016 parts
Sodium bromide 0.08 parts
Sodium phosphate 2 parts
Sodium silicate 80 parts
Potassium sulphate 125 parts
Sodium chloride 139 parts
Sodium carbonate 6,792 parts
Aluminum chloride 1 part
Strontium chloride 1 part
Ammonium chloride 3 parts
Magnesium chloride 24 parts
Calcium chloride 170 parts
Manganese sulphate 0.46 parts
Iron sulphate 1 part
Sulphuric acid 40 parts
Water to make 10 gallons
Mix the first 7 ingredients with about 10 times their weight of water
and filter. In the same manner, mix the next 5 ingredients with water
and filter; and then the last 3 ingredients. Pour these solutions into
sufficient water contained in a fountain to make 10 gallons, and charge
at once with carbon dioxide gas.
Waters like the above are more correctly named “imitation” than
“artificial,” as the acidic and basic radicals may bear different
relations to one another in the natural and the other.
«PURIFYING WATER.»
See also Filters.
If an emulsion of clay is poured into a soap solution, the clay
gradually separates out without clarifying the liquid. When a few drops
of hydrochloric acid, however, are added to a soap solution and a small
quantity—about 1.5 per cent—of a clay emulsion poured in, the liquid
clarifies at once, with formation of a plentiful sediment. Exactly
the same process takes place when the waste waters from the combing
process in spinning are treated with clay. The waters which remain
turbid for several days contain 500 to 800 grams of fatty substances
per cubic meter. If to 1 liter of this liquid 1 gram of clay is added,
with 15 to 20 per cent of water, the liquid clarifies with separation
of a sediment and assumes a golden-brown {741} color. Besides the
fatty substances, this deposit also contains a certain quantity of
nitrogenous bodies. Dried at (100° C.) 212° F., it weighs about 1.6
grams and contains 30 per cent of fat. The grease obtained from it is
clear, of good quality, and deliquesces at 95° F. After removal of this
fat, the mass still contains 1.19 per cent of nitrogen.
«Sterilization of Water with Lime Chloride.»—In order to disinfect and
sterilize 1,000 parts of drinking water, 0.15 parts of dry chloride
of lime are sufficient. The lime is stirred with a little water into
a thin paste and introduced, with stirring, into the water to be
disinfected and a few drops of officinal hydrochloric acid are added.
After 1/2 hour the clarification and disinfection is accomplished,
whereupon 0.3 parts of calcium sulphite are added, in order to kill the
unpleasant smell and taste of the chlorine.
«Clarifying Muddy Water.»—The water supply from rivers is so muddy at
times that it will not go through the filter. When this happens agitate
each barrel of water with 2 pounds of phosphate of lime and allow it
to settle. This will take but a few minutes, and it will be found that
most of the impurities have been carried down to the bottom. The water
can then be drawn off carefully and filtered.
«Removal of Iron from Drinking Water.»—The simplest method for removing
the taste of iron in spring water is to pass the water through a filter
containing a layer of tricalcic phosphate either in connection with
other filtering materials or alone. The phosphate is first recovered in
a gelatinous form, then dried and powdered.
«For Hardness.»—A solution perfectly adapted to this purpose, and one
which may be kept a long time, is prepared as follows:
Thirty-five parts of almond oil are mixed with 50 parts of glycerine of
1.26 specific gravity and 8.5 parts of 50 per cent soda lye, and boiled
to saponification. To this mixture, when it has cooled to from 85° to
90° C. (185° to 194° F.), are added 100 to 125 parts of boiling water.
After cooling again, 500 parts of water are added, and the solution is
poured into a quart flask, with 94 per cent alcohol to make up a quart.
After standing 2 months it is filtered. Twenty hydrolimeter degrees of
this solution make, with 40 parts of a solution of 0.55 grams of barium
chloride in 1 quart of water, a dense lather 1 centimeter high.
WATER (COPPER): See Copper.
WATER ICES: See Ice Creams.
WATER, TO FREEZE: See Refrigeration.
WATER JACKETS, ANTI-FREEZING SOLUTIONS FOR: See Freezing Preventives.
WATER SPOTS, PRIMING FOR: See Paint.
WATER STAINS: See Wood.
WATER-LILY ROOTS: See Pyrotechnics.
WATER, STIRRED YELLOW, SCARLET AND COLORLESS: See Pyrotechnics.
WATERS (TOILET): See Cosmetics.
WATER-GLASS CEMENTS: See Adhesives.
WATER GLASS IN STEREOCHROMATIC PAINTING: See Stereochromy.
«Waterproofing»
(See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Preservatives, Varnishes.)
«Waterproofing Brick Arches.»—Waterproofing of brick arches is done
in the following manner: The masonry is first smoothed over with
cement mortar. This is then covered with a special compound on which
a layer of Hydrex felt is laid so as to lap at least 12 inches on the
transverse seams. Five layers of compound and 5 of felt are used, and
special attention is paid to securing tightness around the drain pipes
and at the spandrel walls. In fact the belt is carried up the back of
the latter and turned into the joint under the coping about 2 inches,
where it is held with cement mortar. The waterproofing on the arches
is protected with 1 inch of cement mortar and that on the walls with a
single course of brickwork.
«Waterproofing Blue Prints.»—Use refined paraffine, and apply by
immersing the print in the melted wax, or more conveniently as
follows: Immerse in melted paraffine until saturated, a number of
pieces of an absorbent cloth a foot or more square. When withdrawn and
cooled they are ready for use at any time. {742} To apply to a blue
print, spread one of the saturated cloths on a smooth surface, place
the dry print on it with a second waxed cloth on top, and iron with a
moderately hot flatiron. The paper immediately absorbs paraffine until
saturated, and becomes translucent and highly waterproofed. The lines
of the print are intensified by the process, and there is no shrinking
or distortion. As the wax is withdrawn from the cloths, more can be
added by melting small pieces directly under the iron.
By immersing the print in a bath of melted paraffine the process is
hastened, but the ironing is necessary to remove the surplus wax from
the surface, unless the paper is to be directly exposed to the weather
and not to be handled. The irons can be heated in most offices by gas
or over a lamp, and a supply of saturated cloths obviates the necessity
of the bath. This process, which was originally applied to blue prints
to be carried by the engineer corps in wet mines, is equally applicable
to any kind of paper, and is convenient for waterproofing typewritten
or other notices to be posted up and exposed to the weather.
«Waterproof Coatings.»—I.—Rosin oil, 50 parts; rosin, 30 parts; white
soap, 9 parts. Apply hot on the surfaces to be protected.
II.—It has been observed that when gluten dried at an ordinary
temperature, hence capable of absorbing water, is mixed with glycerine
and heated, it becomes water-repelling and suitable for a waterproof
paint. One part of gluten is mixed with parts of glycerine, whereby
a slimy mass is obtained which is applied on fabrics subsequently
subjected to a heat of 248° F. The heating should not last until all
glycerine has evaporated, otherwise the coating becomes brittle and
peels off.
«Waterproofing Canvas.»—I.—The canvas is coated with a mixture of the
three solutions named below:
1. Gelatin, 50 parts; by weight, boiled in 3,000 parts of water free
from lime. 2. Alum, 100 parts, dissolved in 3,000 parts of water. 3.
Soda soap dissolved in 2,000 parts of water.
II.—Prepare a zinc soap by entirely dissolving 56 parts of soft soap
in 125 to 150 parts of water. To the boiling liquid add, with constant
stirring, 28 to 33 parts of zinc vitriol (white vitriol). The zinc soap
floats on top and forms, after cooling, a hard white mass, which is
taken out. In order to clean it of admixed carbonic alkali, it must be
remelted in boiling fresh water. Next place 232.5 parts of raw linseed
oil (free from mucus) in a kettle with 2.5 parts of best potash, and
5 parts of water. This mass is boiled until it has become white and
opaque and forms a liquid, soap-like compound. Now, add sugar of lead,
1.25 parts; litharge, 1 part; red lead, 2 parts; and brown rosin, 10.5
parts. The whole is boiled together about 1 hour, the temperature not
being allowed to exceed 212° F., and stirring well from time to time.
After this add 15 parts of zinc soap and stir the whole until the metal
soap has combined with the oil, the temperature not exceeding 212° F.
When the mixture is complete, add a solution of caoutchouc, 1.2 parts,
and oil of turpentine, 8.56 parts, which must be well incorporated
by stirring. The material is first coated on one side by means of a
brush with this composition, which must have a temperature of 158° F.
Thereupon hang it up to dry, then apply a second layer of composition
possessing the same temperature, which is likewise allowed to dry. The
fiber is now filled out, so that the canvas is waterproof.
«Waterproofing Corks.»—For the purpose of making corks as impervious as
possible, while at the same time keeping them elastic, saturate them
with caoutchouc solution. Dissolve caoutchouc in benzine in the ratio
of 1 part of caoutchouc to 19 parts of benzine. Into this liquid lay
the corks to be impregnated and subject them to a pressure of 150 to
180 pounds by means of a force pump, so that the liquid can thoroughly
enter. The corks thus treated must next be exposed to a strong draught
of air until all trace of benzine has entirely evaporated and no more
smell is noticeable.
«WATERPROOFING FABRICS.»
It will be convenient to divide waterproof fabrics into two classes,
viz., those which are _impervious_ to water, and those which are
_water-repellent_. It is important to make this distinction, for,
although all waterproof material is made for the purpose of resisting
water, there is a vast difference between the two classes. The
physical difference between them can be briefly summed up as follows:
Fabrics which are completely impervious to water comprise oil-skins,
mackintoshes, and all materials having a water-resisting film on one or
both sides, or in the interior of the fabric. Those coming under the
second heading of water-repellent materials do not possess {743} this
film, but have their fibers so treated as to offer less attraction to
the water than the water molecules have for themselves.
The principal members of the first group are the rubber-proofed goods;
in these the agent employed is rubber in greater or less quantity,
together with other bodies of varying properties. Before enlarging on
this class, it will be necessary to give a short description of the
chemical and physical properties of rubber.
Rubber, or caoutchouc, is a natural gum exuding from a large number
of plants, those of the _Euphorbiaceæ_ being the chief source for the
commercial variety. The raw material appears on the market in the shape
of blocks, cakes, or bottle-shaped masses, according to the manner
in which it has been collected. It possesses a dark-brown—sometimes
nearly black-exterior; the interior of the mass is of a lighter shade,
and varies from a dingy brown to a dirty white, the color depending
on the different brands and sources. In the raw state its properties
are very different from what they are after going through the various
manufacturing processes, and it has only a few of the characteristics
which are generally associated with India rubber. Chemically it is
a complex hydrocarbon with the formula C_〈45〉H_〈36〉, and appears to
consist of a highly porous network of cells having several different
rosins in their interstices. It is perfectly soluble in no single
solvent, but will yield some of its constituents to many different
solvents. At a temperature of 10° C. (50° F.) raw caoutchouc is a solid
body and possesses very little elasticity. At 36° C. (97° F.) it is
soft and elastic to a high degree, and is capable of being stretched
16 times its length. Further increase of temperature lessens its
elastic properties, and at 120° C. (248° F.) it melts. While in the
raw condition it has several peculiar properties, one of which is:
After stretching, and cooling suddenly while stretched, it retains its
new form, and only regains its former shape on being warmed. Another
striking feature is its strong adhesive capacity; this property is so
powerful that the rubber cannot be cut with a knife unless the blade
is wet; and freshly cut portions, if pressed together, will adhere
and form a homogeneous mass. From these facts it will be seen how it
differs from rubber in the shape of a cycle tire or other manufactured
form.
The most valuable property possessed by raw caoutchouc is that of
entering into chemical combination with sulphur, after which its
elasticity is much increased; it will then bear far greater gradations
of heat and cold. This chemical treatment of caoutchouc with sulphur
is known as “vulcanizing,” and, if properly carried out, will yield
either soft vulcanized rubber or the hard variety known as vulcanite.
On the other hand, caoutchouc, after vulcanizing, has lost its plastic
nature, and can no longer be molded into various shapes, so that in the
production of stamped or molded objects, the customary method is to
form them in unvulcanized rubber and then to vulcanize them.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
[Illustration: Fig. 2.]