“yeast” has been given is the active agent in fermentation. The
organism itself does not take a direct part in the process, but it
secretes another ferment of an unorganized character known as an
“enzym” or a “diastase.” This enzym has the property, under proper
conditions of food, temperature, and dilution, of acting upon sugar and
converting it into alcohol and carbonic acid. Anyone who has ever seen
a fermenting vat in full operation and noticed the violent boiling
or ebullition of the liquor, can understand how rapidly the gas “carbon
dioxide” or “carbonic acid,” as it is usually called, may be formed, as
it is the escape of this gas which gives the appearance to the tank of
being in a violent state of ebullition. The yeast which produces the
fermentation belongs to the same general family as the ordinary yeast
which is used in the leavening of bread. The leavening of bread under
the action of yeast is due to the conversion of the sugar in the dough
into alcohol and carbon dioxide or carbonic acid. The gas thus formed
becomes entangled in the particles of the gluten, and these expanding
cause the whole mass to swell or “rise,” as it is commonly expressed.
Starch cannot be directly fermented, but must be first converted into
sugar, either by the action of a chemical like an acid, or a ferment or
enzym, known as diastase, which is one of the abundant constituents of
malt, especially of barley malt. In the preparation of a cereal, for
instance, for fermentation, it is properly softened and ground, and
then usually heated with water to the boiling point or above in order
that the starch may be diffused throughout the water. After cooling, it
is treated with barley malt, the diastase of which acts vigorously upon
the starch, converting it into a form of sugar, namely, maltose, which
lends itself readily to the activities of the yeast fermentation. (Fig.
4.)
[Illustration: Fig. 4.—YEAST FROM BEER SEDIMENT SHOWING BUDDING (×
1270).]
When ordinary sugar (cane sugar, beet sugar, and sucrose) is subjected
to fermentation it is necessary that the yeast, which also exerts an
activity similar to that of malt, should first convert the cane sugar
into invert sugar (equal mixtures of dextrose and levulose) before
the alcoholic fermentation is set up. The cane sugar is also easily
inverted by heating with an acid.
When different kinds of sugars and starches are fermented for the
purpose of making a beverage it is important that the temperature
of fermentation be carefully controlled, since the character of the
product depends largely upon the temperature at which the fermentation
takes place. On the contrary, when industrial alcohol is made, the sole
object is to get as large a yield as possible, and for this reason
that temperature should be employed which produces the most alcohol
and the least by-products, irrespective of the flavor or character of
the product made. Also, in the making of alcoholic beverages, it is
important that the malt be of the very best quality in {677} order that
the resulting product may have the proper flavor. In the production of
alcohol for industrial purposes this is of no consequence, and the sole
purpose here should be to produce the largest possible yield. For this
reason there is no objection to the use of acids for converting the
starch, cane sugar, and cellulose into fermentable sugars. Therefore,
the heating of the raw materials under pressure with dilute acids
in order to procure the largest quantity of sugar is a perfectly
legitimate method of procedure in the manufacture of industrial
alcohols.
Sugars and starches are usually associated in nature with another
variety of carbohydrates known as cellulose, and this cellulose itself,
when acted upon by an acid, is converted very largely into sugars,
which, on fermentation, yield alcohol. For industrial purposes, the
alcohol produced in this manner is just as valuable as that made from
sugar and starch. Whether the diastatic method of converting the
starch and sugar into fermentable sugars be used, or the acid method,
is simply a question of economy and yield. On the other hand, when
alcoholic beverages are to be made, those processes must be employed,
irrespective of the magnitude of the yield, which give the finest and
best flavors to the products.
_Distillation._—The object of distillation is to separate the alcohol
which has been formed from the non-volatile substances with which it
is mixed. A typical form of distilling apparatus for the concentration
of the dilute alcohol which is formed in the beer or wash from the
fermentation tanks, is represented in Fig. 5.
[Illustration: Fig. 5.—CONTINUOUS DISTILLING APPARATUS.]
This apparatus is of the continuous type common to Europe and America.
It consists of a “beer still” provided with a number of chambers
fitted with perforated plates and suitable overflow pipes. It is
operated as follows:
The syrup and alcohol are pumped into the top of the beer still through
a pipe _G_; the tank _G_ may also be placed above the center of the
still and the contents allowed to flow into the still by gravity;
steam is admitted through an open pipe into the kettle _A_ at the
bottom of the column or is produced by heating the spent liquor by
means of a coil. The steam ascends through the perforations in the
plates, becoming richer and richer in alcohol as it passes through
each layer of liquor, while the latter gradually descends by means of
the overflow pipes to the bottom of the column _B_ and finally reaches
the kettle completely exhausted of alcohol, whence it is removed by
means of a pump connected with the pipe line _H_. On reaching the top
of the beer still _B_ the vapors of the alcohol and the steam continue
to rise and pass into the alcohol column _C_. This column is also
divided into chambers, but by solid instead of perforated plates, as
shown at _K_. Each chamber is provided with a return or overflow pipe
and an opening through which the vapors ascend. In the alcohol column
the vapors are so directed as to pass through a layer of {678} liquid
more or less rich in alcohol which is retained by the plate separating
the compartments. An excess of liquids in these compartments overflows
through the down pipes, gradually works its way into the beer still,
and thence to the kettle. On reaching the top of the column the vapors,
which have now become quite rich in alcohol, are passed into a coil
provided with an outlet at the lowest part of each bend. These outlets
lead into the return pipe _P_, which connects with the top chamber of
the alcohol column. This coil is technically termed the “goose” and is
immersed in a tank called the “goose tub.” A suitable arrangement is
provided for controlling the temperature of the water in the tub by
means of outlet and inlet water pipes. When the still is in operation
the temperature of the “goose” is regulated according to the required
density of the alcohol. The object of the “goose” is the return to the
column of all low products which condense at a temperature below the
boiling point of ethyl alcohol of the desired strength. On leaving the
“goose” the vapors enter a condenser _E_, whence the liquid alcohol is
conducted into a separator _F_. This separator consists simply of a
glass box provided with a cylinder through which a current of alcohol
is constantly flowing. An alcohol spindle is inserted in this cylinder
and shows the density of the spirit at all times. A pipe, with a
funnel-shaped opening at its upper extremity, connects with the pipe
leading from the condenser and gives vent to any objectionable fumes.
The separator is connected by means of a pipe with the alcohol storage
tank. The pipe _O_ is for emptying the upper chambers when necessary.
The valves _N_, communicating by means of a small pipe with a condenser
_M_, are for testing the vapors in the lower chambers for alcohol.
«Substances Used for Denaturing Alcohol.»—The process of rendering
alcohol unsuitable for drinking is called “denaturing,” and consists,
essentially, in adding to the alcohol a substance soluble therein of
a bad taste or odor, or both, of an intensity which would render it
impossible or impracticable to use the mixture as a drink. Among the
denaturing substances which have been proposed are the following:
Gum shellac (with or without the addition of camphor, turpentine,
wood spirit, etc.), colophonium, copal rosin, Manila gum, camphor,
turpentine, acetic acid, acetic ether, ethylic ether, methyl alcohol
(wood alcohol), pyridine, acetone, methyl acetate, methyl violet,
methylene blue, aniline blue, eosin, fluorescein, naphthalene, castor
oil, benzine, carbolic acid, caustic soda, musk, animal oils, etc.
Methyl (wood) alcohol and benzine are the denaturing agents authorized
in the United States, in the following proportions: To 100 parts, by
volume, of ethyl alcohol (not less than 90 per cent strength) add 10
parts of approved methyl (wood) alcohol and 1/2 of 1 part of approved
benzine. Such alcohol is classed as completely denatured. Formulas for
special denaturation may be submitted for approval by manufacturers to
the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who will determine whether they
may be used or not, and only one special denaturant will be authorized
for the same class of industries unless it shall be shown that there
is good reason for additional special denaturants. Not less than 300
wine gallons can be withdrawn from a bonded warehouse at one time for
denaturing purposes.
«Spirit.»—Proof spirit is a term used by the revenue department in
assessing the tax on alcoholic liquors. It means a liquid in which
there is 50 per cent (by volume) of absolute alcohol. As it is the
actual alcohol in the whisky, brandy, dilute alcohol, etc., which is
taxed, and as this varies so widely, it is necessary that the actual
wine gallons be converted into proof gallons before the tax rate can
be fixed. A sample that is half alcohol and half water (let us say for
convenience) is “100 proof.” A sample that is 3/4 alcohol and 1/4
water is 150 proof, and the tax on every gallon of it is 1 1/2 times
the regular government rate per proof gallon. Absolute alcohol is 200
proof and has to pay a double tax.
The legal definition of proof spirit is, “that alcoholic liquor which
contains one-half its volume of alcohol of a specific gravity of 0.7939
at 60° F.”
«SPONGES:»
«Bleaching Sponges.»—I.—Soak in dilute hydrochloric acid to remove the
lime, then wash in water, and place for 10 minutes in a 2 per cent
solution of potassium permanganate. The brown color on removal from
this solution is due to the deposition of manganous oxide, and this may
be removed by steeping for a few minutes in very dilute sulphuric acid.
As soon as the sponges appear white, they are washed out in water to
remove the acid.
II.—A sponge that has been used in {679} surgical operations or for
other purposes, should first be washed in warm water, to every quart of
which 20 drops of liquor of soda have been added; afterwards washed in
pure water, wrung or pressed out and put into a jar of bromine water,
where it is left until bleached. Bleaching is accelerated by exposing
the vessel containing the bromine water to the direct rays of the sun.
When the sponge is bleached it is removed from the bromine water, and
put for a few minutes in the water containing soda lye. Finally it is
rinsed in running water until the odor of bromine disappears. It should
be dried as rapidly as possible by hanging it in the direct sunlight.
«Sterilization of Sponges.»—I.—Allow the sponges to lie for 24 hours
in an 8 per cent hydrochloric acid solution, to eliminate lime and
coarse impurities; wash in clean water, and place the sponges in a
solution of caustic potash, 10 parts; tannin, 10 parts; and water,
1,000 parts. After they have been saturated for 5 to 20 minutes with
this liquid, they are washed out in sterilized water or a solution of
carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate, until they have entirely lost the
brown coloring acquired by the treatment with tannin. The sponges thus
sterilized are kept in a 2 per cent or 15 per cent carbolic solution.
«Sponge Window Display.»—Soak a large piece of coarse sponge in water,
squeeze half dry, then sprinkle in the openings red clover seed,
millet, barley, lawn grass, oats, rice, etc. Hang this in the window,
where the sun shines a portion of the day, and sprinkle lightly with
water daily. It will soon form a mass of living green vegetation very
refreshing to the eyes. While the windows are kept warm this may be
done at any season. The seeds used may be varied, according to fancy.
SPONGES AS FILTERS: See Filters.
SPONGE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under
Miscellaneous Methods.
SPONGE-TRICK, BURNING: See Pyrotechnics.
SPOT ERADICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and Soaps.
SPOT GILDING: See Plating.
SPRAY SOLUTION: See Balsams.
SPEARMINT CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.
SPRAIN WASHES: See Veterinary Formulas.
SPRING CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
SPRING HARDENING: See Steel.
SPRINGS OF WATCHES: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.
SPRUCE BEER: See Beverages.
STAIN REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
STAINS: See Paints, Varnishes and Wood Stains.
STAINS FOR LACQUERS: See Lacquers.
«Stamping»
(See also Dyes.)
«Stamping Colors for Use with Rubber Stamps.»—Blue: 0.3 parts of
water-blue 1 B, 1.5 parts of dextrin, 1.5 parts of distilled water.
Dissolve the aniline dye and the dextrin in the distilled water, over a
water bath, and add 7 parts of refined glycerine, 28° Bé.
Other colors may be made according to the same formula, substituting
the following quantities of dyes for the water-blue: Methyl violet 3
B, 0.02 parts; diamond fuchsine I, 0.02 parts; aniline green D, 0.04
parts; vesuvine B, 0.05 parts; phenol black, 0.03 parts. Oleaginous
colors are mostly used for metallic stamps, but glycerine colors can be
used in case of necessity.
«Oleaginous Stamping Colors.»—Mix 0.8 parts of indigo, ground fine
with 2.5 parts of linseed-oil varnish, and 0.5 parts of olein. Add
2 parts of castor oil and 5 parts of linseed oil. For other colors
according to the same formula, use the following quantities: Cinnabar,
2 1/2 parts; verdigris, 2 1/2 parts; lampblack, 1.2 parts;
oil-soluble aniline blue A, 0.35 parts; oil-soluble aniline scarlet
B, 0.3 parts; aniline yellow (oil-soluble), 0.45 parts; oil-soluble
aniline black L, 0.6 parts.
«Stamping Liquids and Powders.»—Dissolve 1 drachm each of rosin
and copal {680} in 4 fluidounces of benzine and with a little of
this liquid triturate 1/2 drachm of Prussian blue and finally mix
thoroughly with the remainder.
Ultramarine, to which has been added a small proportion of powdered
rosin, is generally used for stamping embroidery patterns on white
goods. The powder is dusted through the perforated pattern, which is
then covered with a paper and a hot iron passed over it to melt the
rosin and cause the powder to adhere to the cloth. The following are
said to be excellent powders:
I.—White.—One part each of rosin, copal, damar, mastic, sandarac,
borax, and bronze powder, and 2 parts white lead.
II.—Black.—Equal parts of rosin, damar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue,
ivory black, and bronze powder.
III.—Blue.—Equal parts of rosin, damar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue,
ultramarine, and bronze powder.
In all these powders the gums are first to be thoroughly triturated and
mixed by passing through a sieve, and the other ingredients carefully
added. Other colors may be made by using chrome yellow, burnt or raw
sienna, raw or burnt umber, Vandyke brown, etc. For stamping fabrics
liable to be injured by heat, the stamping is done by moistening a
suitable powder with alcohol and using it like a stencil ink.
«Stamping Powder for Embroideries.»—“Stamping powders” used for
outlining embroidery patterns are made by mixing a little finely
powdered rosin with a suitable pigment. After dusting the powder
through the perforated pattern it is fixed on the fabric by laying
over it a piece of paper and then passing a hot iron carefully over the
paper. By this means the rosin is melted and the mixture adheres. When
white goods are to be “stamped,” ultramarine is commonly used as the
pigment; for dark goods, zinc white may be substituted. Especial care
should be taken to avoid lead compounds and other poisonous pigments,
as they may do mischief by dusting off. On velvets or other materials
likely to be injured by heat, stamping is said to be done by moistening
a suitable powder with alcohol and using it as stencil paint. A small
addition of rosinous matter would seem required here also.
«Starch»
«Black Starch.»—Add to the starch a certain amount of logwood extract
before the starch mixture is boiled. The quantity varies according to
the depth of the black and the amount of starch. A small quantity of
potassium bichromate dissolved in hot water is used to bring out the
proper shade of black. In place of bichromate, black iron liquor may be
used. This comes ready prepared.
«Starch Gloss.»—I.—Melt 2 1/2 pounds of the best paraffine wax over
a slow fire. When liquefied remove from the fire to stir in 100 drops
of oil of citronella. Place several new pie tins on a level table, coat
them slightly with sweet oil, and pour about 6 tablespoonfuls of the
melted paraffine wax into each tin. The pan may be floated in water
sufficiently to permit the mixture to be cut or stamped out with a tin
cutter into small cakes about the size of a peppermint lozenge. Two
of these cakes added to each pint of starch will cause the smoothing
iron to impart the finest possible finish to muslin or linen, besides
perfuming the clothes.
II.—Gum arabic, powdered 3 parts
Spermaceti wax 6 parts
Borax, powdered 4 parts
White cornstarch 8 parts
All these are to be intimately mixed in the powder form by sifting
through a sieve several times. As the wax is in a solid form and does
not readily become reduced to powder by pounding in a mortar, the
best method of reducing it to such a condition is to put the wax into
a bottle with some sulphuric or rectified ether and then allow the
fluid to evaporate. After it has dissolved the wax, as the evaporation
proceeds, the wax will be deposited again in the solid form, but in
fine thin flakes, which will easily break down to a powder form when
rubbed up with the other ingredients in a cold mortar. Pack in paper or
in cardboard boxes. To use, 4 teaspoonfuls per pound of dry starch are
to be added to all dry starch, and then the starch made in the usual
way as boiled starch.
«Refining of Potato Starch.»—A suitable quantity of chloride of lime,
fluctuating according to its quality between 1/2 to 1 part per 100
parts of starch, is made with little water into a thick paste. To this
paste add gradually with constant stirring 10 to 15 times the quantity
of water, and filter.
The filtrate is now added to the starch stirred up with water; 1/2
part of ordinary {681} hydrochloric acid of 20° Bé. previously diluted
with four times the quantity of water is mixed in, for every part of
chloride of lime, the whole is stirred thoroughly, and the starch
allowed to stand.
When the starch has settled, the supernatant water is let off and
the starch is washed with fresh water until all odor of chlorine has
entirely disappeared. The starch now obtained is the resulting final
product.
If the starch thus treated is to be worked up into dextrin, it is
treated in the usual manner with hydrochloric acid or nitric acid and
will then furnish a dextrin perfectly free from taste and smell.
In case the starch is to be turned into “soluble” starch proceed as
usual, in a similar manner as in the production of dextrin, with the
single difference that the starch treated with hydrochloric or nitric
acid remains exposed to a temperature of 212° F., only until a test
with tincture of iodine gives a bluish-violet reaction. The soluble
starch thus produced, which is clearly soluble in boiling water, is
odorless and tasteless.
«Starch Powder.»—Finely powdered starch is a very desirable absorbent,
according to Snively, who says that for toilet preparations it is
usually scented by a little otto or sachet powder. Frangipanin powder,
used in the proportion of 1 part to 30 of the starch, he adds, gives a
satisfactory odor.
STARCHES: See Laundry Preparations.
STARCH IN JELLY, TESTS FOR: See Foods.
STARCH PASTE: See Adhesives.
STATUE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
STATUETTES, CLEANING OF: See Plaster.
STATUETTES OF LIPOWITZ METAL: See Alloys.
«Steel»
(See also Iron and Metals.)
«ANNEALING STEEL:»
See also Hardening Steel and Tempering Steel.
This work requires the use of substances which yield their carbon
readily and quickly to the tools on contact at a high temperature.
Experience has shown that the best results are obtained by the use of
yellow blood-lye salt (yellow prussiate of potash), which, when brought
in contact with the tool at a cherry-red heat, becomes fluid, and in
this condition has a strong cementing effect. The annealing process
is as follows: The tool is heated to a cherry red and the blood-lye
salt sprinkled over the surface which is to be annealed. A fine sieve
should be used, to secure an even distribution of the substance. The
tool is then put back into the fire, heated to the proper temperature
for tempering, and tempered. If it is desired to give a higher or
more thorough tempering to iron or soft steel, the annealing process
is repeated 2 or 3 times. The surface of the tool must, of course, be
entirely free from scale. Small tools to which it is desired to impart
a considerable degree of hardness by annealing with blood-lye salt are
tempered as follows: Blood-lye salt is melted in an iron vessel over
a moderate fire, and the tool, heated to a brown-red heat, placed in
the melted salt, where it is allowed to remain for about 15 minutes.
It is then heated to the hardening temperature and hardened. A similar
but milder effect is produced in small, thin tools by making them
repeatedly red hot, immersing them slowly in oil or grease, reheating
them, and finally tempering them in water. To increase the effect,
soot or powdered charcoal is added to the oil or grease (train oil)
till a thick paste is formed, into which the red-hot tool is plunged.
By this means the tool is covered with a thick, not very combustible,
coating, which produces a powerful cementation at the next heating.
By mixing flour, yellow blood-lye salt, saltpeter, horn shavings, or
ground hoofs, grease, and wax, a paste is formed which serves the same
purpose. A choice may be made of any of the preparations sold as a
“hardening paste”; they are all more or less of the same composition.
This is a sample: Melt 500 grains of wax, 500 grains tallow, 100 grains
rosin, add a mixture of leather-coal, horn shavings, and ground hoofs
in equal parts till a paste is formed, then add 10 grains saltpeter and
50 to 100 grains powdered yellow blood-lye salt, and stir well. The
tools are put into this paste while red hot, allowed to cool in it,
then reheated and tempered.
More steel is injured, and sometimes spoiled, by over-annealing than in
any other way. Steel heated too hot in annealing will shrink badly when
being hardened; besides, it takes the life out of it. It should never
be heated above a {682} low cherry red, and it should be a lower heat
than it is when being hardened. It should be heated slowly and given a
uniform heat all over and through the piece.
This is difficult to do in long bars and in an ordinary furnace. The
best way to heat a piece of steel, either for annealing or hardening,
is in red-hot, pure lead. By this method it is done uniformly, and one
can see the color all the time. Some heating for annealing is done in
this way: Simply cover up the piece in sawdust, and let it cool there,
and good results will be obtained.
Good screw threads cannot be cut in steel that is too soft. Soft
annealing produces a much greater shrinkage and spoils the lead of the
thread.