IV.—For work 633 fine: Fine silver, 66 parts; brass, 34 part_Henley's Twentieth Century Formulas, Recipes and Processes

V.—For work 572 fine: Fine silver, 55 parts; brass, 45 parts.

«Solder for Silversmiths, etc.»—Gold, 10 parts; silver, 55 parts;

copper, 29 parts; zinc, 6 parts.

«Hard Solder.»—Silver, 60 parts; bronze, 39 parts; arsenic, 1 part.

«Soft Solder.»—Powdered copper, 30 parts; sulphate of zinc, 10 parts;

mercury, 60 parts; sulphuric acid. Put the copper and the zinc sulphate

in a porcelain mortar, and then the sulphuric acid. Enough acid is

required to cover the composition; next add the mercury while stirring

constantly. When the amalgamation is effected, wash several times

with hot water to remove the acid, then allow to cool. For use, it is

sufficient to heat the amalgam until it takes the consistency of wax.

Apply on the parts to be soldered and let cool.

«Solder for Silver-Plated Work.»—I.—Fine silver, 2 parts; bronze, 1

part.

II.—Silver, 68 parts; copper, 24 parts; zinc, 17 parts.

«Solder for Silver Chains.»—I.—Fine silver, 74 parts; copper, 24 parts;

orpiment, 2 parts.

II.—Fine silver, 40 parts; orpiment, 20 parts; copper, 40 parts.

«SOFT SOLDERS:»

See also Brass Solders, Copper Solders, Gold Solders.

I.—Fifty parts bismuth, 25 parts tin, and 25 parts lead. This mixture

melts at 392° F.

II.—Fifty parts bismuth, 30 parts lead, and 20 parts tin. This will

melt at 374° F.

III.—The solder that is used in soldering Britannia metal and block

tin pipes is composed of 2 parts tin and 1 part lead. This melts in

the blow-pipe flame at many degrees lower temperature than either tin

or Britannia metal, and it is nearly of the same color. Care must be

taken in mixing these solders to keep them well stirred when pouring

into molds. Care should also be taken that the metal which melts at

a higher temperature be melted first and then allowed to cool to the

melting temperature of the next metal to be added, and so on. Articles

to be soldered with these solders should be joined with a blow pipe to

get the best results, but if a copper is used it must be drawn out to a

long, thin point. For a flux use powdered rosin or sweet oil.

Tin solders for soldering lead, zinc, tin, tin-plate, also copper and

brass when special strength is not required, are prepared as follows:

I.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 4 parts; melting point, 356° F.

II.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 5 parts; melting point, 365° F.

III.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 6 parts; melting point, 374° F. {665}

IV.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 10 parts; melting point, 392° F.

V.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 15 parts; melting point, 432° F.

VI.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 20 parts; melting point, 464° F.

The last of the above mixtures is the cheapest, on account of the large

quantity of lead.

Bismuth solder or pewterer’s solder fusible at a low temperature is

prepared by melting together:

I.—Tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; melting point, 266° F.

II.—Tin, 3 parts; lead, 4 parts; bismuth, 2 parts; melting point,

297° F.

III.—Tin, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part; melting point,

320° F.

«STEEL SOLDERING.»

Dissolve scraps of cast steel in as small a quantity as possible of

nitric acid, add finely pulverized borax and stir vigorously until a

fluid paste is formed, then dilute by means of sal ammoniac and put

in a bottle. When soldering is to be done, apply a thin layer of the

solution to the two parts to be soldered, and when these have been

carried to ordinary redness, and the mass is consequently plastic,

beat lightly on the anvil with a flat hammer. This recipe is useful

for cases when the steel is not to be soldered at an elevation of

temperature to the bright red.

«To Solder a Piece of Hardened Steel.»—To hard-solder a piece of

hardened steel such as index (regulator), stop spring (in the part

which is not elastic), click, etc., take a very flat charcoal if the

piece is difficult to attach; hard-solder and as soon as the soldering

has been done, plunge the piece into oil. All that remains to be done

is to blue it again, and to polish.

«Soldering Powder for Steel.»—Melt in an earthen pot 3 parts of borax,

2 of colophony, 1 of potassium carbonate, as much powdered hard soap,

to which must be added 3 parts of finely powdered glass and 2 parts of

steel filings. The melted mass is run out upon a cold plate of sheet

iron, and when it is completely chilled it is broken into small bits or

finely powdered. To solder, it is necessary to sprinkle the powder on

the surfaces to be joined several minutes before bringing them together.

«Soldering Solution for Steel.»—A soldering solution for steel that

will not rust or blacken the work is made of 6 ounces alcohol, 2 ounces

glycerine, and 1 ounce oxide of zinc.

«PLATINUM SOLDERS.»

There are many platinum solders in existence, but the main principle to

be borne in mind in jewelry work is that the soldering seam should be

as little perceptible as possible; the solder, therefore, should have

the same color as the alloy.

I.—A platinum solder which meets these requirements very satisfactorily

is composed of 9 parts gold and 1 part palladium; or, 8 parts gold and

2 parts palladium.

II.—The following is a readily fusible platinum solder: Fine silver,

1.555 parts, and pure platinum, 0.583 parts. This melts easily in the

ordinary draught furnace, as well as before the soldering pipe on a

piece of charcoal. Of similar action is a solder of the following

composition, which is very useful for places not exposed to the view:

III.—Fine gold, 1.555 parts; fine silver, 0.65 parts; and pure copper,

0.324 parts.

«SOLDER FOR IRON:»

See also Adhesives and Cements.

For soldering articles which cannot stand a high temperature, the

following process may be employed:

I.—Take powdered copper precipitated from a solution of sulphate by

means of zinc and mix it in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar with

concentrated sulphuric acid. The number of parts of copper varies

according to the degree of hardness which it is wished to obtain. Next

add, stirring constantly, 70 parts of mercury, and when the amalgam is

finished, allow to cool. At the end of 10 to 12 hours the composition

is sufficiently hard. For use, heat until it acquires the consistency

of wax. Apply to the surface. When cool it will adhere with great

tenacity.

II.—Crush and mix 6 parts of sulphur, 6 parts of white lead, and 1 part

of borax. Make a rather thick cement of this powder by triturating it

with sulphuric acid. The paste is spread on the surfaces to be welded,

and the articles pressed firmly together. In 6 or 7 days the soldering

is so strong that the two pieces cannot be separated, even by striking

them with a hammer.

«Cast-Iron Soldering.»—A new process consists in decarbonizing the

surfaces of the cast iron to be soldered, the molten hard solder

being at the same time brought into contact with the red-hot metallic

surfaces. The admission of air, however, should be carefully guarded

against. First pickle the surfaces of the pieces to be soldered, as

usual, with acid and fasten the two pieces together. The place to be

soldered is now covered with a metallic oxygen compound and any one of

the customary fluxes and heated until red hot. The preparation best

suited for this purpose is a paste made by intimately mingling together

cuprous oxide and borax. The latter melts in soldering and protects the

pickled surfaces as well as the cuprous oxide from oxidation through

the action of the air. During the heating the cuprous oxide imparts its

oxygen to the carbon contained in the cast iron and burns it. Metallic

copper separates in fine subdivision. Now apply hard solder to the

place to be united, which in melting forms an alloy with the eliminated

copper, the alloy combining with the decarburized surfaces of the cast

iron. {667}

«Soldering Block.»—This name is given to a very useful support for

hard soldering and can be readily made. The ingredients are: Charcoal,

asbestos, and plaster of Paris. These are powdered in equal parts, made

into a thick paste with water, and poured into a suitable mold. Thus a

sort of thick plate is obtained. When this mass has dried it is removed

from the mold and a very thin cork plate is affixed on one surface by

means of thin glue. The mission of this plate is to receive the points

of the wire clamps with which the articles to be soldered are attached

to the soldering block, the asbestos not affording sufficient hold for

them.

SOLDERS FOR JEWELERS: See Jewelers’ Formulas.

SOLDER FROM GOLD, TO REMOVE: See Gold.

«SOLDERING PASTE.»

The semi-liquid mass termed soldering paste is produced by mixing zinc

chloride solution or that of ammonia-zinc chloride with starch paste.

For preparing this composition, ordinary potato starch is made with

water into a milky liquid, the latter is heated to a boil with constant

stirring, and enough of this mass, which becomes gelatinous after

cooling, is added to the above-mentioned solutions as to cause a liquid

resembling thin syrup to result. The use of all zinc preparations for

soldering presents the drawback that vapors of a strongly acid odor are

generated by the heat of the soldering iron, but this evil is offset

by the extraordinary convenience afforded when working with these

preparations. It is not necessary to subject the places to be soldered

to any special cleaning or preparation. All that is required is to

coat them with the soldering medium, to apply the solder to the seam,

etc., and to wipe the places with a sponge or moistened rag after the

solder has cooled. Since the solder adheres readily with the use of

these substances, a skillful workman can soon reach such perfection

that he has no, or very little, subsequent polishing to do on the

soldering seams.

«Soft Soldering Paste.»—Small articles of any metals that would be very

delicate to solder with a stick of solder, especially where parts fit

into another and only require a little solder to hold them together,

can best be joined with a soldering paste. This paste contains the

solder and flux combined, and is easily applied to seams, or a little

applied before the parts are put together. The soldering flame will

cause the tin in the paste to amalgamate quickly. The paste is made

out of starch paste mixed with a solution of chloride of tin to the

consistency of syrup.

SOLUTIONS, PERCENTAGE: See Tables.

SOOTHING SYRUP: See Pain Killers.

SOUP HERB EXTRACT: See Condiments.

SOZODONT: See Dentifrices.

SPARKS FROM THE FINGER TIPS: See Pyrotechnics.

SPATTER WORK: See Lettering.

SPAVIN CURES: See Veterinary Formulas.

SPECULUM METAL: See Alloys.

SPICES, ADULTERATED: See Foods.

SPICES FOR FLAVORING: See Condiments.

«Spirit

INDUSTRIAL AND POTABLE ALCOHOL: SOURCES AND MANUFACTURE.»

_Abstract of a Farmers’ Bulletin prepared for the United States

Department of Agriculture by Dr. Harvey W. Wiley._

The term “industrial alcohol,” or spirit, is used for brevity, and also

because it differentiates sharply between alcohol used for beverages or

for medicine and alcohol used for technical purposes in the arts.

«Alcohol Defined.»—The term “alcohol” as here used and as generally

used means that particular product which is obtained by the

fermentation of a sugar, or a starch converted into sugar, and which,

from a chemical point of view, is a compound of the hypothetical

substance “ethyl” with water, or with that part of water remaining

after the separation of one of the atoms of hydrogen. This is a rather

technical expression, but it is very difficult, without using technical

language, to give a definition of alcohol from the chemical point of

view. There are three elementary substances represented in alcohol:

Carbon, the chemical symbol of which is C; hydrogen, symbol {668} H;

and oxygen, symbol O. These atoms are put together to form common

alcohol, or, as it is called, ethyl alcohol, in which preparation 2

atoms of carbon and 5 atoms of hydrogen form the hypothetical substance

“ethyl,” and 1 atom of oxygen and 1 atom of hydrogen form the hydroxyl

derived from water. The chemical symbol of alcohol therefore is

C_〈2〉H_〈5〉OH. Absolutely pure ethyl alcohol is made only with great

difficulty, and the purest commercial forms still have associated

with them traces of other volatile products formed at the time of

the distillation, chief among which is that group of alcohols to

which the name “fused oil” is applied. So far as industrial purposes

are concerned, however, ethyl alcohol is the only component of any

consequence, just as in regard to the character of beverages the ethyl

alcohol is the component of least consequence.

«Sources of Potable Alcohol.»—The raw materials from which alcohol

is made consist of those crops which contain sugar, starch, gum,

and cellulose (woody fiber) capable of being easily converted into

a fermentable sugar. Alcohol as such is not used as a beverage. The

alcohol occurring in distilled beverages is principally derived from

Indian corn, rye, barley, and molasses. Alcohol is also produced for

drinking purposes from fermented fruit juices such as the juice of

grapes, apples, peaches, etc. In the production of alcoholic beverages

a careful selection of the materials is required in order that the

desired character of drink may be secured. For instance, in the

production of rum, the molasses derived from the manufacture of sugar

from sugar cane is the principal raw material. In the fermentation of

molasses a particular product is formed which by distillation gives the

alcohol compound possessing the aroma and flavor of rum. In the making

of brandy, only sound wine can be used as the raw material, and this

sound wine, when subjected to distillation, gives a product containing

the same kind of alcohol as that found in rum, but associated with

the products of fermentation which give to the distillate a character

entirely distinct and separate from that of rum. Again, when barley

malt or a mixture of barley malt and rye is properly mashed, fermented,

and subjected to distillation, a product is obtained which, when

properly concentrated and aged, becomes potable malt or rye whisky.

In a similar manner, if Indian corn and barley malt are properly

mashed, with a small portion of rye, the mash fermented and subjected

to distillation, and the distillate properly prepared and aged, the

product is known as Bourbon whisky. Thus, every kind of alcoholic

beverage gets its real character, taste, and aroma, not from the

alcohol which it contains but from the products of fermentation which

are obtained at the same time the alcohol is made and which are carried

over with the alcohol at the time of distillation.

«Agricultural Sources of Industrial Alcohol.»—The chief

alcohol-yielding material produced in farm crops is starch, the second

important material is sugar, and the third and least important raw

material is cellulose, or woody fiber. The quantity of alcohol produced

from cellulose is so small as to be of no importance at the present

time, and therefore this source of alcohol will only be discussed under

the headings “Utilization of Waste Material or By-Products” and “Wood

Pulp and Sawdust.”

«Starch-Producing Plants.»—Starch is a compound which, from the

chemical point of view, belongs to the class known as carbohydrates,

that is, compounds in which the element carbon is associated by a

chemical union with water. Starch is therefore a compound made of

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, existing in the proportion of 2 atoms

of hydrogen to 1 atom of oxygen. Each molecule of starch contains at

least 6 atoms of carbon, 10 atoms of hydrogen, and 5 atoms of oxygen.

The simplest expression for starch is therefore C_〈6〉H_〈10〉O_〈5〉.

Inasmuch as this is the simplest expression for what the chemist knows

as a molecule of starch, and it is very probable that very many,

perhaps a hundred or more, of these molecules exist together, the

proper expression for starch from a chemical point of view would be

(C_〈6〉H_〈10〉O_〈5〉)_x_.

The principal starch-producing plants are the cereals, the potato,

and cassava. With the potato may be classed, though not botanically

related thereto, the sweet potato and the yam. Among cereals rice has

the largest percentage of starch and oats the smallest. The potato,

as grown for the table, has an average content of about 15 per cent

of starch. When a potato is grown specifically for the production of

alcohol it contains a larger quantity, or nearly 20 per cent. Cassava

contains a larger percentage of starch than the potato, varying from 20

to 30 per cent.

«Sugar-Producing Plants.»—_Sugar cane, {669} etc._ While sugar is

present in some degree in all vegetable growths, there are some plants

which produce it in larger quantities than are required for immediate

needs, and this sugar is stored in some part of the plant. Two plants

are preëminently known for their richness in sugar, namely, the sugar

cane and the sugar beet. In Louisiana the sugar canes contain from 9 to

14 per cent of sugar, and tropical canes contain a still larger amount.

The juices of the sugar beet contain from 12 to 18 per cent of sugar.

There are other plants which produce large quantities of sugar, but

which are less available for sugar-making purposes than those just

mentioned. Among these, the sorghum must be first mentioned, containing

in the stalk at the time the seed is just mature and the starch

hardened from 9 to 15 per cent of sugar. Sorghum seed will also yield

as much alcohol as equal weights of Indian corn. The juices of the

stalks of Indian corn contain at the time the grain is hardening and

for some time thereafter large quantities of sugar, varying from 8 to

15 per cent.

In the case of the sorghum and the Indian-corn stalk a large part

of the sugar present is not cane sugar or sucrose as it is commonly

known, but the invert sugar derived therefrom. For the purposes of

making alcohol the invert sugar is even more suitable than cane sugar.

Many other plants contain notable quantities of sugar, but, with the

exception of fruits, discussed under the following caption, not in

sufficient quantities to be able to compete with those just mentioned

for making either sugar or alcohol.

Cane sugar is not directly susceptible to fermentation. Chemically

considered, it has the formula expressed by the symbols:

C_〈12〉H_〈22〉O_〈11〉. When cane sugar having the above composition

becomes inverted, it is due to a process known as hydrolysis, which

consists in the molecule of cane sugar taking up 1 molecule of water

and splitting off into 2 molecules of sugar having the same formula

but different physical and chemical properties. Thus the process may

be represented as follows: C_〈12〉H_〈22〉O_〈11〉 (cane sugar) + H_〈2〉O

(water) = C_〈6〉H_〈12〉O_〈6〉 (dextrose) + C_〈6〉H_〈12〉O_〈6〉 (levulose).

These two sugars (dextrose and levulose) taken together are known as

invert sugar and are directly susceptible to fermentation. All cane

sugar assumes the form of invert sugar before it becomes fermented.

_Fruits._—Nearly all fruit juices are rich in sugar, varying in content

from 5 to 30 per cent. The sugar in fruits is composed of both cane

sugar and its invert products (dextrose and levulose), in some fruits

principally the latter. Of the common fruits the grape yields the

largest percentage of sugar. The normal grape used for wine making

contains from 16 to 30 per cent of sugar, the usual amount being about

20 per cent. Fruit juices are not usually employed in any country for

making industrial alcohol, because of their very much greater value for

the production of beverages.

«Composition and Yield of Alcohol-Producing Crops.»—The weight of

alcohol that may be produced from a given crop is estimated at a little

less than one-half of the amount of fermentable substance present,

it being understood that the fermentable substance is expressed in

terms of sugar. Pasteur was the first to point out the fact that when

sugar was fermented it yielded theoretically a little over one-half

of its weight of alcohol. It must be remembered, however, that in

the production of alcohol a process of hydrolysis is taking place

which adds a certain quantity of alcohol to the products which are

formed. For this reason 100 parts of sugar yield more than 100 parts

of fermentable products. The distribution of the weights produced, as

theoretically calculated by Pasteur, is as follows:

One hundred parts of sugar yield the following quantities of the

products of fermentation:

IV.—For work 633 fine: Fine silver, 66 parts; brass, 34 parts.